2. CCC: Definition and Models
• This lecture will introduce students to the concepts of communication, culture and
cross-cultural communication.
• It will review foundational knowledge in communication and the various models used
to explain the communication process and proceed to expand on this knowledge
within the context of cross-cultural communication.
• At the end of this lecture students should demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the communication process as explained by various models and, also demonstrate
knowledge and understanding of the concept and expression of CCC in modern
societies.
3. What is communication? Changing Eras
Talking Era (180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE):
• Main medium of communication was talking.
• So, the main culture of communication was oral and probably body gestures/body
language etc.
• This period is believed to have existed for about 150,000 years
Manuscript Era (3500 BCE to 1450 AD):
• The emergence of the manuscript brought into emergence the Written Culture.
• This was marked by more settled and organized communities and the emergence of
class system.
4. What is Communication: A look at history
Print Era (1450 -1850)
• The invention of the modern printing press sparked off a print culture and a period of
enlightenment;
• Books such as the Bible were the first to be printed and provided a source of
motivation for enlightenment.
Audio-Visual Era (1850-1990)
• Telephone, telegraph, radio, and television brought in the audio-visual culture.
Internet/Online Era (1990 to Date)
• The invention of the ARPANET and subsequently the Internet marked the beginning
of the Internet/Online Culture.
5. What is communication? The Concept
• Irrespective of the identified cultures or eras, communication process has some key
attributes.
• William H. Newman and Charles E. Summer: “communication is an exchange of facts,
ideas, opinions or emotions by two or more persons”.
• Daniel Katz and Robert L. Kahn “communication is the exchange of information and the
transmission of meaning. It is the very essence of a social system of an organization”
• According to Dennis McQuail communication occurs at six levels;
(1) intrapersonal,
(2) interpersonal,
(3) intragroup,
(4) intergroup,
(5) institutional or organizational, and
(6) mass
6. What is communication? The Models
Three Broad Categories
• Linear Models
I. Aristotle Model
II. Lasswell’s Model
III. Shannon Weaver Model
IV. Berlo’s SMCR Model
• Interactive Models
I. Osgood Schramm Model
II. The Westely and Maclean Model
• Transactional Models
I. Transactional Model
II. Dance Helical Model
7. Shannon Weaver Model
• Proposed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver and
• Considered mother of all communication models
• Sender delivers message
• A transmitter encodes message into signals
• Message signals passed through a channel
• Signals decoded
• Message received
• Concept of noise first introduced
8.
9. Lasswell’s
• Proposed by Harold Lasswell
• Who is communicating?
• What is being communicated (Message)?
• Through which medium?
• To whom?
• What is the effect?
10.
11. Aristotle Model
• Attributed to Aristotle
• Speaker is key and must organize his/her speech based on:
• Target Audience
• Occasion
• Desired effect or influence
12.
13. Osgood Schramm
• Communication is circular rather than linear.
• Back and forth between ‘sender’ and ‘receiver’
• Shared field of experience critical to meaningfulness of the communication process
or interpretation of messages.
• Semantic barriers include: beliefs, culture, norms, moral, ethic, values etc.
14.
15. Westley and MacLean
• Bruce Westley and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr
• X1 The environment that provides the primary stimulus for the message.
• x1 The specific stimulus received by the creator of the message that inspired the message
• A The creator of the message or agent of the message
• C The gatekeeper or mass disseminator of the message
• B Receiver of the message
• X¹ Beliefs, ethics, values or culture of sender which influences message
• X¹¹ Beliefs, ethics, values or culture of receiver which influences message
• fBA Feedback between Receiver and Sender
• fCA Feedback between Gatekeeper and Sender
• fBC Feedback between Receiver and Gatekeeper
16.
17. Helical Model
• Communication may start
simple but gets increasingly
accumulative, complex and
sometimes complicated.
• Examples include the
communication development
from childhood to adult stage,
relationship experiences
18. Barnlund’s Transactional Model
• Proposed by Dean Barnlund
• Communication is a continuous circular process
• Sending and receiving messages are reciprocal events that move from both directions.
• There is constant feedback from both parties
• Cpu Public cues are cues from the environment, natural or man-made cues
• Cpr Private Cues also known as private objects of orientation are cues from the senses
of a person such as taste, touch and from personal objects such mobile phone.
• Cbehnv Nonverbal behavioural cues
• Cbehv Verbal cue
20. CCC: Cross Cultural Communication
• Simply put it is communication across cultures.
• According to the Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research:
• Cross-cultural communication is a process of creating and sharing meaning among
people from different cultural backgrounds using a variety of means.
• Several models of communication highlight differences arising from different
cultural and belief systems.
• Thus, they provide a framework for understanding cultural differences in
communication and how these differences can be effectively bridged or addressed.
21. CCC: Cross Cultural Communication
• Thus, for instance cross cultural communication goes beyond the
meaning of words and embrace nonverbal cues and actions that may
have different meanings across different cultures.
• What models of communication do you think are more appropriate for
studying and understanding cross cultural communication? Students
should share relevant case studies to enforce their arguments.
22. Assignment
• Identify the weaknesses of the various communication models studied.
(One weakness each). Not more than 200 words.
23. Suggested Reading
• Donal, C. (2016). The Handbook of Communication in Cross-cultural Perspective. New York:
Routledge.
• Gudykunst, W.B. (2003). Cross-Cultural and Intercultural Communication. New York: Sage
Publications.
• Kreuz, R. & Roberts, R. (2018). Getting through: The Pleasures and Perils of cross-cultural
communication. New York: Barnes and Noble.
• Lewis, R.D. & Wallen, K. (2008). Cross-cultural Communication. London: Transcreen
Publications.
• Tomalin, B. & Hurn, B. (2013). Cross-Cultural Communication: Theory and Practice. London:
Palgrave Macmillan.
