applications of robotics in substations electrical EMERSON EDUARDO RODRIGUES

Substations and
electrical installations
B3
Application of robotics in
substations
Reference: 807
June 2020

Members
J. FAN, Convenor CN S. SAGARELI, Secretary US
L. LI CN T.I SUGIMOTO JP
R. ISHINO JP S. MONTAMBAULT CA
A. RENTON NZ J. BEAUDRY CA
P.I PATEL US M. MORENO GONZALEZ ES
X. JI CN R. GUO CN
Corresponding Members
G. MOTA PT A. SHAH US
J.F. ALLAN CA Y. LI AU
WG B3.47
Copyright © 2020
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responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions
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Application of robotics in
substations
ISBN: 978-2-85873-512-9

807 - Application of robotics in substations
3
Executive summary
Traditional life-cycle management of substations requires significant manpower and is typically hindered
by issues pertaining to efficiency, consistency, quality, and safety (especially in high voltage
environments), which can be further compromised under severe climatic conditions and at difficultly
accessible locations. Substation owners, asset managers, and engineers are always looking for ways
to achieve highest levels of personal safety and technical excellence, while minimizing the costs of
substation construction, operations, and maintenance. These goals can be achieved by employing
robots in substations. Owing to the rapid advancements in artificial intelligence (AI) and sensor
technologies, many robot types have been developed, which could replace or assist people in substation
operations and management (O&M). Some of these robots are already used in practice, yielding
excellent outcomes.
This Technical Brochure provides an overview of the existing applications of robotics in substations for
construction, inspection, maintenance, and operation. It also presents the current and expected future
trends in the development of new robot systems, pointing to the need for further research and
standardization.
Chapter 1 provides a historical overview of the developments in the field of robotics in general, and
substation robotics in particular. This is followed by the purpose of the Working Group (WG) responsible
for this report and an outline of the related events. Finally, future applications of robots in substations
are highlighted.
In Chapter 2, findings yielded by a survey involving 55 companies (respondents were mostly recruited
from utilities, academia, robotics manufacturers, research and development firms, and consultancy firms)
in 15 countries are presented. The analysis of the responses yielded provides a global view of the
current state of this field and market demand for robotics. This is followed by descriptions of substation
robots discussed later in this Technical Brochure. Classifications based on different criteria are
presented to show the technical features that distinguish different robot types.
Chapter 3 is designated for in-depth examination of existing and emerging substation construction
robots, as well as their key functions and technologies, benefits and challenges.
Chapter 4 is dedicated to inspection and patrol robots, including general architecture of robot systems,
current functionalities, and key technologies used in inspection robots. A typical use case is given,
benefits and challenges are analysed, and the substation inspection robot development trends are
postulated based on users’ needs and actual research and development activities.
In Chapter 5, maintenance robots are discussed, including those employed for live washing and cleaning
and other substation maintenance tasks. System composition, functions, performance, benefits, and
challenges of live line working robots are also presented.
Chapter 6 provides information on existing and emerging operation robotics, such as breaker racking
robots, capable of performing switching operations in remote unattended substations. Certain firefighting
robot systems are also introduced.
In Chapter 7, current standardization efforts are outlined, and further standardization needs are
highlighted. Specific references to relevant standards development organizations are given, such as
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), followed by national standards adopted in
several countries. Based on these findings, a standard system framework for robotics applied in
substations is proposed.
Chapter 8 provides conclusions stemming from the work presented, whereby the current status of
research and application of substation robots is summarized and the functional requirements and future
technical development trends in the field are outlined.
Working Group members wish to emphasize that the information reported and analysed in this brochure
was relevant and factually correct at the time of producing this report. However, due to the dynamic
nature of the substation robotics development, the reader is encouraged to check references and links
provided in Appendix B. Appendix C provides a detailed analysis of the survey findings, reflecting the
most recent state of the art in this field.

4
Contents
Executive summary............................................................................................................. 3
Contents............................................................................................................................... 4
Figures and Illustrations..................................................................................................... 7
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 11
2. Survey and categories of robotics in substations ................................................ 13
2.1 Survey and analysis ................................................................................................................................ 13
2.1.1 Questionnaire design......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1.2 Results overview................................................................................................................................ 13
2.2 Definitions................................................................................................................................................ 15
2.3 Classification ........................................................................................................................................... 16
3. Substation construction robots.............................................................................. 19
3.1 Characteristics of robots applied in construction................................................................................ 19
3.1.1 Investigation and surveying ............................................................................................................... 20
3.1.2 Design ............................................................................................................................................... 23
3.1.3 Construction ...................................................................................................................................... 24
3.1.4 Inspection .......................................................................................................................................... 31
3.1.5 Functions required in each construction phase ................................................................................. 32
3.2 Key functions and technologies............................................................................................................. 33
3.2.1 GNSS ................................................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.2 UAV ................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.3 IMU.................................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.4 SfM and SLAM................................................................................................................................... 33
3.2.5 3D point cloud data and 3D CAD data............................................................................................... 33
3.2.6 Remote-controlled heavy machine .................................................................................................... 35
3.2.7 Trajectory tracking control and calculation of trajectory for construction equipment.......................... 35
3.2.8 Measurement sensors ....................................................................................................................... 36
3.2.9 Low-delay digital high-definition image telecommunication system................................................... 36
3.3 Existing and emerging robotic systems................................................................................................ 37
3.3.1 Existing robotics systems .................................................................................................................. 37
3.3.2 Emerging robotic systems ................................................................................................................. 38
3.4 Benefits and challenges.......................................................................................................................... 38
3.4.1 Benefits.............................................................................................................................................. 38
3.4.2 Challenges......................................................................................................................................... 39
3.5 Conclusions............................................................................................................................................. 39
4. Substation inspection robots ................................................................................. 40
4.1 Overview................................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Requirements .................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1.2 History ............................................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Architecture and functions..................................................................................................................... 42
4.2.1 Architecture ....................................................................................................................................... 42
4.2.2 System functions ............................................................................................................................... 44
4.3 Key technologies..................................................................................................................................... 50
4.3.1 Mobile robot technologies.................................................................................................................. 50
4.3.2 Inspection technologies ..................................................................................................................... 58
4.3.3 Interactive and control software......................................................................................................... 66

5
4.4 Existing and emerging robot systems................................................................................................... 67
4.4.1 Outdoor patrol robots......................................................................................................................... 68
4.4.2 Indoor patrol robot ............................................................................................................................. 79
4.4.3 Valve hall inspection robot................................................................................................................. 81
4.4.4 Cable vaults inspection robot............................................................................................................. 82
4.4.5 Transformer internal inspection robot ................................................................................................ 84
4.4.6 GIS equipment inspection robot ........................................................................................................ 86
4.5 Effective implementation of patrol robots............................................................................................. 89
4.5.1 Case study for one robot in a 500 kV substation ............................................................................... 89
4.5.2 Combination of robots and a monitoring system................................................................................ 93
4.5.3 Robot rotation for several substations ............................................................................................... 94
4.6 Benefits and challenges.......................................................................................................................... 95
4.6.1 Benefits.............................................................................................................................................. 95
4.6.2 Challenges......................................................................................................................................... 96
4.7 Trends....................................................................................................................................................... 97
4.7.1 Flexible mobility ................................................................................................................................. 97
4.7.2 Reliable detection .............................................................................................................................. 97
4.7.3 Intelligent operation ........................................................................................................................... 97
4.7.4 System integration............................................................................................................................. 98
4.7.5 Future applications ............................................................................................................................ 98
4.7.6 Robotics as a service model.............................................................................................................. 99
5. Substation maintenance robots ............................................................................100
5.1 Overview................................................................................................................................................. 100
5.2 Live washing robots.............................................................................................................................. 100
5.2.1 System composition......................................................................................................................... 100
5.2.2 System functions ............................................................................................................................. 101
5.2.3 Technical features ........................................................................................................................... 101
5.2.4 Tests................................................................................................................................................ 102
5.3 Live maintenance robot ........................................................................................................................ 103
5.3.1 System composition......................................................................................................................... 104
5.3.2 System functions ............................................................................................................................. 105
5.3.3 Technical features ........................................................................................................................... 106
5.3.4 Tests................................................................................................................................................ 107
5.4 Benefits and challenges........................................................................................................................ 108
5.4.1 Benefits............................................................................................................................................ 108
5.4.2 Challenges....................................................................................................................................... 108
5.5 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................... 109
6. Substation operation robots..................................................................................110
6.1 Tele-operated robots............................................................................................................................. 110
6.1.1 Circuit breaker racking robot............................................................................................................ 110
6.1.2 Tele-operated robots for opening/closing cabinets and turning valves ............................................ 110
6.1.3 Tele-operated robot for disconnecting switches .............................................................................. 112
6.1.4 Trends ............................................................................................................................................. 113
6.2 Firefighting robots................................................................................................................................. 113
6.2.1 Substation firefighting robots in China ............................................................................................. 114
6.2.2 Firefighting robots for large-scale facilities in Japan ........................................................................ 116
6.2.3 Trends ............................................................................................................................................. 121
6.3 Benefits and challenges........................................................................................................................ 122
6.3.1 Benefits............................................................................................................................................ 122
6.3.2 Challenges....................................................................................................................................... 122
6.4 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................... 122
7. Standardization analysis........................................................................................123
7.1 Analysis of standardization requirements .......................................................................................... 123

6
7.2 Existing standards................................................................................................................................. 123
7.2.1 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)............................................................................. 123
7.2.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ....................................................................... 124
7.2.3 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)................................................................... 126
7.2.4 Relevant national standards ............................................................................................................ 127
7.2.5 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................... 129
7.3 Standard system framework................................................................................................................. 129
7.4 Recommendations................................................................................................................................. 130
8. Conclusions............................................................................................................132
A.1. General terms ........................................................................................................................................ 133
A.2. Specific terms........................................................................................................................................ 133
C.1. Statistics of responses ......................................................................................................................... 139
C.2. Definition of robot.................................................................................................................................. 139
C.3. Current application status of substation robots................................................................................. 140
C.4. Key technologies of robots applied in substations............................................................................ 141
C.5. Development trends .............................................................................................................................. 149

7
Figures and Illustrations
Figure 2.1 Percentage of responses from different countries ................................................................................ 14
Figure 2.2 Classification of substation robots ........................................................................................................ 16
Figure 3.1 Process flow of substation construction work and the types of robots used ......................................... 19
Figure 3.2 Land survey and measurement by UAV............................................................................................... 20
Figure 3.3 An example of image processing (ground data generated from 3D model by UAV)............................. 20
Figure 3.4 Photographic measurement using UAV and its application.................................................................. 21
Figure 3.5 Example of usage of a laser scanner ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 3.6 A ground-based laser scanner ............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 3.7 Bird's eye view of 3D scan of a substation ........................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.8 Elevation drawing of 3D scan of a substation....................................................................................... 22
Figure 3.9 Substation colour 3D laser scan image ................................................................................................ 23
Figure 3.10 Sample of integration of 3D scanner data and 3D CAD model........................................................... 24
Figure 3.11 An example of unmanned automatic construction aiming to resolve workforce shortages and reduce
potential for industrial accidents ............................................................................................................................ 25
Figure 3.12 Examples of unmanned automatic heavy machines........................................................................... 25
Figure 3.13 Remotely controlled haul trucks.......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.14 An example of an unmanned automatic robot aimed at disaster recovery site applications............... 26
Figure 3.15 An example of unmanned automatic construction by remote control via wireless LAN...................... 27
Figure 3.16 Automatic welding robots for column steel frames ............................................................................. 27
Figure 3.17 An autonomous cleaning robot........................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.18 A concrete surface finishing robot ...................................................................................................... 28
Figure 3.19 Concrete surface finishing work performed by the robot .................................................................... 28
Figure 3.20 Use of autonomous robot for reinforcing steel binding ....................................................................... 29
Figure 3.21 Motion process of robot used to bind reinforcing steel ....................................................................... 29
Figure 3.22 Binding machine................................................................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.23 The automatic RI testing robot verifying mounding compaction ......................................................... 30
Figure 3.24 The structural design of the robot and its application in wall treatment .............................................. 30
Figure 3.25 Drone combined with an engine that can carry 40 kg load ................................................................. 31
Figure 3.26 On-site inspection using a GNSS rover.............................................................................................. 32
Figure 3.27 Application of GNSS to UAV measurements for accuracy enhancement........................................... 33
Figure 3.28 Carry-in route simulation .................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.29 GIS unit carry-in simulation ................................................................................................................ 34
Figure 3.30 Example of access platform design.................................................................................................... 34
Figure 3.31 Examples of 3D point cloud editing/processing .................................................................................. 34
Figure 3.32 Procedure for attaching remote-controlled robotic system to the cockpit ........................................... 35
Figure 3.33 An example of steering angle control in a straight line ....................................................................... 35
Figure 3.34 An example of steering angle control in a curve................................................................................. 35
Figure 3.35 Measuring sensors ............................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 3.36 An example of a low-delay digital high-definition image telecommunication system .......................... 36
Figure 3.37 An example of remote land formation................................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.38 Application of CIM to a construction system....................................................................................... 37
Figure 3.39 Visualization of the entire civil engineering work process using IoT technologies .............................. 38
Figure 4.1 Manual inspection in different weather conditions ................................................................................ 40
Figure 4.2 Japanese robot prototypes................................................................................................................... 41
Figure 4.3 The first robot prototype developed in China........................................................................................ 41
Figure 4.4 Composition of a robot system ............................................................................................................. 43
Figure 4.5 Controller and monitoring and control system ...................................................................................... 44
Figure 4.6 Inspection images provided by a ground robot: Circuit breaker control panel and zoomed meters...... 44
Figure 4.7 Inspection images provided by a ground robot: Oil valve and grounding conductor............................. 45
Figure 4.8 Readable instruments in substations.................................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.9 Circuit breakers and moisture absorber................................................................................................ 46
Figure 4.10 Disconnectors..................................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.11 On-cabinet indicators.......................................................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.12 Thermal images provided by a ground robot: Circuit breakers and current transformer..................... 47
Figure 4.13 Overall and accurate temperature measurement ............................................................................... 47
Figure 4.14 UV Image spotting corona discharges on a current measurement transformer.................................. 48
Figure 4.15 An overview of a monitoring & control system.................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.16 An example of HMI system for outdoor patrol robots.......................................................................... 49
Figure 4.17 Example of a teleoperation graphical user interface........................................................................... 50
Figure 4.18 Wheeled mobile platform.................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 4.19 An example of a tracked robot............................................................................................................ 51
Figure 4.20 An example of a robot running on a vertical rail ................................................................................. 52
Figure 4.21 A UAV-based visual inspection (left) and commercially available UAV designed for such purpose ... 52
Figure 4.22 Construction of a GPS navigation system .......................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.23 Architecture of a map-based LiDAR localization and navigation system............................................ 54

8
Figure 4.24 Photo and 3D LiDAR-based point cloud map of a 500 kV substation................................................. 54
Figure 4.25 Configuration of an information security protection system in a substation ........................................ 57
Figure 4.26 Patrol inspection robot charging methods .......................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.27 Image captured before and after pan and tilt servo treating ............................................................... 59
Figure 4.28 Correction of instrument image deviation ........................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.29 Focusing servo treating ...................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.30 Exposure servo treating...................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.31 Feature detection of the disconnector ................................................................................................ 60
Figure 4.32 Moisture absorber............................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.33 Colour switch recognition ................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.34 Indicator lamps ................................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.35 Recognition of rust.............................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 4.36 Meters with digital readout.................................................................................................................. 62
Figure 4.37 Recognition of foreign objects ............................................................................................................ 63
Figure 4.38 IR image positioning........................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.39 An example of thermal defect recognition .......................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.40 Sound detection steps........................................................................................................................ 64
Figure 4.41 Abnormal sound detection based on the audible sound of equipment ............................................... 64
Figure 4.42 UV detection....................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 4.43 Example of a mobile PD detection and localization system based on multiple RF antennae ............. 65
Figure 4.44 Partial discharge inspection................................................................................................................ 66
Figure 4.45 Query interface in the control system ................................................................................................. 67
Figure 4.46 Overview of substation inspection by robots ...................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.47 Example of a substation patrol robot .................................................................................................. 69
Figure 4.48 Example of a charging room............................................................................................................... 71
Figure 4.49 Communication base station .............................................................................................................. 71
Figure 4.50 Micro meteorological observation system........................................................................................... 71
Figure 4.51 Foldable transfer platform................................................................................................................... 72
Figure 4.52 Patrol inspection robot with 3D LiDAR................................................................................................ 72
Figure 4.53 Light and small inspection robot equipped with 3D LiDAR ................................................................. 73
Figure 4.54 UAV inspection................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 4.55 Robot and GUI ................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.56 Transpower remote-controlled robot prototype................................................................................... 74
Figure 4.57 Transpower substation inspection robot............................................................................................. 75
Figure 4.58 Transpower New Zealand inspection robot to be deployed at a remote site ...................................... 75
Figure 4.59 Transpower New Zealand operator being trained .............................................................................. 76
Figure 4.60 FPL substation autonomous inspection rover..................................................................................... 76
Figure 4.61 Example of cloud-based platform interfaces....................................................................................... 77
Figure 4.62 PD inspection robot developed in the USA......................................................................................... 77
Figure 4.63 UAV use in the inspection of static wires in substations at Iberdrola, USA......................................... 78
Figure 4.64 Robot used for monitoring hot spots in substations............................................................................ 78
Figure 4.65 TEPCO PG's patrol robot ................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 4.66 Example of rail-based indoor patrol inspection robot.......................................................................... 79
Figure 4.67 Identification of the states of the protection straps, links, and indicator lamps ................................... 80
Figure 4.68 Indoor wheeled robot.......................................................................................................................... 81
Figure 4.69 Internal view of a valve hall ................................................................................................................ 81
Figure 4.70 Valve hall patrol inspection robot system ........................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.71 Cable vault inspection robot ............................................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.72 Infrared thermal imaging..................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 4.73 Photos taken by a cable vault inspection robot .................................................................................. 83
Figure 4.74 Tethered transformer internal inspection robot................................................................................... 84
Figure 4.75 Untethered transformer internal inspection robot ............................................................................... 85
Figure 4.76 Photos taken during a robot inspection .............................................................................................. 85
Figure 4.77 Example of a failure identified in high-voltage winding ....................................................................... 85
Figure 4.78 Spherical inspection robot .................................................................................................................. 86
Figure 4.79 X-ray based inspection robot system.................................................................................................. 87
Figure 4.80 Detection method of the robot system................................................................................................ 87
Figure 4.81 Robot for inspecting in a GIS cavity.................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4.82 Robot for inspecting in a GIS cavity.................................................................................................... 88
Figure 4.83 The inspection scene and image acquired by the robot ..................................................................... 88
Figure 4.84 Appearance of Phase A and temperature measurement of Face C of the main transformer #1 ........ 91
Figure 4.85 Comparison of workload before and after robot deployment .............................................................. 93
Figure 4.86 Architecture of a system combining robots and monitors ................................................................... 94
Figure 4.87 Rotation of a substation patrol robot................................................................................................... 95
Figure 5.1 Structural diagram of a live washing robot system ............................................................................. 100
Figure 5.2 On-site operation of live washing robots for substation equipment .................................................... 101
Figure 5.3 Washing robots tested in a 220 kV substation under de-energized conditions................................... 102
Figure 5.4 Insulation performance test conducted in China................................................................................. 102

9
Figure 5.5 Washing robots used in a 110 kV substation in China under energized conditions............................ 103
Figure 5.6 Manual maintenance in substations ................................................................................................... 103
Figure 5.7 Structural diagram of a live maintenance robot .................................................................................. 104
Figure 5.8 Live maintenance robot body ............................................................................................................. 104
Figure 5.9 Dry ice blasting insulators................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 5.10 Brushing post insulators ................................................................................................................... 105
Figure 5.11 Removing foreign objects on the post insulator................................................................................ 106
Figure 5.12 Repair device for broken conductors................................................................................................ 106
Figure 5.13 Substation maintenance robot subjected to the insulation performance test.................................... 107
Figure 5.14 Substation maintenance robot tested in a 220 kV substation under de-energized conditions.......... 107
Figure 5.15 Substation maintenance robot tested in a 220 kV substation under energized conditions ............... 108
Figure 6.1 Circuit Breaker Racking Robot prototype (left) carrying ground and test device (right) ...................... 110
Figure 6.2 Manual inspection for a control box.................................................................................................... 111
Figure 6.3 Tele-operated robot............................................................................................................................ 111
Figure 6.4 Tele-operated robot testing in a laboratory......................................................................................... 112
Figure 6.5 Tele-operated robot testing in a substation ........................................................................................ 112
Figure 6.6 Tele-operated robot for operation of disconnect switches .................................................................. 113
Figure 6.7 Actual use of a tele-operated robot for disconnect switches............................................................... 113
Figure 6.8 Substation fire incident ....................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 6.9 Robot body......................................................................................................................................... 114
Figure 6.10 Hose extension device ..................................................................................................................... 115
Figure 6.11 Performance tests of the firefighting robot........................................................................................ 116
Figure 6.12 Firefighting methods used in the performance test........................................................................... 116
Figure 6.13 Firefighting robot system structure ................................................................................................... 117
Figure 6.14 Firefighting robot system .................................................................................................................. 117
Figure 6.15 Placement of the firefighting robot system in the transport vehicle................................................... 118
Figure 6.16 Flying type reconnaissance & surveillance robot.............................................................................. 118
Figure 6.17 Ground type reconnaissance & surveillance robot ........................................................................... 119
Figure 6.18 Water cannon robot.......................................................................................................................... 119
Figure 6.19 Hose extension robot........................................................................................................................ 120
Figure 6.20 Command system............................................................................................................................. 120
Figure 6.21 Transport vehicle.............................................................................................................................. 121
Figure 7.1 Standard system framework for substation robot systems ................................................................. 130
Tables
Table 2.1 Response statistics................................................................................................................................ 13
Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of UAVs and ground-based laser scanners ........................................ 23
Table 3.2 Required functions................................................................................................................................. 32
Table 4.1 List of existing patrol robots ................................................................................................................... 42
Table 4.2 Environmental adaptability of outdoor patrol robots............................................................................... 70
Table 4.3 Performance of rail-based PD inspection robots ................................................................................... 80
Table 4.4 Equipment to be inspected .................................................................................................................... 89
Table 4.5 Inspection task setting ........................................................................................................................... 89
Table 4.6 List of points of interest for the main transformer inspection.................................................................. 90
Table 4.7 An inspection report example ................................................................................................................ 92
Table 7.1 IEC TC 59 robot-related standards...................................................................................................... 124
Table 7.2 IEC TC 62 robot-related standards...................................................................................................... 124
Table 7.3 IEC TC 116 robot-related standards.................................................................................................... 124
Table 7.4 ISO TC299 basic and general robot standards.................................................................................... 125
Table 7.5 ISO TC299 industrial robot standards.................................................................................................. 125
Table 7.6 ISO TC299 service robot standards..................................................................................................... 126
Table 7.7 ISO TC299 personal care robot standards .......................................................................................... 126
Table 7.8 IEEE robot-related standards for general use...................................................................................... 126
Table 7.9 IEEE medical robot standards ............................................................................................................. 127
Table 7.10 Electrical power industry standards for robots used in substations in China ..................................... 127
Table 7.11 Society* standards for robots used in substations in China............................................................... 127
Table 7.12 SGCC’s enterprise standards for robots used in substations in China .............................................. 128
Table 7.13 Standards for robots in Japan............................................................................................................ 128
Table 7.14 Standards for robots in the US and Canada ...................................................................................... 129
App Table A.1 Definition of general terms used in this TB .................................................................................. 139
App Table A.2 Definition of technical terms used in this TB ................................................................................ 139
App Table C.1 Survey sample composition......................................................................................................... 145
App Table C.2 Q12 Have you used robots in a substation including the state of not only commercialized production
but also development and prototype?.................................................................................................................. 146
App Table C.3 Q26 What is the maturity level of the robot you are using? ......................................................... 146

10
App Table C.4 Q41 How many robots have been deployed in the field by your company? ................................ 146
App Table C.5 Q10 What is your reason for integrating robots in substations? Please choose a maximum of 3.146
App Table C.6 Q16 What are the main functions your robot is used for?............................................................ 147
App Table C.7 Q32 What are the main functions your robot is used for?............................................................ 147
App Table C.8 Q17 Which of the following are the key inspection/operation sensors/tools of your robot? ......... 148
App Table C.9 Q34 Which of the following are the key inspection/operation sensors/tools of your robot? ......... 148
App Table C.10 Q19 Which movement type does your robot use?..................................................................... 149
App Table C.11 Q36 Which movement type does your robot use?..................................................................... 149
App Table C.12 Q18 Which positioning and navigation technologies does your robot use? ............................... 150
App Table C.13 Q35 Which positioning and navigation technologies does your robot use? ............................... 150
App Table C.14 Q22 Which communication method does your robot use within the substation? ....................... 151
App Table C.15 Q40 Which communication method does your robot use within the substation? ....................... 151
App Table C.16 Q20 How is your robot controlled?............................................................................................. 152
App Table C.17 Q37 How is your robot controlled?............................................................................................. 152
App Table C.18 Who manages O&M of the robots you have implemented?....................................................... 152
App Table C.19 How the data collected by the robot is used? ............................................................................ 153
App Table C.20 Q23 Do you have any cyber security policy to integrate robots with any substation systems? (e.g.,
SCADA, asset management system, etc.) .......................................................................................................... 153
App Table C.21 Q39 Do you have any cyber security policy to integrate robots with any substation systems? (e.g.,
SCADA, asset management system, etc.) .......................................................................................................... 153
App Table C.22 Q24 Has the use of robots improved any of the following areas?.............................................. 154
App Table C.23 Q29 Are you using any standards for robotics applications for the following? ........................... 154
App Table C.24 Q43 Are you using any standards for robotics applications for the following? ........................... 154
App Table C.25 Q13 Do you plan to integrate robots in your substation? ........................................................... 155
App Table C.26 Q14 What are the maximum 3 purposes that you would use a robot in a substation? .............. 155
App Table C.27 Q15 If you are planning to integrate robots, what is your timeline? ........................................... 155
App Table C.28 Q30 What are the future plans for your robotic applications? .................................................... 156
App Table C.29 Q44 What are the future plans for your robotic applications? .................................................... 156
App Table C.30 Q11 What are your reasons for not being interested in using robots in substation? .................. 156
App Table C.31 Q28 What are the problems or issues with robot application and what would you like to improve?
............................................................................................................................................................................ 157
App Table C.32 Q45 What are the problems or issues with robot application and what would you like to improve?
............................................................................................................................................................................ 158
App Table C.33 Q47 What are your reasons for not considering the use or development robotics in substations
currently?............................................................................................................................................................. 158
App Table C.34 Q48 What are in your view the main functions robots could be used for? ................................. 159
App Table C.35 Q49 Which of the following could be the key inspection/operation sensors/tools of robots applied
in substations?..................................................................................................................................................... 159
App Table C.36 Q50 Which positioning and navigation technologies the robot could use in your substations or in
your opinion?....................................................................................................................................................... 160
App Table C.37 Q51 Which movement type the robot could use in your substations or in your opinion? ........... 160
App Table C.38 Q52 In which operating environments robots could work in your substations or in your opinion?
............................................................................................................................................................................ 160
App Table C.39 Q53 Which communication method could be allowed for robots within your substations or in your
opinion?............................................................................................................................................................... 161
App Table C.40 Q54 Which robot control mode do you prefer? .......................................................................... 161

11
1. Introduction
Robots deployed in substations should be envisaged as multipliers of human capabilities. Depending
on the roles of persons involved in the substation lifecycle, the gain derived from adopting robotics can
be expressed in terms of velocity, agility, endurance, distance, number, consistency, or accuracy. In
response to this diversity of applications, robots aimed at substation deployment can be modified in
terms of size, role, and autonomy of systems and devices, to meet specific requirements.
Substations are the nodes of electrical grids, ensuring reliability, efficiency, and sustainability of
electricity transmission and delivery. In order to address the demands that arise during construction,
refurbishment, and operation and maintenance (O&M) of substations, substantial efforts have been
made to develop robots capable of assisting or replacing engineers in the performance of repetitive
and/or dangerous tasks comprising the substation lifecycle. A further advantage of O&M robotics is that
it can increase availability, as many facilities are unattended, yet must be continuously operational.
Researchers from Japan started working on the design and development of robots for substation and
tunnel patrol and inspection in the early 1990s, but faced hurdles due to limited sensor performance and
system maintainability. Rapid advancements in sensor, computer, AI, and other technologies in the
2000s prompted more extensive worldwide research on robotics for electrical grids, bringing some
prototypes to practical use. In 2001, robots for substation patrol and inspection were introduced in China.
Since then, many robots with diverse shapes and features have been developed and have been
successfully applied for condition monitoring, reading gauges, and telepresence, among other tasks. In
China, in particular, their use has become widespread, with robots currently operating in over 1,000
substations. Research in other countries has also contributed to the field, with various solutions for
remote-controlled tracked robots being developed in Canada, visual patrol robots deployed in New
Zealand, and infrared (IR) thermal imaging and partial discharge (PD) detection robots becoming
available in the USA. Since 2010, four sessions of International Conference on Applied Robotics for the
Power Industry (CARPI) have been held, aiming to bring together “producers” and “consumers” of robots
for power systems.
With the exception of patrol and inspection robots, robots used in substations are very diverse in design
and function, due to which very few units of each kind are used in most cases. This diversity reflects the
emergent nature of the field and the number and diversity of challenges and opportunities ahead.
To gain a thorough understanding of the current state of research on substation robots and their
applications, and thus promote their use in substations, the Working Group CIGRE B3.47 Application of
Robotics in Substations was set up in November 2016 and was tasked with the following responsibilities:
 Investigate and research worldwide requirements for the application of robotics in substations
 Define main application scenarios
 Identify key technical requirements and challenges
 Conduct case studies describing best practices
 Identify standardization requirements and provide suggestions for the follow-up work
The Working Group was also responsible for documenting the work carried out by substation robotics
R&D pioneers up to 2019, as well as for depicting the current state of this field, based on which a
roadmap was proposed toward a landscape in which artificial assistants can become effective and
widespread in real-life conditions. To ensure that this journey will be successful, in this report, the most
promising scenarios are identified, the enabling technologies are highlighted, and pitfalls and crossroads
described.
This Technical Brochure (TB) depicts a wide panorama of the field based on feedback from the
representatives of electric utilities, research institutes, and robot manufacturers gained through a survey.
The survey was conducted in 15 countries, focusing on those where substation robotics research is
most advanced. Technical contributions from CARPI, as well as from the Working Group members are
also reflected in the TB. The Working Group also coordinated with WG B2.52 due to the synergies with
the work on robotics for overhead lines. Similarly, as the Technical Brochure 731 published by CIGRE
WG B2.52 was highly valuable in compiling the information presented here, it is frequently cited in this
document. Based on the TB 731, a new CIGRE WG B2.74 is now working on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
(UAV) assistance in the inspection of overhead lines. While the aim of this TB was to be as
comprehensive as possible, it was not possible to present all solutions presently available or in progress
worldwide. Hence, it showcases the most relevant examples, with the emphasis on existing solutions.

12
In the long term, substation and robotics engineers will have to work and walk together towards a
landscape where substations are essentially large, complex autonomous systems comprising of many
heterogeneous subsystems humming and buzzing around like a hive. Such a macro system should be
tele-operated, as it is envisaged that robots will be capable of fulfilling their duties 24 hours a day, 365
days a year, in order to supply safe, secure, reliable, efficient, and sustainable electricity to the world’s
population.

13
2. Survey and categories of robotics in substations
2.1 Survey and analysis
In order to investigate the current robotic applications in substations worldwide, a questionnaire survey
was carried out to collect information pertinent to this technical report. The main results are summarized
below.
2.1.1 Questionnaire design
The questionnaire consisted of 54 questions (separately designed for utilities and research institutes &
manufacturers), mainly covering application scenarios, functional requirements, key technologies,
current applications, and standardization requirements. The items pertaining to substation robots
focused on:
 Current applications
 Advantages
 Aspects of substation robots yet to be improved
 Functions and technologies
 Application scenarios
 Technologies: inspection items, localization and navigation technologies, mobile
mechanisms, control modes, communication methods, and O&M modes
 Maturity of current technologies
 Standardization requirements
2.1.2 Results overview
The results reported here are based on 77 correctly completed questionnaires, 61 of which pertained to
power utilities and 15 to manufacturers and research institutes/academia, while one was submitted by
a consulting company, mainly engaged in design, engineering, O&M, asset management, and sales &
marketing (see Table 2.1 for the responses statistics). The respondents worked in relevant sectors in
Asia, North America, South America, Europe, South Africa, and Australia (see Figure 2.1 for the regional
distribution of respondents). These participants possessed a wide range of robotics application
experience and technical expertise.
Table 2.1 Response statistics
No. Respondent type Number of responses Number of companies
1
Utility (transmission,
distribution, and generation)
61 43
2
Manufacturer or research
institute/academia
15 11
3 Others (consulting) 1 1
Total 77 55

14
Figure 2.1 Percentage of responses from different countries
(1) Current situation
Representatives of eight utilities indicated that their companies have used either commercialized (60%)
robots or prototypes (40%). Three manufacturers have realized industrialized production (i.e., have
produced more than 200 robots). Some respondents indicated that their companies are not presently
planning to utilize substation robots mainly due to insufficient capabilities and high lifecycle cost, while
also citing O&M complexity and low reliability. A few utility representatives pointed out that they are
unaware of substation robot technologies.
The survey findings further revealed that O&M of substation robots is mostly carried out by the
substation’s personnel or is outsourced to O&M service providers. Efforts have been made on
standardization of robots, primarily with respect to the technical performance, testing and qualification,
and safety.
(2) Functions of existing substation robots
The existing substation robots are mainly used in outdoor and indoor environments, as well as in cable
tunnels. Inspection robots have been deployed for performing a variety of functions, such as equipment
inspection, visual confirmation, and monitoring. Based on the responses provided by representatives of
utilities and manufacturers, the greatest R&D effort is presently dedicated to the development of
maintenance robots, while robots for construction and operation are also under development.
(3) Key technologies of robots applied in substations
Inspecting devices: Visible light cameras and infrared thermal imagers are the most commonly used
inspecting devices in current substation robots. Robots equipped with acoustic sensors, ultrasonic
sensors, and ultraviolet imagers have been applied by a few utilities. Manipulators and special tools are
under development as a functional expansion of current robots.
Mobile platform: The most common mobile platforms include wheeled, tracked, and rail-based platforms,
while UAVs have recently gained prominence.
Navigation: In the past, GPS and magnetic track navigation were previously the most common robot
navigation technologies. More recently, these have been surpassed by 2D and 3D laser mapping and
navigation without physical tracks, and visual navigation is presently under development.
Communication: While Wi-Fi is the most common communication method, other technologies presently
in use include cellular and wired communication.
Regional response distribution

15
Control: More than half of the applied robots are using autonomous control; nonetheless, tele-operation
is adopted for robots required to perform complex actions.
According to the responses provided by the utilities representatives, the majority of these companies
have realized data transmission from robots to substation information systems, and in more than 50%
of these cases cyber security policies are in place. The remaining robots store and process data
automatically.
(4) Advantages and aspects yet to be improved
The main benefits of applying robots in substations are:
 Higher safety of substation personnel
 Higher O&M efficiency
 Generation of significant O&M data
 Lower O&M cost
Inspection/operation functionality and operational reliability remain the most pertinent challenges
hindering greater robot utilization. However, according to the majority of respondents from utilities,
operation convenience needs to be improved, while manufacturers require further improvements in
environmental adaptability.
(5) Technological demands and development trends
Over 50% of utilities that have not yet used robots are willing to use robots in the substation O&M, and
the respondents from 13 utilities indicated that their companies are planning to introduce robots within
five years. The functional requirements needed to make this transition mainly include substation
equipment status detection, operation safety monitoring, visual confirmation, equipment maintenance,
and patrol in adverse weather. The respondents who indicated that their companies are not willing to
use robots in substation O&M mostly justified this decision by citing insufficient capabilities (54%), high
lifecycle cost (50%), complex operations and maintenance (33%), and low reliability (33%).
The expectations reported by the representatives of utilities, research institutes, and manufacturers that
have used or developed robots mainly include further improving the performance of existing robot
systems, expanding the functionality range, and conducting more profound development. Among the
utilities that are unaware of the benefits of substation robots, infrared thermal imaging and visual
inspection were the most common functional demands, along with ultraviolet imaging and partial
discharge detection. These companies also expect robots to be able to carry out safety and specific
inspections, equipment maintenance, and emergency response.
2.2 Definitions
To facilitate better understanding of robotics, the definitions of robots obtained from international
standards development organizations are given below.
ISO 8373:2012 Robots and robotic devices — Vocabulary [B1] defines robots and classifies robots
into industrial robots and service robots according to the intended application. Moreover, this standard
indicates that a robot system can be formed, comprising the robot(s), end effector(s), and any machinery,
equipment, devices, or sensors supporting the robot performing its task.
IEEE Std 1872-2015 IEEE Standard Ontologies for Robotics and Automation [B2] defines robots
as an agentive device that can complete intended tasks in the physical world, either autonomously or
subordinated to actions of other agents.
Currently, international standards do not provide definitions and classification specific to the robots used
in substations or power industry. Hence, based on the survey findings and analyses of the robotic
systems [B4] [B4] presently used in substations, the following definition of substation robots is proposed:
Substation Robots: A machine programmed to automatically move or operate according to the given
or autonomously designed route or task, or to be manually operated at a distance, to assist or replace
human workers in the performance of specific tasks in construction, inspection, operation, maintenance,
and other stages in a substation lifecycle.
This TB is developed within the scope of the above definition, covering substation robots for construction,
inspection, maintenance and operation.
The characteristics of substation robots are summarized as follows:

16
 Functionality: A robot can accomplish one or more tasks, such as measuring, inspection,
maintenance, operation, analysis, diagnosis, and other functions in every stage of construction
and O&M of a substation or important equipment within the substation.
 Environmental adaptability: A robot is capable of adapting to its working environment, usually
necessitating water and dust protection, as well as electromagnetic compatibility.
 Integration of software and hardware: A robot system is comprised of mechanical structures,
electronic components, and different levels of software.
 Autonomy: A robot is integrated with software to achieve a programmable actuated mechanism
with a degree of autonomy or intelligence.
 Interaction: In task execution, a robot may need to collaborate with human workers, systems,
and other robots, through task setting, teleoperation, or master−slave control.
A substation robot typically consists of a mobile platform carrying task execution subsystems (for
inspection, maintenance, and operation, for example), control & monitoring system, communication
system, and power supply.
2.3 Classification
Robots can be classified according to various criteria, such as their application scenario, work area,
operation mode, mobile mechanism, and navigation means, as shown in Figure 2.2.
Classification of substation robots
Application scenario Work area Operation mode
Location and
Navigation
Construction Rail-based
Outdoor Manual GPS
Inspection Wheeled
Indoor Semi-autonomous
Magnetic
trajectory
Maintenance Tracked
Inside equipment Fully autonomous LiDAR
Operation UAV Visual navigation
UUV
Combined
navigation
Mobile mechanism
Figure 2.2 Classification of substation robots
Classification by application scenario: Substation robots can be classified by the application
scenarios:
(1) Construction robots
Used in all stages of substation construction, including measurement, design, constructing, installation,
etc.
(2) Inspection robots
Used for substation inspection, including the functions of vision-based equipment status recognition,
meter reading, infrared temperature sensing, and partial discharge detection on main substation
equipment or other specific equipment or components (such as transformers or Gas Insulated
Switchgears (GISs).
(3) Maintenance robots
Used for substation maintenance, including the functions of live washing, brushing, etc.
(4) Operation robots
Used for substation equipment operation, including live operation (such as breaker and switch cabinet
operation), firefighting, etc.

17
Classification by work area: The work area of a substation robot can be defined as the area where
robots perform their tasks and can be broadly classified as outdoor, indoor, and inside equipment.
(1) Outdoor robots
A robot is deployed in unsheltered areas, such as in switch yards and should thus be capable of working
in complex environments, and must be capable of withstanding rain, snow, direct sunlight, extreme
temperatures and wind, different terrains, etc.
(2) Indoor robots
A robot works inside the premises, such as in relay rooms, switch rooms, and valve halls of the converter
station.
(3) Robots inside equipment
A robot is deployed inside specific equipment, such as transformers or GISs.
Classification by operation mode: Substation robots can also be classified by their operation modes.
(1) Tele-operated robots
A robot is tele-operated if it is remotely controlled, whereby it typically takes commands from a human
operator and executes them as instructed.
(2) Semi-autonomous robots
A robot is semi-autonomous if it has some degree of independence but still needs human intervention
under certain circumstances.
(3) Autonomous robots
A robot is autonomous if it is capable of exhibiting behaviours or performing tasks without external
influence.
Classification by mobility mode: Substation robots can also be classified according to the means by
which their mobility is realized.
(1) Rail-based robots
Rail-based robots traverse along a rail-track mounted on the ceiling or wall of the room. They could be
used in indoor environments where space is limited, or in work areas that are difficult to access.
(2) Wheeled robots
Wheeled robots move on the ground using motorized wheels to propel themselves. While they are easier
to build and control compared to other types, they cannot traverse well over obstacles, such as rocky or
steep terrain, or on surfaces characterized by low friction.
(3) Tracked robots
Tracked robots use caterpillar tracks in order to move on rough terrains, which typically requires power
when turning and limits their speed.
(4) Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
UAV-based robots are designed with flying platforms, and are thus used for an overview inspection of
substations. Due to their limited payloads, UAV-based robots are currently mostly used to carry cameras
to capture images of lines and substation equipment.
(5) Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs)
These robots are impermeable and can thus be submerged, allowing them to dive under transformer oil
and inspect the internal defects of the transformer.
Classification according to the navigation means: As robots move along a magnetic trajectory, they
can be classified according to the navigation technology employed, such as:
(1) Global Positioning System (GPS)
Real Time Kinematic (RTK) −GPS localization accuracy has been vastly improved in recent years and
is currently reduced to a few centimetres. However, it does not work well under substation conditions
when sheltered by objects such as lines and equipment.

18
(2) Magnetic trajectory
Robots move along magnetic trajectory provided by magnetic pieces embedded into the ground. This
necessitates considerable infrastructure modifications and can be unreliable as the magnetic pieces are
easily damaged.
(3) Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
Outdoor robots used to be designed with 2D LiDAR that provides limited scanning distance and ranges,
thus severely limiting localization reliability. Due to recent price decreases, 3D LiDAR is increasingly
being used by manufacturers, and is presently the most effective navigation method used by most robots.
(4) Visual navigation
The robot navigates its way in a large, visually complex environment based on visual information. This
emerging technology is expected to be successfully implemented in the future. However, visual
navigation is easily affected by illumination conditions, as the image treatment algorithms are
insufficiently advanced. Therefore, this navigation technology is more suitable for indoor applications
where lighting conditions are relatively stable and can be controlled.
(5) Combined navigation
This type of navigation combines two or more of the aforementioned technologies.
In this TB, substation robots are classified by application, even though robots used in different scenarios
can also be classified in other ways mentioned above.

19
3. Substation construction robots
3.1 Characteristics of robots applied in construction
At present, limited work exists on robots specifically intended for use in substation construction work.
Hence, in this section, possible applications of robot technologies at each stage of construction work
are described, and the required functions and potential issues are delineated for each application.
Summary of findings is provided at the end of this section.
Although construction tasks are broadly defined as acts of creating a new substation, they are similar to
civil engineering tasks in general buildings and equipment installation. Still, work required to construct
a substation is limited in scope when compared to the construction of large infrastructures, such as
dams, which restricts the potential for automation and subsequent implementation of robots in
substation construction. Hence, examples of robotics applications in general civil work are presented in
the sections that follow.
In the flowchart of substation construction work shown in Figure 3.1, the dotted rectangles represent the
robotics technology that can be applied at each stage.
The construction robots considered here also include a cooperative robot that assists in the construction
work and other tasks in the substation.
Figure 3.1 Process flow of substation construction work and the types of robots used
(1) In surveying and measurement, it is preferable that results can be easily reflected in construction
drawings. To realize this aim, these results must be digitalized and be directly applied to the CAD
software used to generate construction drawings. This can be achieved by deploying UAVs, including
drones, in 3D measurement.
(2) During the design stage, easy recognition of the workspace and the distance between pieces of
equipment decreases the time required to make construction drawings, whereby easy acquisition of
data from 3D measurement results enables 3D-based design. Hence, the use of 3D CAD for design
would be recommended.
(3) As the construction work is expensive, being able to work non-stop without interruptions would
substantially shorten the duration and cost of construction, which can be achieved by the application of
unmanned automatic construction systems.
(4) As inspections must be performed regularly, automatic inspection of applicable parts will facilitate
this process, as well as enable easy processing and management of inspection results. For example,
inspecting the position of equipment by using robots with positioning systems and digitalizing the
(1) Investigation and surveying 3D-surveys etc.
(2) Design
(3) Constructing
Design by 3D-CAD etc.
Unmanned automatic constructing,
Collaborative robot etc.
Civil work
(4) Inspection On-site inspection by RTK-GNSS etc.
Collaborative robot etc.
(Construction drawing)
Electric work (5) Installation of equipment
(Completion drawing)

20
gathered data will ensure that actual equipment position will be accurately captured in the completion
drawings.
(5) In the installation stage, while the complete application of robots cannot be implemented due to the
detailed work required, workers can still benefit from robot support and assistance.
3.1.1 Investigation and surveying
3.1.1.1 3D measurements
UAVs, including drones, are used to perform aerial surveys and measurements. A laser measuring
device installed on the UAV is used to measure and gather 3D point cloud, as shown in Figure 3.2 [B5].
Figure 3.2 Land survey and measurement by UAV
Conventional 3D models created using photos can only generate the surface data pertaining to ground
cover (e.g., grass or trees). However, lasers can achieve greater penetration, allowing the survey to
delineate structures hidden by grass, trees, or the ground, via image processing, as shown in Figure
3.3 [B6].
Figure 3.3 An example of image processing (ground data generated from 3D model by UAV)
Camera
/ Laser-scanner
UAV
X
Z
Y
Before filtering of 3D point cloud
> All terrains including grass are represented
Red line: Ground edge
Cross section drawing
> Available to obtain the ground edge
which cannot be obtained by photo
After filtering of 3D point cloud
> Filtered based on the deepest line of Z axis
Live-shot photo

21
The photographic measurement technique relying on UAVs can also be applied to civil engineering
(Figure 3.4). The drawing can be edited according to specific application requirements, such as a design
meeting or public consultation session [B7].
Figure 3.4 Photographic measurement using UAV and its application
Ground-based laser scanners (Figure 3.5) that survey the ground and measure its features are presently
used along with UAVs. The data obtained by the laser scanners is in the form of a 3D point cloud, which
has X, Y, Z, and +α coordinates [B8]. This process yields high-precision, low-noise, and high-density
data that can be used to easily obtain the surface shape of the yard, as shown in Figure 3.6 [B9].
Figure 3.5 Example of usage of a laser
scanner
Figure 3.6 A ground-based laser scanner
3D laser scanners can also be deployed for assisting construction and design activities in existing field
substations. Fast scan rate and ultra-high precision 3D points of the latest generations of 3D laser
scanners can assist primary substation designers in confirming critical yet hard to measure clearance
distances, such as between overhead conductors and HV assets in a mesh circuit arrangement. With
increasing use of compact switchgears, such as dead tank type circuit breakers, as well as hybrid
designs comprising of disconnecting switch and dead tank circuit breakers, and due to the desire to
(d) Whole model for the design meeting (e) Detailed model for the public session
(a) UAV implementation (b) Process check of finished
construction area
(c) Digital terrain model

22
maximize the existing substation switch-bay space and overcome the inaccuracies in the original design
drawings, fast and accurate 3D laser scanner can be a valuable tool for both High Voltage (HV)
designers and substation maintenance personnel. Figure 3.7 and Figure 3.8 show the output of two
typical 3D laser surveys completed for substations of different sizes.
For the purpose of producing these findings, a dedicated corporate data server has been set up to store
large amounts of data yielded by scans. The analytical software provides view-only web interface which
authorized personnel can access to obtain the 3D scan results via corporate internal web browser. This
3D model of a substation in the construction stage can be used as a map for navigation and localization
of patrol and inspection robots.
Figure 3.7 Bird's eye view of 3D scan of a substation
Figure 3.8 Elevation drawing of 3D scan of a substation
The yellow triangles indicate the surveyor’s previous survey positions.
The difference in their size is an indication of a distance between the surveyor’s current view point
in the model and the survey points.
The bigger the triangle, the closer the surveyor is to that point, and vice versa.
The ID shown (e.g. CA1-1061: sN-061) is a composite of the substation ID, orientation and survey
point ID.
Some technical details of the 3D scanner are provided below:
Scan rate: Up to 1,000,000 points per second at ranges up to 270 m.
Type: Ultra-high speed time-of-flight enhanced by Waveform Digitizing (WFD) technology
Range accuracy: 1.2 mm + 10 ppm over full range
Field-of-View: Horizontal: 360°, Vertical: 290°
Data storage capacity: 256 GB internal solid-state drive (SSD) or external USB device
(1 TB external USB SSD was used in this case)

23
Table 3.1 shows the advantages and disadvantages of UAVs and ground-based laser scanners,
indicating that using them in combination yields higher precision and enhances work efficiency [B8].
Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of UAVs and ground-based laser scanners
UAVs
Ground-based laser
scanners
Conventional
measuring work
Work period ◎ short ○ short △ long
Measurement
Accuracy
○ (According to altitude
and cameras)
◎ ○
Operability △ Skill is required ○ ○
Weather(rain, wind) × Wind speed < 5 m/s × △
Obstacles × HV transmission lines ○ ○
Danger to a third
person
× Flying away, Falling ○ None ○ None
Equipment cost ○～3M$ ×～10M$ ◎～2M$
Time taken to process
point group data
× long ○ short −
Notes: ◎− excellent, ○ − good, △ − poor, × − very poor
3.1.1.2 Required functions and problems in application
 The data format to be used in the maintenance and management phase has not yet been
determined. Hence, a data format that is seamlessly applicable to 3D CAD software is required.
 The required accuracy of measurement also needs to be clarified.
 Since rainy weather or the presence of many shadows is unsuitable for photographic
measurements using UAVs, the optimum time frame for data capture is limited.
 The analysis of data obtained by UAV photographic measurement requires high-performance
computer equipment, which is currently very expensive.
 Under the law of certain countries such as Japan, the UAV operating standards are sometimes
regulated if there are large differences in height in the applied area, thus requiring legal
permission for flight.
3.1.2 Design
3.1.2.1 3D CAD
3D point cloud obtained by UAVs such as drones or laser scanners is converted to 3D CAD data, which
is subsequently utilized in design drawing. Figure 3.9 shows an example of 3D point cloud measurement
in a substation by colour mapping [B10].
Figure 3.9 Substation colour 3D laser scan image

24
Figure 3.10 shows an example of a combination of 3D scanner data and a 3D CAD model. The 3D
scanner data of the existing equipment is converted into the 3D CAD model, and that of the new
equipment that is yet to be installed is superimposed onto the model of the existing equipment, thus
generating the construction drawing [B10].
Figure 3.10 Sample of integration of 3D scanner data and 3D CAD model
3.1.2.2 Required functions and application issues
 A function that can be easily modified to reflect inspection results and changes in equipment
after commissioning is yet to be developed.
 A simulation function for determining work space in case of maintenance, inspection, and
refurbishment must also be specified.
3.1.3 Construction
Unmanned automatic constructing robots and collaborative robots are already being utilized in the
construction industry. They are described below, along with their preferable functions for application.
3.1.3.1 Unmanned automatic construction robots
Unmanned automatic construction robots are usually adopted to mitigate workforce shortages or
potential for industrial accidents, as well as in disaster recovery sites.
a. Robots used to mitigate workforce shortages or potential for industrial accidents
In some countries such as Japan, workforce shortages in the construction industry are common, due to
difficult working conditions, as well as the aging of existing engineers and population decline. As this
has a detrimental effect on productivity, robots are considered a viable solution, especially given that
they reduce the risk of human error or industrial accidents.
b. Robot applications in disaster recovery sites
Recovery activities in disaster sites, such as those affected by earthquakes, landslides, or debris flow,
can be performed safely and rapidly by remotely controlling heavy machines from a safe location.
For example, an operator can instruct several construction machines in advance using tablet type
devices, as shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12 [B11] [B12].

25
Figure 3.11 An example of unmanned automatic construction aiming to resolve workforce shortages and
reduce potential for industrial accidents
The machines work autonomously according to a work plan prepared in advance using technologies
such as machine control and the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), as shown in Figure 3.12
[B12].
Figure 3.12 Examples of unmanned automatic heavy machines
Unmanned dump trucks for mining industry have been in operation for over 10 years (Figure 3.13). The
autonomous technology enables the mining customer to remotely control haul trucks in remote mining
regions from its operations centre based in the nearest large city.
CPU for
automatic
driving
system
GPS
antenna
Obstacle detection
censor
Unmanned Vibration Roller Unmanned Dump Truck Unmanned Bulldozer
All heavy machines are unmanned and can be monitored by only one worker

26
Figure 3.13 Remotely controlled haul trucks
Autonomous technology also improves safety, while increasing productivity. Available evidence shows
that it can reduce load and haul unit costs by more than 15% compared with conventional haulage
methods.
It is envisaged that, in the future, more advanced variants of this already mature autonomous technology
can be potentially used in remote green field substation construction activities. The ever-increasing need
for tapping into higher-grade renewable power generation resources poses challenges in optimizing
logistics and reducing cost of construction activities while ensuring high quality and future reliability of
the new substations in very remote parts of the planet. Autonomous technologies in various forms will
no doubt assist in reducing cost of electrical infrastructure development while improving quality of future
substations.
It is also important for robots deployed at disaster recovery sites to be efficient and easy to operate. As
cost is always an issue, this has led to active development and application of robots attached to a part
of general-purpose machines such as an operating lever, as shown in Figure 3.14 [B13][B14].
Figure 3.14 An example of an unmanned automatic robot aimed at disaster recovery site applications
GNSS antenna
Image camera
Installed the steering
robot to cockpit
Remote control
from safe site
Configuration of steering mechanism

27
To ensure human safety, unmanned construction robots intended for use at disaster recovery sites are
remotely controlled via wireless LAN, as indicated in Figure 3.15 [B14].
Figure 3.15 An example of unmanned automatic construction by remote control via wireless LAN
3.1.3.2 Collaborative robots
Various small robots are used by workers to assist them in executing tasks in construction areas.
(1) Automatic welding robots for column steel frames (Figure 3.16) [B15]
Figure 3.16 shows a small welding robot that automatically welds all steel pipe column joints. This robot
can weld all straight and curved parts of the pipe automatically by using technology to predict and control
its traveling speed. The newest robots can memorize actions for avoiding obstacles, such as jigs, in
advance, allowing them to work smoothly by using the swing function.
Figure 3.16 Automatic welding robots for column steel frames
(2) Autonomous cleaning robots (Figure 3.17) [B16]
The cleaning area at construction sites is generally wide, imposing a considerable burden on the workers.
This has led to the development and application of robots that autonomously clean wide areas. Recent
versions of such robots have laser range finders, which enables them to recognize their surroundings
and move to the appropriate place by themselves after checking for the presence of steps and the
amount of particles and obstacles on the floor.
System component
Guidance tool Camera Command line
Wireless
device
Monitor
display
Control
board
Wireless
device
Wireless
device
Optical
communication
device
Wireless
device
Wireless
device
Backhoe
Dump truck
Unmanned
automatic machine
Vibration roller
Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN
Relay point
Backhoe with
camera
Backhoe with
camera
Wireless LAN
Bulldozer
Optical
communication
device Guidance
PC
Optical cable 1km
Radio base station
Operation room
Welding work by
multiple robots
Keeping welding while
avoiding obstacles

28
Figure 3.17 An autonomous cleaning robot
(3) Concrete surface finishing robot (Figure 3.18 and Figure 3.19) [B17]
Finishing a concrete floor surface is an essential task at many construction sites, yet it is particularly
challenging for workers, since it is performed in half-sitting posture. Moreover, the task requires large
workforce or long continuous work depending on the concrete placing area and the cured state. Due to
their heavy weight, the carrying route and applicable area of conventional finishing machines is limited.
This has prompted the development of a concrete surface finishing robot, resulting in considerable
labour savings and higher efficiency when compared to conventional methods.
Figure 3.18 A concrete surface finishing robot
Figure 3.19 Concrete surface finishing work performed by the robot
Tablet PC
Driving
motor
Lithium ion
battery
Laser range
finder
Sweeper for
cleaning
Robot at work Internal structure of the robot
Rotary
Trowel
Driving
motor
Battery

29
(4) Autonomous robot for binding reinforcing steel (Figure 3.20, Figure 3.21 and Figure 3.22) [B18]
Rapidly aging skilled workers and growing workforce shortages in the construction industry pose risk to
efficiency and productivity, especially in tasks involving reinforced steel that have to be performed within
a limited timeframe. Hence, an autonomous robot that binds crossing points of reinforcing steel using
wire before moving to the next crossing has been developed. This robot is capable of automatically
detecting the crossing points of steel and obstacles simultaneously, precisely determining the place to
move, and accurately binding the steel using the binding machine, as shown in Figure 3.20 and Figure
3.21.
Figure 3.20 Use of autonomous robot for reinforcing steel binding
Figure 3.21 Motion process of robot used to bind reinforcing steel Figure 3.22 Binding machine
(5) Automatic inspection robot for mounding compaction (Figure 3.23) [B19]
In civil construction, such as road building and land formation, a test needs to be performed to confirm
the appropriate mounding compaction. This usually involves a radioactive isotope (RI) measuring device,
which determines the moisture content and density of soil based on a small amount of radiation emitted
from a radioactive isotope. The method has several drawbacks, such as the heavy weight of the
measuring device and the need to conduct measurements at night, once the mounding compaction work
has been completed. Hence, a robot consisting of an RI measuring device mounted on a truck attached
to an autonomous vehicle guided by the GPS has been developed and applied. After an operator sets
a measurement point via PC, the robot automatically moves to the point and conducts measurements.
Moving by 50 mm at a time Robot
Moving it four times
Completed
moving
Robot
Robot
Moving
vertically
Moving
horizontally
Binding point
Driving arm
Spring mechanism
for one side
Binding
machine
Laser sensor
for rebar
Laser sensor
for obstacles
V-type wheel

30
Figure 3.23 The automatic RI testing robot verifying mounding compaction
(6) Wall treatment robot for concrete [B20]
A robot has been developed by the researchers at the Zagreb University in Zagreb, Croatia, which treats
concrete walls, as shown in Figure 3.24.
Figure 3.24 The structural design of the robot and its application in wall treatment
(7) Transport by UAV
During construction of transmission lines, owing to the remote location of the transmission tower,
transport can be challenging. This has led to the development of a transportation drone, with the goal
of eventually completely dispensing with helicopter transportation and allowing heavier loads, as this
would reduce the logging range of a loading station.
In 2017, the carrying capacity of drone was limited to 30 kg as it was operated by an electrical motor.
Drones with gasoline-type engines that have since emerged are capable of transporting greater weight,
as shown in Figure 3.25. However, since gasoline-type engines are noisy (e.g., 80 dB at a distance of
4 m), their application has been restricted to mountains and other unpopulated regions. Further care
GNSS, IMU, LIDAR,
CPU, Wi-Fi-router etc.
Automatic control system
RI measuring instrument
and towing truck
Caterpillar type leading car

applications of robotics in substations electrical EMERSON EDUARDO RODRIGUES

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