2. WHAT IS SYSTEMS?
• its original meaning (Greek) is to ‘set up’ in ‘sync’
• defined as
• an organized or connected group of objects; a set or assemblage of things
connected, associated, or interdependent, so as to form a complex unity;
3. SYNERGY EFFECTS OF SYSTEMS
• A system is an ‘organised whole’ of a plural number of units. The essential sense
of this term captures its organic (or materialistic) characteristics, or the synergy
effect, that is, the total optimisation is greater than the sum of the partial
optimisations.
4. CHAOS
• A state which is not systematized is ‘chaos’
• Chaos now means a mode which creates unforeseen irregular behaviour or
pattern in spite of deterministic character following a certain specific rule/law.
5. TOTAL SYSTEM/SYSTEM INTEGRATION
• If a unit forming part of a system behaves with strong independence/autonomy,
this unit is called a module or holon; a system consisting of autonomous modules
is called a total system.
The total system often has a mode of system integration with the following three
features
(1) syncretism—integrating different fields whilst maintaining their own autonomy;
(2) symbiosis— obtaining symbiotic gain;
(3) synergy— synergistically obtaining amplification effects.
6. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYSTEM
• Many characteristics are concerned with systems; some are size, complexity,
totality, mission/functions/objectives, internal/external relationships,
equilibrium/balance, hierarchy, dimensionality, dynamic behavior, etc.
7. FOUR BASIC ATTRIBUTES OF THE SYSTEM
• Assemblage - A system consists of a plural number of distinguishable units which may be
either physical or conceptual, natural or artificial.
• Relationship -Several units assembled together are merely a ‘group’ or a ‘set.’ For such a
group to be admissible as a system, a relationship or an interaction must exist among the
units.
• Goal-seeking - An actual system as a whole performs a certain function or aims at single or
multiple objectives.
• Adaptability to environment - A specific, factual system behaves so as to adapt to the
change in its surroundings, or external environment. This external environment influences
and is influenced by the system, in that matter and/or energy and/or information are
received from and given to each other.
8. FOUR DEFINITIONS OF SYSTEMS
• Abstract (or basic) definition- a system is a collection of recognizable units having
relationships among the units.
• Structural (or static) definition- a system is a collection of recognizable units having
relationships among the units, aiming at specified single or multiple objectives subject
to its external environment.
• Transformational (or functional) definition - a system receives inputs from its
environment, transforms them to outputs, and releases the outputs to the
environment, whilst seeking to maximize the productivity of the transformation.
• Procedural (or dynamic) definition - he process of transformation in the input-output
system consists of a number of related stages, at each of which a specified operation
is carried out.
9. SYSTEMS DESIGN
is to construct a new, useful system (static structure and operating procedure)
under a specified evaluation criterion by the use of scientific disciplines and
empirical laws concerning systems.
10. CONTROL SYSTEM
The basic characteristic of systems design is ‘operationality’. Components to be
considered in this category are:
• controllable variables controlled as specified by the designer;
• uncontrollable parameters which cannot be controlled by the designer.
Systems with controllable variables are called control (or cybernetic) systems. By
properly (optimally) setting values for controllable variables, the objective of the
system is attained. In some cases this operationality is unlimited, whilst in others it
is limited or restricted.
11. SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION
• Proper setting of values for controllable variables in a system is made so as to attain
the highest measure of performance for the system’s objectives. This is based upon
the optimizing criterion , and under this criterion “systems optimization" is achieved.
It is important to express the basic structure of a system. This is specified by the four
attributes mentioned before and by the following two factors:
(1) goals of the system—attained by the function of the system made up of
components;
(2) constraints on the system—both internal and external restrictions caused by the
structure of the system itself and the relationship between the system and its external
environment.
12. MODEL BUILDING
What is a model ?
Goals and constraints can be described by models. A model is an abstract
representation of a real situation or behavior with a suitable language or
expression.
13. REPRESENTATIVE MODELS
Physical models- Scaled - down replicas, such as a small-sized wing in a wind tunnel or a small ship in a
water tank to which dimensional analysis can be applied, a mock-up of layout for a machine shop in plant
engineering.
Schematic (or graphical) models – Those describing an actual situation in the form of diagrams, These
expressions aid decision-making in that they are often useful in sequentially deriving the near-optimal
solution.
Mathematical (or analytical) models - using the highest level of abstraction, and are the most effective
method for performing systems optimization analysis.
Simulation models – It aids proper decision- and policy-making by efficiently and economically
determining the system’s structure and behavior, operating procedures, and decision rules to meet the
system’s objectives, which demonstrates virtual manufacturing operations on computer displays without
utilising any actual production facilities.
14. SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION
Types of System Optimization
System optimization is defined as "the determination of optimum values for
decision variables x such that the goal function (2.4) is maximized or minimized
subject to constraints (2.5) and (2.6) (constrained optimization"), but it is frequently
performed without any constraints (unconstrained optimization).
15. OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES
Typical optimization techniques are :
• Extremum method
• Mathematical programming
• Multiple-objective (or multicriterion)
• Network theory
• The maximum principle
• Functional analysis
16. DECISION-MAKING CRITERIA
• Basic Criteria for Decision-making - cases where neither optimizing nor satisficing
criteria are utilized owing to the complexity of the problems, the consistency
criterion or principle, consistency criterion (or principle) may be useful.
17. FEASIBILITY STUDY/HEURISTICS
Two procedures are taken for decision-making under the satisficing criterion
• Feasibility study - derives feasible solutions. Solutions a certain level of aspiration
that the decision-maker is willing to accept for each objective
• Heuristics or heuristic programming - a method to reduce efforts of trial and
error in the problem-solving process.
18. BASIC APPROACHES TO SYSTEMS DESIGN
Two design Methods
• Inductive design - analytical approach to derive a general solution for an actual
system by identifying and investigating the cases of the existing system’s reality
• Deductive design - axiomatic approach to deduce a feasible or an optimal
solution theoretically by first setting an ideal system based on universal
disciplines and principles.
19. WORK DESIGN
In this approach seven system elements— function, inputs, outputs, sequence,
environment, physical catalyst, and human agents.
In work design 10 steps are processed following basic rules/check lists:
(1) determining the function; (2) developing the ideal system;
(3) gathering information; (4) suggesting alternatives;
(5) selecting a workable system; (6) formulating the system;
(7) reviewing the system; (8) testing the system;
(9) installing the system; (10) measuring system
performance.
20. TWO BASIC APPROACHES TO LARGE-SCALE SYSTEM
DESIGN
(1) Modular method - arge-scale system is first divided into several subsystems, each having as
much independence as possible.
(2) Hierarchical method - subsystems with different functions are arranged vertically, such as a
three-level system consisting of the execution system P for conducting actual implementation of
the conversion process of inputs into outputs, the low-level management systems.
21. Total System Approach is define as advance approach in the design of
management information systems.
22. What is Decision-making?
Decision-making is the process of selecting one best plan from among several possible
alternatives.
Rational decision- making is structured under the following two premises such as factual and
value premise.
• factual premise— results which would be attained by implementing the possible means in
the circumstances are predicted;
• value premise— values (measures of performance through implementation of the
alternatives) are measured and ranking of the values can be made, either by ordinal numbers
or by quantitative figures.
23. TWO MODES OF DECISION-MAKING
(1) programmed decision-making— repetitively routine decisions for well-
structured problems;
(2) non-programmed decision-making—heuristically made decisions for ill-
structured issues.
24. TYPES OF DECISION-MAKING
• Decision under certainty
• Decision under risk
• Decision under uncertainty
• Decision under Conflict
• Optimum Decision-making Procedure
