This document provides an overview of the anatomy and functions of the digestive system. It begins with an introduction to the major components and regions of the digestive tract. It then describes the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination. The key accessory organs and their roles are defined. The histology and layers of the digestive tract walls are outlined. The specific structures and functions of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine are then detailed in separate sections.
The document summarizes key aspects of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the components and functions of the digestive system, including the layers of the gastrointestinal tract and roles of the various organs. It then discusses motility and movement of contents through the tract, the processes of mechanical and chemical digestion, and secretions and functions of saliva, stomach acid, enzymes and other factors. Motility is controlled by the enteric and autonomic nervous systems in response to stretch and chemical receptors.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal system. It describes the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. It discusses digestion, absorption of nutrients, and the roles of the gastrointestinal tract in fluid and electrolyte balance. The document also outlines how to assess the gastrointestinal system through obtaining a patient history and performing a physical examination of the abdomen.
A Lecture Discussing the Digestive-System.pptKEITHIFY
The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. The digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. The stomach contains glands that secrete acid and enzymes to digest proteins. Swallowing moves food through the esophagus to the stomach in a wave-like motion called peristalsis. The small intestine further breaks down food and absorbs nutrients using finger-like projections called villi.
The document discusses disorders of the gastrointestinal system, beginning with a review of the anatomy and physiology of the GI tract. It describes the components and functions of the upper and lower GI tract. Key diagnostic tests are outlined including barium swallow, upper endoscopy, and colonoscopy. The disorder Achalasia is summarized, noting its causes, symptoms of dysphagia and chest pain, and treatments including medications to decrease LES pressure and forceful dilation.
This document discusses ruminant digestion, including the anatomy and functions of ruminant digestive systems. Key points include:
- Ruminants have a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum) that allows them to digest cellulose with the help of microbes in the rumen.
- The rumen ferments ingested plant material and can regurgitate and rechew contents in a process called rumination.
- Each stomach compartment has a distinct capacity and function in digestion. The rumen makes up most of the stomach volume and serves as a storage area.
- Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas produce enzymes and
The document provides information on human anatomy and physiology, with a focus on the digestive system. It describes the structure and functions of the cells, tissues, organs and body systems. It then discusses the layers, organs and functions of the digestive system in detail. This includes the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver and pancreas. It also covers the mechanisms of acid secretion in the stomach and factors that regulate gastric juice production. Finally, it provides an overview of acid peptic disorders like gastritis, GERD, peptic ulcers, and their causes and treatments.
The human digestive system breaks down food into small molecules that can be absorbed and used by cells. The digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. Each part of the tract has specialized functions. In the mouth, teeth break down food and saliva begins digestion. The stomach stores food and uses acid and enzymes to further break it down. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. Nutrients are then absorbed by villi and transported to the bloodstream. The large intestine absorbs water before waste is excreted. Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas produce enzymes and bile to aid digestion
The document summarizes the mouth, esophagus, and swallowing. It discusses the salivary glands and their secretions. The major salivary glands are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, each secreting different mixtures of serous and mucous fluids. It also describes the structure and functions of the esophagus, including the upper and lower esophageal sphincters. Finally, it outlines the three phases of swallowing - oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal - and the neural control involving both the cerebral cortex and brainstem.
The document summarizes key aspects of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the components and functions of the digestive system, including the layers of the gastrointestinal tract and roles of the various organs. It then discusses motility and movement of contents through the tract, the processes of mechanical and chemical digestion, and secretions and functions of saliva, stomach acid, enzymes and other factors. Motility is controlled by the enteric and autonomic nervous systems in response to stretch and chemical receptors.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal system. It describes the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. It discusses digestion, absorption of nutrients, and the roles of the gastrointestinal tract in fluid and electrolyte balance. The document also outlines how to assess the gastrointestinal system through obtaining a patient history and performing a physical examination of the abdomen.
A Lecture Discussing the Digestive-System.pptKEITHIFY
The digestive system breaks down food and absorbs nutrients. The digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. The stomach contains glands that secrete acid and enzymes to digest proteins. Swallowing moves food through the esophagus to the stomach in a wave-like motion called peristalsis. The small intestine further breaks down food and absorbs nutrients using finger-like projections called villi.
The document discusses disorders of the gastrointestinal system, beginning with a review of the anatomy and physiology of the GI tract. It describes the components and functions of the upper and lower GI tract. Key diagnostic tests are outlined including barium swallow, upper endoscopy, and colonoscopy. The disorder Achalasia is summarized, noting its causes, symptoms of dysphagia and chest pain, and treatments including medications to decrease LES pressure and forceful dilation.
This document discusses ruminant digestion, including the anatomy and functions of ruminant digestive systems. Key points include:
- Ruminants have a four-chambered stomach (rumen, reticulum, omasum, abomasum) that allows them to digest cellulose with the help of microbes in the rumen.
- The rumen ferments ingested plant material and can regurgitate and rechew contents in a process called rumination.
- Each stomach compartment has a distinct capacity and function in digestion. The rumen makes up most of the stomach volume and serves as a storage area.
- Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas produce enzymes and
The document provides information on human anatomy and physiology, with a focus on the digestive system. It describes the structure and functions of the cells, tissues, organs and body systems. It then discusses the layers, organs and functions of the digestive system in detail. This includes the mouth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver and pancreas. It also covers the mechanisms of acid secretion in the stomach and factors that regulate gastric juice production. Finally, it provides an overview of acid peptic disorders like gastritis, GERD, peptic ulcers, and their causes and treatments.
The human digestive system breaks down food into small molecules that can be absorbed and used by cells. The digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and accessory organs like the liver and pancreas. Each part of the tract has specialized functions. In the mouth, teeth break down food and saliva begins digestion. The stomach stores food and uses acid and enzymes to further break it down. The small intestine completes digestion with enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. Nutrients are then absorbed by villi and transported to the bloodstream. The large intestine absorbs water before waste is excreted. Accessory organs like the liver and pancreas produce enzymes and bile to aid digestion
The document summarizes the mouth, esophagus, and swallowing. It discusses the salivary glands and their secretions. The major salivary glands are the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands, each secreting different mixtures of serous and mucous fluids. It also describes the structure and functions of the esophagus, including the upper and lower esophageal sphincters. Finally, it outlines the three phases of swallowing - oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal - and the neural control involving both the cerebral cortex and brainstem.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal system and gastrointestinal disorders. It describes the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It discusses digestion, absorption of nutrients, and the role of the gastrointestinal tract in fluid and electrolyte balance. Common gastrointestinal disorders mentioned include dysphagia, esophageal disorders, and various conditions affecting the stomach and intestines.
The digestive system consists of the alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The stomach contains gastric glands that secrete acid and enzymes to digest food. The small intestine further breaks down food with the help of enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The large intestine absorbs water before waste is excreted through the anus.
The document summarizes the gastrointestinal system, including the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract. It describes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated structures. It discusses the roles of these structures in digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. It also outlines assessments of the gastrointestinal system, including physical exams, diagnostic tests like endoscopy and radiology, and laboratory tests.
The gastrointestinal tract breaks down food and absorbs nutrients and water. It consists of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The oral cavity breaks food into smaller pieces for further digestion. The stomach acidifies food and the small intestine further breaks down nutrients which are then absorbed. The large intestine absorbs water leaving solid waste to pass through the anus.
The document discusses the anatomy, histology, functions, and processes of the digestive system. It describes the main organs of the digestive tract including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas, and large intestine. It explains the key roles of these organs in digesting food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste through physical and chemical breakdown processes, gland secretions, and coordinated movement throughout the system.
The document provides an overview of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the main components and layers of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. It then discusses the four main functions of the digestive system: motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption. Specific sections cover the salivary glands, swallowing process, stomach functions and secretions, pancreatic secretions, liver and biliary system, gastrointestinal hormones, and the histology and innervation of the gastrointestinal tract.
The document provides an overview of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the main components and layers of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. It then discusses the four main functions of the digestive system: motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption. Specific sections cover the salivary glands, swallowing process, stomach functions and secretions, pancreatic secretions, liver and biliary system, gastrointestinal hormones, and the histology and innervation of the gastrointestinal tract.
HAP 4 SEMESTER 2 BPHARMACY AS PER PCI SYLLABUSchristinajohn24
The document summarizes key aspects of the digestive system, including its main organs and functions. It describes the two main groups that make up the digestive system - the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It then provides details on the structure and functions of key organs like the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, salivary glands, and their role in digestion.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human digestive system. It describes the digestive system as composed of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that break down food into smaller molecules for absorption. The major sections include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas and large intestine. Each organ contributes to digestion through both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
This document discusses gastric secretion and the physiology of stomach acid production. It covers the following key points:
1. The stomach lining contains various cell types that secrete substances like mucus, hydrochloric acid, and the enzyme pepsin. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid through a mechanism involving hydrogen-potassium ATPase pumps.
2. Gastric acid secretion is regulated through neural and hormonal mechanisms in three phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal. The cephalic phase begins with eating cues, while the gastric phase responds to food in the stomach through gastrin and vagal stimulation.
3. Experiments like Pavlov's pouch and sham feeding helped
The document summarizes the histology of the digestive tract mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. It describes the epithelium and specialized structures of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The esophagus contains non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The stomach contains simple columnar epithelium that invaginates into gastric pits and glands. The small intestine contains simple columnar epithelium with plicae circulares and villi containing crypts of Lieberkuhn. The large intestine contains simple columnar epithelium organized in intestinal glands.
The document describes the key processes and organs involved in human digestion. It discusses how food is broken down mechanically and chemically by the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Various glands secrete enzymes and juices to aid in digestion. The end products are absorbed for use by the body, while waste is eliminated.
The digestive system consists of a tube running from the mouth to anus and accessory organs including the liver, pancreas, and salivary glands. The functions of the digestive system include ingestion, digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. The document describes the anatomy and functions of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and their roles in digestion. It also discusses several diseases that can affect the digestive system.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by cells in the body. It consists of a digestive tract made up of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. Accessory organs that help digestion include salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, mechanically and chemically broken down, absorbed, and waste is eliminated in a complex multi-step process involving both the digestive tract and accessory organs.
The digestive system has two main parts: the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and accessory organs. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food enters the mouth where it is broken down by chewing and saliva before passing through the esophagus into the stomach for further breakdown. Digestion is completed in the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed. Undigested material then passes into the large intestine to be compacted and expelled as waste.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. It has four main functions - ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion.
The gastrointestinal tract has four layers - mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa. The mucosa contains the epithelial lining, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa.
The mouth's functions include ingestion, chewing, tasting and swallowing food. Saliva contains amylase and is produced by the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands. Swallowing has three stages - oral, pharyngeal and esophageal. Peristalsis propels food through the
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system digests and absorbs food. It includes the alimentary canal (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines) and accessory organs like teeth, tongue, liver, and pancreas. The main functions of the digestive system are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and defecation. The document then describes the anatomy and histology of each part of the digestive system in detail.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
The document provides information on the gastrointestinal system and gastrointestinal disorders. It describes the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. It discusses digestion, absorption of nutrients, and the role of the gastrointestinal tract in fluid and electrolyte balance. Common gastrointestinal disorders mentioned include dysphagia, esophageal disorders, and various conditions affecting the stomach and intestines.
The digestive system consists of the alimentary tract and accessory organs. The alimentary tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The stomach contains gastric glands that secrete acid and enzymes to digest food. The small intestine further breaks down food with the help of enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver. The large intestine absorbs water before waste is excreted through the anus.
The document summarizes the gastrointestinal system, including the structures and functions of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract. It describes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and associated structures. It discusses the roles of these structures in digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. It also outlines assessments of the gastrointestinal system, including physical exams, diagnostic tests like endoscopy and radiology, and laboratory tests.
The gastrointestinal tract breaks down food and absorbs nutrients and water. It consists of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The oral cavity breaks food into smaller pieces for further digestion. The stomach acidifies food and the small intestine further breaks down nutrients which are then absorbed. The large intestine absorbs water leaving solid waste to pass through the anus.
The document discusses the anatomy, histology, functions, and processes of the digestive system. It describes the main organs of the digestive tract including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas, and large intestine. It explains the key roles of these organs in digesting food, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste through physical and chemical breakdown processes, gland secretions, and coordinated movement throughout the system.
The document provides an overview of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the main components and layers of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. It then discusses the four main functions of the digestive system: motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption. Specific sections cover the salivary glands, swallowing process, stomach functions and secretions, pancreatic secretions, liver and biliary system, gastrointestinal hormones, and the histology and innervation of the gastrointestinal tract.
The document provides an overview of gastrointestinal physiology. It describes the main components and layers of the gastrointestinal tract, from the mouth to the anus. It then discusses the four main functions of the digestive system: motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption. Specific sections cover the salivary glands, swallowing process, stomach functions and secretions, pancreatic secretions, liver and biliary system, gastrointestinal hormones, and the histology and innervation of the gastrointestinal tract.
HAP 4 SEMESTER 2 BPHARMACY AS PER PCI SYLLABUSchristinajohn24
The document summarizes key aspects of the digestive system, including its main organs and functions. It describes the two main groups that make up the digestive system - the gastrointestinal tract and accessory digestive organs. It then provides details on the structure and functions of key organs like the stomach, small intestine, large intestine, salivary glands, and their role in digestion.
The document summarizes the key components and functions of the human digestive system. It describes the digestive system as composed of the gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs that break down food into smaller molecules for absorption. The major sections include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, liver, pancreas and large intestine. Each organ contributes to digestion through both mechanical and chemical breakdown of food.
This document discusses gastric secretion and the physiology of stomach acid production. It covers the following key points:
1. The stomach lining contains various cell types that secrete substances like mucus, hydrochloric acid, and the enzyme pepsin. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid through a mechanism involving hydrogen-potassium ATPase pumps.
2. Gastric acid secretion is regulated through neural and hormonal mechanisms in three phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal. The cephalic phase begins with eating cues, while the gastric phase responds to food in the stomach through gastrin and vagal stimulation.
3. Experiments like Pavlov's pouch and sham feeding helped
The document summarizes the histology of the digestive tract mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. It describes the epithelium and specialized structures of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The esophagus contains non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. The stomach contains simple columnar epithelium that invaginates into gastric pits and glands. The small intestine contains simple columnar epithelium with plicae circulares and villi containing crypts of Lieberkuhn. The large intestine contains simple columnar epithelium organized in intestinal glands.
The document describes the key processes and organs involved in human digestion. It discusses how food is broken down mechanically and chemically by the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Various glands secrete enzymes and juices to aid in digestion. The end products are absorbed for use by the body, while waste is eliminated.
The digestive system consists of a tube running from the mouth to anus and accessory organs including the liver, pancreas, and salivary glands. The functions of the digestive system include ingestion, digestion, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of waste. The document describes the anatomy and functions of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and their roles in digestion. It also discusses several diseases that can affect the digestive system.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by cells in the body. It consists of a digestive tract made up of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines. Accessory organs that help digestion include salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food is ingested, mechanically and chemically broken down, absorbed, and waste is eliminated in a complex multi-step process involving both the digestive tract and accessory organs.
The digestive system has two main parts: the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and accessory organs. The GI tract includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. Accessory organs include the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. Food enters the mouth where it is broken down by chewing and saliva before passing through the esophagus into the stomach for further breakdown. Digestion is completed in the small intestine where nutrients are absorbed. Undigested material then passes into the large intestine to be compacted and expelled as waste.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by the body. It has four main functions - ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion.
The gastrointestinal tract has four layers - mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa. The mucosa contains the epithelial lining, lamina propria and muscularis mucosa.
The mouth's functions include ingestion, chewing, tasting and swallowing food. Saliva contains amylase and is produced by the parotid, submandibular and sublingual glands. Swallowing has three stages - oral, pharyngeal and esophageal. Peristalsis propels food through the
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system breaks down ingested food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and used by the body. It consists of the gastrointestinal tract - a long tube running from the mouth to the anus, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Accessory organs like the teeth, tongue, liver, gallbladder and pancreas aid in digestion by secreting enzymes and digestive juices. The system mechanically and chemically breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste through a multi-step process involving both organs and hormones.
The digestive system digests and absorbs food. It includes the alimentary canal (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines) and accessory organs like teeth, tongue, liver, and pancreas. The main functions of the digestive system are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical and chemical breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and defecation. The document then describes the anatomy and histology of each part of the digestive system in detail.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kol...rightmanforbloodline
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Versio
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
TEST BANK For An Introduction to Brain and Behavior, 7th Edition by Bryan Kolb, Ian Q. Whishaw, Verified Chapters 1 - 16, Complete Newest Version
Cell Therapy Expansion and Challenges in Autoimmune DiseaseHealth Advances
There is increasing confidence that cell therapies will soon play a role in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, but the extent of this impact remains to be seen. Early readouts on autologous CAR-Ts in lupus are encouraging, but manufacturing and cost limitations are likely to restrict access to highly refractory patients. Allogeneic CAR-Ts have the potential to broaden access to earlier lines of treatment due to their inherent cost benefits, however they will need to demonstrate comparable or improved efficacy to established modalities.
In addition to infrastructure and capacity constraints, CAR-Ts face a very different risk-benefit dynamic in autoimmune compared to oncology, highlighting the need for tolerable therapies with low adverse event risk. CAR-NK and Treg-based therapies are also being developed in certain autoimmune disorders and may demonstrate favorable safety profiles. Several novel non-cell therapies such as bispecific antibodies, nanobodies, and RNAi drugs, may also offer future alternative competitive solutions with variable value propositions.
Widespread adoption of cell therapies will not only require strong efficacy and safety data, but also adapted pricing and access strategies. At oncology-based price points, CAR-Ts are unlikely to achieve broad market access in autoimmune disorders, with eligible patient populations that are potentially orders of magnitude greater than the number of currently addressable cancer patients. Developers have made strides towards reducing cell therapy COGS while improving manufacturing efficiency, but payors will inevitably restrict access until more sustainable pricing is achieved.
Despite these headwinds, industry leaders and investors remain confident that cell therapies are poised to address significant unmet need in patients suffering from autoimmune disorders. However, the extent of this impact on the treatment landscape remains to be seen, as the industry rapidly approaches an inflection point.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
8 Surprising Reasons To Meditate 40 Minutes A Day That Can Change Your Life.pptxHolistified Wellness
We’re talking about Vedic Meditation, a form of meditation that has been around for at least 5,000 years. Back then, the people who lived in the Indus Valley, now known as India and Pakistan, practised meditation as a fundamental part of daily life. This knowledge that has given us yoga and Ayurveda, was known as Veda, hence the name Vedic. And though there are some written records, the practice has been passed down verbally from generation to generation.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/kqbnxVAZs-0
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/SINlygW1Mpc
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
2. 24-2
I. Introduction:
A. Anatomy of the Digestive System
• 1. Digestive tract: also called alimentary tract
• 2. GI tract: technically refers to stomach and
intestines
• 3. Accessory organs
• 4. Regions
– Mouth or oral cavity with salivary glands
and tonsils
– Pharynx (throat
– Esophagus
– Stomach
– Small intestine (duodenum, ileum,
jejunum)
– Large intestine including cecum, colon,
rectum
– anal canal with mucous glands
– Anus
3. 24-3
B. Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion:
2. Mastication:.
3. Propulsion
– Deglutition: swallowing
– Peristalsis:
– Mass movements
– chyme
7. 24-7
• 3. Muscularis:
• 1. circular and longitudinal
• 2. smooth except for upper esophagus
• 4. Serosa or adventitia:
• 1. visceral peritoneum in abdominal cavity
• 2. tunica adventitia outside of the abdominal cavity
8. D. Nervous regulation of the Digestive System
– 1. Local: enteric nervous system
• Types of neurons: sensory, motor, interneurons
• Coordinates peristalsis and regulates local reflexes
• As stomach empties into small intestine, local reflex
regulates rate of emptying
– 2. General: coordination with the CNS. May initiate
reflexes because of sight, smell, or taste of food.
Parasympathetic primarily. Sympathetic input inhibits
muscle contraction, secretion, and decrease of blood
flow to the digestive tract.
24-8
9. E. Peritoneum
– 1. Visceral:
– 2. Parietal:
– 3. Retroperitoneal:
e.g., kidneys, pancreas,
duodenum
– 4. Mesenteries:
– 5. Greater omentum:
connects greater
curvature of the stomach
to the transverse colon.
– 6. Lesser omentum:
connects lesser curvature
of the stomach and the
proximal part of the
duodenum to the liver
and diaphragm
– G. Hand in balloon
explanation
24-9
11. 24-11
II. Terms of Oral Cavity
– A. Vestibule:
– B. Oral cavity proper:
– C. Frenulum:
– 1. labial
– 2. lingual
– D. Teeth
– 1. incisors
– 2. canines
– 3. premolars
– 4. molars
– E. Gingiva
– F. Hard palate
– G. Soft palate
– H. Uvula
12. 24-12
I. Tongue
• 1. Muscular
– Intrinsic muscles: change shape
– Extrinsic muscles: protrude or
retract tongue, move side to side
• 2. Lingual frenulum
• 3. Terminal sulcus: groove divides
tongue into anterior 2/3; posterior 1/3
• a. Anterior part: papillae, some of
which have taste buds
• b. Posterior part: no papillae and a
few scattered taste buds.
• c. Lymphoid tissue embedded in
posterior surface: lingual tonsil
• 4. Moves food in mouth, participates
in speech and swallowing
13. 24-13
J. Muscles of Mastication
• 1. masseter
• 2. temporalis
• 3. medial and
lateral
pterygoids-
produce lateral
excursion when
acting together.
• 4.
http://www.you
tube.com/watch
?v=pV2TRZE7
pJM
14. K. Salivary Glands-three pairs
– 1. Parotid: largest.
– a.Serous.
– b. Parotid duct enters the
oral cavity adjacent to the
2nd upper molar
– 2. Sublingual: smallest.
– a.Mixed, but primarily
mucous.
– b.Each has 10-12 ducts
that enter the floor of the
oral cavity.
– 3. Submandibular: mixed,
– a.Posterior half of inferior
border of mandible.
– b.Duct enters oral cavity
on either side of lingual
frenulum
24-14
15. 24-15
I. Functions of Saliva
– 1. Prevents bacterial
infection
– 2. Lubrication
– 3. Contains salivary
amylase that breaks
down starch into
disaccharides
– 4. Helps to form
bolus for deglutition
– 5. Parasympathetic
input causes salivary
production
– 6. Sympathetic
stimulation leads to
thick mucoid saliva
16. III. Pharynx
A. Common chamber of respiratory
and digestive system
B. Regions
C. Structures ensuring that food gets
to the right place
1. hard palate
2. soft palate and uvula
3. epiglottis
24-16
17. IV. Esophagus
A. 10” long
B. Tunical mucosa- Stratified
squamous epithelium
C. Passes through diaphragm
at esophageal hiatus-
Hiatal hernia
D. sphinters
E. GERD
F. Peristalsis of bolus
G.
http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=Q-n_Q0qKXzg
H. Tunica muscularis-upper
third voluntary with lower two
thirds visceral
18. 24-18
I. Swallowing (Deglutition)-three phases
– 1. Voluntary: bolus of food moved by tongue from
oral cavity to pharynx.
– 2. Pharyngeal: reflex.
– a. Controlled by swallowing center in medulla
oblongata.
– b. Soft palate elevates, upper esophageal sphincter
relaxes,
– c. elevated pharynx opens the esophagus,
– d. food pushed into esophagus by pharyngeal
constrictors’ successive contraction from superior to
inferior.
– e. Epiglottis is tipped posteriorly due to pressure of
the bolus,
– f. larynx elevated to prevent food from passing into
larynx.
– 3. Esophageal: reflex. Stretching of esophagus causes
enteric NS to initiate peristalsis of muscles in the
esophagus.
19. V. Stomach A. Parts
1. Openings
– Gastroesophageal
(cardiac): to esophagus
– Pyloric: to duodenum
2. Parts
– Cardiac
– Fundus
– Body
– Pyloric: antrum and
canal
– Greater and lesser
curvatures:
attachment sites for
omenta
– Sphincters
– Pyloric
24-19
20. B. Histology of the Stomach
1. Layers
– a. Serosa or visceral
peritoneum
– b. Muscularis: three
layers
• Outer
longitudinal
• Middle circular
• Inner oblique
– c. Submucosa
– d. Mucosa
– e. Rugae: folds in
mucosa and
submucosa when
empty.
24-20
21. 24-21
2. Modifications of the tunica mucosa
• a. Gastric pits: openings
for gastric glands. Lined
with simple columnar
epithelium
• b. Cells of gastric pits
– Mucous neck:
mucus
– Parietal:
hydrochloric acid
and intrinsic factor
(aids in vitamin B12
absorption
– Chief: pepsinogen
– Endocrine:
regulatory hormones
• histamine that
stimulates acid
secretion
• Somatostatin
that inhibits
gastrin and
insulin secretion
22. 24-22
3. Secretions of the Stomach
• a. Chyme: ingested food plus stomach secretions
• b. Mucus: surface and neck mucous cells
– Viscous and alkaline
– Protects from acidic chyme and enzyme pepsin
– Irritation of stomach mucosa causes greater mucus
• c. Intrinsic factor: parietal cells. Binds with vitamin B12 and helps
it to be absorbed. B12 necessary for DNA synthesis
• d. HCl: parietal cells
– Kills bacteria
– Stops carbohydrate digestion by inactivating salivary amylase
– Denatures proteins
– Helps convert pepsinogen to pepsin
• e. Pepsinogen: packaged in zymogen granules released by
exocytosis. Pepsin catalyzes breaking of covalent bonds in proteins
24. 5. Regulation of stomach activity
a. Cephalic Phase
• The taste or smell or even
thoughts of food stimulate
the medulla oblongata.
• Parasympathetic action
potentials are carried by the
vagus nerves to the stomach
• Postganglionic neurons
stimulate secretion by
parietal and chief cells (HCl
and pepsin) and stimulate
the secretion of the hormone
gastrin and histamine.
• Gastrin is carried through
the circulation back to the
stomach where it and
histamine stimulate further
secretion of HCl and pepsin
24-24
• .
26. 24-26
c. Intestinal Phase
-Chyme in the duodenum with a pH less than 2 or containing lipids inhibits gastric
secretions by three mechanisms
-Sensory input to the medulla from the duodenum inhibits the motor input from the
medulla to the stomach. Stops secretion of pepsin and HCl.
-Local reflexes inhibit gastric secretion-enterogastric reflex
-Secretin, and cholecystokinin produced by the duodenum decrease gastric secretions in
the stomach.
27. 24-27
6. Movements of the Stomach-reflux mixing
• a. Initially both esophageal
and pyloric sphincters are
closed.
• b. A lot like kneading dough
• c. Mixture is turned back at
the pyloric sphincter and
folds over itself
• d. Liquefied mixture is
called chyme
• e. At some point pyloric
sphincter opens a little and a
bit of acidic chyme squirts
through
• f. The acidic additions to the
small intestine lead to the
enterogastric reflex
28. 7. Rate of stomach emptying
• a. Goldilocks and the three bears
• b. Regulated by CCK (lipid rich meals) and
secretin
• c. Carbohydrate meals fastest through-1
hour
• d. Fatty meals slowest (5-6 hours)
• e. Greater the stretching the more reflux
24-28
29. 24-29
VI. Small Intestine
• Site of greatest
amount of digestion
and absorption of
nutrients and water
• Divisions
– Duodenum- first 25
cm beyond the pyloric
sphincter.
– Jejunum- 2.5 m
– Ileum- 3.5 m. Peyer’s
patches or lymph
nodules
30. 24-30
A. Modifications to Increase Surface Area
– 1. Plicae
circulares
(circular folds)
– 2. Villi that
contain
capillaries and
lacteals. Folds of
the mucosa
– 3. Microvilli:
folds of cell
membranes of
absorptive cells
– 4. total surface
area about that
of a tennis court
31. 24-31
B. Mucosa and Submucosa
• 1. Cells and glands of the
mucosa
– Absorptive cells: cells with
microvilli, produce digestive
enzymes and absorb
digested food
– Goblet cells: produce
protective mucus
– Endocrine cells: produce
regulatory hormones
– Granular cells (paneth
cells): may help protect from
bacteria
• 2. Intestinal glands (crypts of
Lieberkühn): tubular glands in
mucosa at bases of villi
• 3. Duodenal glands
(Brunner’s glands): tubular
mucous glands of the
submucosa.
32. 24-32
C. Jejunum and Ileum
• 1. Gradual decrease in
diameter, thickness of
intestinal wall, number of
circular fold, and number of
villi the farther away from
the stomach
• 2. Peyer’s patches:
lymphatic nodules
numerous in mucosa and
submucosa
• 3. Ileocecal junction:
where ilium meets large
intestine. Ileocecal
sphincter and ileocecal
valve
33. 24-33
D. Secretions of the Small Intestine
• 1. Fluid primarily composed of
water, electrolytes and mucus.
• 2. Mucus
– Protects against digestive
enzymes and stomach acids
• 3. Digestive enzymes: bound to
the membranes of the absorptive
cells
– Disaccharidases: Break down
disaccharides to
monosaccharides
– Peptidases: Hydrolyze
peptide bonds
– Nucleases: Break down
nucleic acids
• 4. Brunner’s glands
– Stimulated by vagus nerve,
secretin, chemical or tactile
irritation of duodenal mucosa
34. 24-34
E. Movement in the Small Intestine
• 1. Segmental contractions mix
• 2. Peristalsis propels
• 3. Ileocecal sphincter remains slightly contracted
until peristaltic waves reach it; it relaxes, allowing
chyme to move into cecum
• 4. Cecal distention causes local reflex and
ileocecal valve constricts
– Prevents more chyme from entering cecum
– Increases digestion and absorption in small intestine by
slowing progress of chyme
– Prevents backflow
36. 24-36
VIII. Histology of the Liver
• A. Connective tissue
septa branch from the
visceral peritoneum into
the interior
– Divides liver into
lobules
– Nerves, vessels and
ducts follow the septa
• B. Lobules: portal triad
at each corner
– Three vessels: hepatic
portal vein, hepatic
artery, hepatic duct
– Central vein in
center of lobule
• C. Central veins unite to
form hepatic veins that
exit liver and empty into
inferior vena cava
37. • D. Hepatic cords: radiate
out from central vein.
Composed of hepatocytes
• E. Hepatic sinusoids:
between cords, lined with
endothelial cells and hepatic
phagocytic (Kupffer) cells
• F. Bile canaliculus:
between cells within cords
• G. Hepatocyte functions
– Bile production
– Storage
– Interconversion of
nutrients
– Detoxification
– Phagocytosis
– Synthesis of blood
components
24-37
38. 24-38
H. Functions of the Liver
• 1. Bile production: 600-
1000 mL/day. Bile salts
(bilirubin), cholesterol,
fats, fat-soluble
hormones, lecithin
– Neutralizes and
dilutes stomach acid
– Bile salts emulsify
fats. Most are
reabsorbed in the
ileum.
– Secretin (from the
duodenum) stimulates
bile secretions,
increasing water and
bicarbonate ion
content of the bile
• 2. Storage
– Glycogen, fat,
vitamins, copper and
iron. Hepatic portal
blood comes to liver
from small intestine.
39. • 3. Nutrient interconversion
– Amino acids to energy producing compounds
– Hydroxylation of vitamin D. Vitamin D then travels to
kidney where it is hydroxylated again into its active
form-promotes bone growth and absorption of calcium
• 4. Detoxification
– Hepatocytes remove ammonia and convert to urea
• 5. Phagocytosis
– Kupffer cells phagocytize worn-out and dying red and
white blood cells, some bacteria
• 6. Synthesis
– Albumins, fibrinogen, globulins, heparin, clotting
factors
24-39
40. 24-40
IX. Gallbladder
• A. Sac lined with mucosa
folded into rugae, inner
muscularis, outer serosa
• B. Bile arrives constantly
from liver is stored and
concentrated
• C. Stimulated by
cholecystokinin (from the
intestine) and vagal
stimulation
• D. Bile exits through cystic
duct then into common bile
duct
• E. Gallstones: precipitated
cholesterol
– Can block cystic duct
– Can occur because of
drastic dieting
42. 24-42
X. Pancreas
• A. Pancreas both endocrine
and exocrine
• B. Endocrine: pancreatic
islets or Islets of
Langerhans.
• C. Exocrine: groups acini
(grape-like cluster) form
lobules separated by septa.
• D. Aqueous. Bicarbonate
lowers pH inhibiting pepsin
and providing proper pH
for enzymes
• E. Enzymatic portion:
– Trypsinogen
– Chymotrypsinogen
– Procarboxypeptidase
– Pancreatic amylase
– Pancreatic lipases
– Deoxyribonucleases
and ribonucleases
44. 24-44
F. Pancreatic Secretions
• 1. Interaction of duodenal and pancreatic enzymes
– Enterokinase from the duodenal mucosa and attached to the
brush border activates trypsinogen to trypsin.
– Trypsin activates chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin.
– Trypsin activates procarboxypeptidase to carboxypeptidase.
• 2. Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase digest proteins:
proteolytic.
• 3. Pancreatic amylase continues digestion of starch.
• 4. Pancreatic lipase digests lipids.
• 5. Deoxyribonucleases and ribonucleases digest DNA and
ribonucleic acid, respectively.
46. 24-46
XI. Large Intestine
• A. Extends from
ileocecal junction to
anus
• B. Consists of cecum,
colon, rectum, anal
canal
• C. Movements sluggish
(18-24 hours); chyme
converted to feces.
• D. Absorption of water
and salts, secretion of
mucus, extensive action
of microorganisms.
• E. 1500 mL chyme
enter the cecum, 90% of
volume reabsorbed
yielding 80-150 mL of
feces
47. 24-47
E. Anatomy of the Large Intestine
• 1. Cecum
– Blind sac, vermiform
appendix attached.
• 2. Colon
– Ascending, transverse,
descending, sigmoid
– Circular muscle layer
complete; longitudinal
incomplete (three teniae
coli). Contractions of
teniae form pouches
called haustra.
– Mucosa has numerous
straight tubular glands
called crypts. Goblet
cells predominate, but
there are also absorptive
and granular cells as in
the small intestine
49. 24-49
F. Secretions of the Large Intestine
• 1. Mucus provides
protection
– Parasympathetic
stimulation increases
rate of goblet cell
secretion
• 2. Bacterial actions
produce gases (flatus)
from particular kinds of
carbohydrates found in
legumes and in artificial
sugars like sorbitol
• 3. Bacteria produce
vitamin K which is then
absorbed
• 4. Feces consists of water,
undigested food
(cellulose),
microorganisms,
sloughed-off epithelial
cells
• 5. Lactose intolerance
50. 24-50
G. Movement in the Large Intestine
• 1. Mass movements
– Common after meals
– Integrated by the enteric plexus
• 2. Local reflexes instigated by the presence of food in the stomach and
duodenum
– Gastrocolic: initiated by stomach
– Duodenocolic: initiated by duodenum
• 3. Defecation
– Defecation reflex: distension of the rectal wall by feces
– Parasympathetic stimulation
– Usually accompanied by voluntary movements to expel feces. Abdominal
cavity pressure caused by inspiration and by contraction of muscles of
abdominal wall.
52. 24-52
XII. Digestion and absorption
A. Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide vs.
disaccharide vs.
polysaccharide
2. Carbohydrate digestion
begins in the mouth-
salivary amylase
3. Nothing occurs in the
stomach as salivary
amylase is denatured
4. Pancreatic amylase
takes the carbo to the
disaccharide level
5. Epithelium of the small
intestine produces
disaccharidases
53. B. Protein digestion
• 1. amino acid vs. protein
• 2. initial breakdown
begins in stomach with
pepsin
• 3. continues in intestine
with trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase
• 4. dipeptides are broken
down by peptidases from
epithelial cells of the
mucosa
24-53
54. C. Lipid digestion
• 1. categories of lipids
• a. phospholipids
• b. Triglycerides
• c. Cholesterol
• 2. diverse group but all
are hydrophobic
• 3. digestion
commences in the small
intestine with
pancreatic lipase and
bile salts
24-54
56. 24-56
5. Transport of Lipids in blood stream
• All lipids carried in the blood are done so in combination
with protein to make them soluble in plasma.
• Cholesterol: 15% ingested; 85% manufactured in liver and
intestinal mucosa
• Lipids are lower density than water; proteins are higher
density than water
• Chylomicrons: 99% lipid and 1% protein (extremely low
density); enter lymph
• VLDL: 92% lipid, 8% protein
– Form in which lipids leave the liver
– Triglycerides removed from VLDL and stored in
adipose cells. VLDL has been converted to LDL.
• LDL: 75% lipid, 25% protein
– Transports cholesterol to cells
– Cells have LDL receptors
– # of LDL receptors become less once cell’s
lipid/cholesterol needs are met.
• HDL: 55% lipid, 45% protein
– Transports excess cholesterol from cells to liver
57. 24-57
Water and Ions
• Water: can move in
either direction across
wall of small intestine
depending on osmotic
gradients
• Ions: sodium,
potassium, calcium,
magnesium, phosphate
are actively
transported