2. Comprehensible Input: Key Concept of
Second Language Acquisition
(Krashen)
• An English Learner will better comprehend new
information when the input is one step above
his/her current competency level.
• This is the zone between actual and potential
language development.
• Similar to Vygotsky’s zone of proximal
development, but it applies only to second
language acquisition and how to make language
input understandable.
3. Comprehensible Input Cues
(Krashen)
Make language input understandable
by using:
I. Appropriate speech
II. Appropriate non-verbal cues to support
language use
III. Teaching techniques to clarify content
concepts
IV. Clear explanations of academic tasks
4. I. Use Appropriate Speech
• Modify your speech through the use of
guarded vocabulary (i.e., do not use
idioms, slang, improper English). (Reiss)
• Enunciate your words.
• Simplify sentence structure.
• Speak a little more slowly.
• Emphasize key information.
• Pause momentarily between key ideas.
5. II. Use Appropriate Non-Verbal Cues to
Support Language Use
• Instead of saying, “Open your science book to
page 64,” write the number on the board, then
pick up your science book and open it to page
64 while you say it.
• Use hands-on manipulatives when possible.
• Use appropriate body language, such as pointing
to the clock or book [never people though],
nodding, etc. (Herrera & Murry)
6. III. Use Teaching Strategies to Clarify
Content Concepts
a) Preteach Key Content Vocabulary
(Herrera & Murry)
Use graphic organizers [semantic webbing or
mapping] to visually illustrate associations. (Haynes &
Zacarian)
Use word sorts or list-group-label.
Select high-frequency words to add to word wall or
personal word list. (Fairbairn & Jones-Vo)
Associate words with concrete objects.
7. a) Preteach Key Content Vocabulary
Have students act out or role play words.
(Gonzalez, Yawkey & Minaya-Rowe)
Use visual cues to help students make
connections.
Incorporate & reiterate these words
throughout the lesson to aid in
comprehension & retention.
8. III. Use Teaching Strategies to
Clarify Content Concepts
b) Build & Activate Background Knowledge
Never assume your ELs do not have any prior
knowledge of the topic you are studying.
Brainstorm on the topic--individually, in pairs,
& as a class. (Nixon & Collins)
Create a KWL chart--what do I Know, what do
I Want to know, what have I Learned. (Vacca,
Vacca & Mraz)
Freewrite about the topic.
9. b) Build & Activate Background
Knowledge
Pose questions to students about prior
experiences with the topic.
Invite students to share their expertise on the
topic with the class.
Provide visual cues & examples to promote
meaningful connections between content &
students’ background knowledge.
Invite family &/or community members to
share information about the topic with the
class. (Reiss)
10. 3. Use Teaching Strategies to
Clarify Content Concepts
c) Active Learning / Critical Thinking
Strategies
Anticipation Guide – scaffolds learning before, during,
after reading
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity – divides reading
task into smaller sections; questions are asked along
the way instead of just at the end. (Vacca, Vacca & Mraz)
Think Alouds – teacher models to the students what
she/he is thinking while reading or working through a
problem. (Fairbairn & Jones-Vo)
11. c)Active Learning / Critical
Thinking Strategies
Discussion Web – focused on a binary
question, students read text, find
supporting yes/no information, compare
it, discuss it, in pairs, then small
groups of 4 (Gonzalez, Yawkey & Minaya-Rowe)
Reading guides (Haynes & Zacarian)
Study guides
12. c) Active Learning / Critical Thinking
Strategies
Vocabulary word sorts before & after
reading text
List-group-label vocabulary strategy
before reading text; add to the list
during & after reading
For younger students, use picture walks
Word walls (Fairbairn & Jones-Vo)
Story maps or Story chains
Picture prompts (Gonzalez, Yawkey & Minaya-Rowe)
13. • Model procedures.
• Stating something important once is not
enough—for any student. Clear explanations
need to be presented more than once, with
visual cues accompanying them.
• Post checklists in simple English, use pictures, &
consider making the checklists bilingual. (Reiss)
IV. Use Clear Explanations of
Academic Tasks
14. A Few More Ideas…by Sonia Nieto
• Recruit college students who speak the
languages of your students to help out…to
listen to your students’ stories, to read to
them, talk to them, to validate their
struggles of learning a new language and
studying in a new language. Your students
will appreciate and respect your efforts.
15. • Do not deny students their native
language or dialect—it is their culture, it is
their soul. Your positive attitude and
respect will carry over in many ways and
win their trust and respect—and their
parents’ trust and respect, too.
16. References
• Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in
promoting educational success for language minority students. In C.F.
Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical
framework (pp. 2-49). Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment
Center, CSULA.
• Cushner, K., McClelland, A., Safford, P., & Cushner, H. (2021). Human
diversity in education: An integrative approach. 10th ed. McGraw Hill.
• Fairbairn, S. & Jones-Vo, S. (2018). Differentiating instruction and
assessment for English language learners: A guide for K-12 teachers.
2nd ed. Caslon Publishing.
• Gollnick, D. M., & Chinn, P.C. (2016). Multicultural education in a pluralistic
society. 10th ed. Merrill.
• Gonzalez, V., Yawkey, T., & Minaya-Rowe, L. (2006). English-as-a-second-
language (ESL) teaching and learning: Pre-K-12 classroom
applications for students’ academic achievement and development.
Pearson.
17. References
• Haynes, J., & Zacarian, D. (2010). Teaching English Language Learners
across the content. Association for Supervision & Curriculum
Development.
• Herrera, S. G., & Murry, K.G. (2015). Mastering ESL/EFL methods:
Differentiated instruction for culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD)
students. 3rd ed. Pearson.
• Krashen, S. (1991). Bilingual education and second language acquisition
theory. In C.F. Leyba (Ed.), Schooling and language minority
students: A theoretical framework (pp. 51-79). Evaluation,
Dissemination and Assessment Center, CSULA.
• Nieto, S. & Bode, P. (2017). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of
multicultural education. 7th ed. Pearson.
• Nixon, S., & Collins, D. I. B. (2013). Lessons from ESOL teachers in Missouri
The Missouri Reader, 37(2), pp. 8-16.
18. References, con’t
• Reiss, J. (2010). 120 content strategies for English language l
earners: Teaching for academic success in secondary school.
2nd ed. Pearson.
• Vacca, R.T., Vacca, J.A.L., & Mraz, M. (2020). Content area reading:
Literacy & learning across the curriculum. 13th ed. Pearson.
• Zacarian, D. & Haynes, J. (2012). The essential guide for educating
beginning English Learners. Corwin Press.
