2. 6.2
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by
multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.
Note
3. 6.3
6-1 MULTIPLEXING6-1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking twoWhenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of thedevices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the setdevices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the simultaneousof techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single datatransmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases,link. As data and telecommunications use increases,
so does traffic.so does traffic.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Topics discussed in this section:Topics discussed in this section:
10. 6.10
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4
kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the
20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to
28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to
32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine
them as shown in Figure 6.6.
Example 6.1
12. 6.12
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.
Example 6.2
16. 6.18
The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two
bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving.
Each user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction.
How many people can use their cellular phones
simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control,
which means only 790 channels are available for cellular
phone users.
Example 6.4
25. 6.27
In synchronous TDM, the data rate
of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
Note
26. 6.28
In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is
3 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit),
what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output
slot, and (c) each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
Example 6.5
27. 6.29
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of
the input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the
duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The
duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an
input unit.
Example 6.5 (continued)
29. 6.31
Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with a data stream
for each input and one data stream for the output. The
unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)
the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 s.μ
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit
duration, or ¼ s.μ
Example 6.6
30. 6.32
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit
duration or 1/(4 s) or 4 Mbps. This can also beμ
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.
d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So
the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second.
Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can
verify the result of the previous question by
multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per
frame.
Example 6.6 (continued)
31. 6.33
Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit
is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing,
(b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a
time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).
b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection,
or 4 kbps.
Example 6.7
32. 6.34
c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the
duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 s. Note that we can also calculate this from theμ
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 s.μ
d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the
duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We
can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in
this case has four time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 4 times 250 s, or 1 ms.μ
Example 6.7 (continued)
46. 6.55
Statistical TDM
•Slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth
efficiency
•No. of slots in each frame is different from the i/p lines
•MUX checks i/p lines in round-robin fashion; allocates a
slot to an i/p line if it has data to send otherwise it skips
the line and checks the next line
•Addressing is necessary
47. 6.56
• In Synchronous TDM, o/p slot contains data only
• Synchronizing bit and preassigned relationship
between MUX and DEMUX serve as address
• In statistical multiplexing there are no fixed /
preassigned slots, no fixed relationship b/w i/p
and o/p
• Address of receiver need to be included
• Address: n bits to define N o/p lines ( n = log2N)
• Example: for 8 o/p lines, address would be of 3
bits
49. 6.58
SLOT SIZE:
•For efficient transmission, ratio of data size and
address size must be reasonable
•E.g. 1 bit per slot data with 3 bit address ⇨ inefficient
transmission
•Means an overhead of 300 %
•Usually, data is a block of many bytes and address
being of few bytes
•No synchronizing bit needed
50. 6.59
BANDWIDTH:
•Capacity of link is less than sum of capacity of each
channel
•Designers define capacity of link based on the
statistics of load for each channel
•During peak times, some slots might have to wait
51. 6.60
6-1 SPREAD SPECTRUM6-1 SPREAD SPECTRUM
In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals fromIn spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but ourdifferent sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our
goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. Togoals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To
achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques addachieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add
redundancy.redundancy.
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Synchronous (DSSS)
Topics discussed in this section:Topics discussed in this section:
Individual link/new channel or higher-bandwidth links carry multiple links
Optical fiber, terrestial and satellite microwave: high-bandwidth media
Bandwidth is one of the most precious resources in data communications
In a multiplexed system, n lines share a single link
Link is the physical path
Channel is the portion of link
MUX: many-to-one
DEMUX: one-to-many
When bandwidth of link (in Hz) is greater than combined bandwidths of signals to be transmitted
Signals modulate different carrier frequencies……………. Then combined into a single channel for transmission
Channels separated by unused strips of frequencies called guard bands to prevent over-lapping
Digital signals can be converted to analog to use FDM
Hierarchy: a system in which members of an organization or society are ranked according to relative status or authority.
To make efficient use of their infrastructure, telephone companies form hierarchies/ranks by multiplexing lower-bandwidth channels onto higher-bandwidth channels
Above is AT&T’s hierarchical system having groups, super groups, master groups and jumbo groups
Applications:
TV broadcasting (each TV channel has its bandwidth of 6 MHz)
Cellular telephony (1st generation of cellular telephones use FDM by assigning 2 voice channels to a user, 30 kHz each, one for transmitting, the other for receiving. The voice channel 3 kHz is FM to make it 30 kHz
- Very narrow bands of light combined to make a wider band
Utilizes high-data-rate capability of optical fiber
Mux and demux optical signals over optical fiber channels
Frequencies are very high
Though WDM technology is quite complex, basic idea is simple
Prism bends a beam of light depending on its angle of incidence and frequency
Like wise, mux combines several i/p beams of narrow band of frequencies into an output band of wider frequencies
Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams synchronously over optical fiber using lasers or highly coherent light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs).
Instead of sharing bandwidth among the connections, time is shared.
Each connection occupies a portion of time in link (sequentially)
Also for analog signals, to be converted into digital
Each i/p connection has an allotment in the o/p, no matter that i/p sends data or not.
Data flow of i/p……divided into units……occupying one time slot
Unit: a bit, a character, a block of data
Output unit……. Occupying one o/p time slot
- A frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots where each slot is dedicated to a sending device
Interleaving:
Can be visualised a two fast-rotating switches
One on multiplexing and the other on demultiplexing side
Synchronized; travel at same speed but opposite direction
As switch opens infront of a connection, it can send data onto the path
On demultiplexing side, as the switch opens infront of a connection, connection can receive data from path
Synchronous TDM is not efficient as it allows empty slots to travel if there is no data to send
Techniques used to correct disparity in input data rates (if inputs have different data rates) are:
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot allocation
Pulse stuffing
Multilevel multiplexing:
- Used when data rate of an i/p line is multiple of the others
Sometimes it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single data line…..for a data line having data rate which is a multiple of another i/p
Serial-to-parallel converter helps make two i/ps out of one
Sometimes the data rates are not integer multiples of each other so the previous two techniques are not possible to implement.
The highest data rate can be made dominant and extra dummy bits can be added to equal the data rates of all i/ps.
Also called, bit padding or bit stuffing
TDM, not as simple as FDM
Synchronization is very important b/w mux and demux, or the data i/p of one channel will be received by another channel
In order to avoid this error, synchronization bits (usually one bit each frame, alternating b/w 1 and 0) are added, which follow a particular pattern, frame to frame and allow the demux to separate time slots accurately
Telephone companies implement TDM through a hierarchy of digital signals called Digital Signal (DS) Service or digital hierarchy
The figure shows the data rate supported by each channel
DS-0 service is a single digital channel of 64kbps
DS-1 is a 1.544 Mbps service; 24 times 64 kbps plus 8 kbps of overhead (24 DS-0 channels)
DS-2 is a 6.312 Mbps service; 96 times 64 kbps plus 168 kbps of overhead (4 DS-1, 96 DS-0 channels)
DS-3 is a 44.376 Mbps service; 672 times 64 kbps plus 1.368 Mbps of overhead (7 DS-2, 28 DS-2, 672 DS-0 channels)
DS-4 is a 274.176 Mbps service; 4032 times 64 kbps plus 16.128 kbps of overhead (6 DS-3, 42 DS-2, 168 DS-1, 4032 DS-0 channels)
To utilize the digital services, telephone companies use T lines with capacities matched precisely with the data rates of DS-1 to DS-4 services
DS-0 is not used as service but is defined as a basis of reference purposes
Each frame contains 24 slots, each slot is of 8 bits (24 x 8 = 192 + 1 bit for synchronization = 193 bits/frame)
8000 frames x 193 bits = 1.544 Mbps; capacity of the line
E lines: A version of T lines used by Europeans, conceptually identical to T-lines but differ in capabilities
Round-robin (RR) is one of the algorithms employed by process and network schedulers in computing. As the term is generally used, time slices are assigned to each process in equal portions and in circular order, handling all processes without priority (also known as cyclic executive). Round-robin scheduling is simple, easy to implement, and starvation-free. Round-robin scheduling can also be applied to other scheduling problems, such as data packet scheduling in computer networks. It is an Operating System concept.
Redundancy: The inclusion of extra components which are not strictly necessary to functioning, in case of failure in other components. Example: "a high degree of redundancy is built into the machinery installation“.
Designed for wireless applications (LANs and WANs), where all stations use air as medium and are prone to eavesdropping and other malicious intrusion (e.g. in military applications)
Add redundancy by spreading the spectrum needed for each spectrum
Original bandwidth is B then expanded bandwidth is Bss such that Bss > B, which wraps the signal and securely transmits it.
After the signal is generated, spreading process applies a spreading code and expands the bandwidth to Bss
Spreading code looks random but is actually a pattern
Uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by source signal, one at a time, during the hopping period Th.
Pseudorandom: a process that appears to be random but is actually not
Pseudorandom generator/pseudorandom noise (PN) creates a k-bit pattern for every hoping period Th.
Frequency table uses the pattern to find the carrier frequency to be used for that period and sends it to frequency synthesizer
It produces the carrier frequency which is modulated by the source signal during that hoping period.
K = log2M
For eight hopping frequencies, pseudorandom generator would generate eight 3 bit patterns which are mapped to eight different frequencies in frequency synthesizer
The pattern repeats itself after eight hopping frequenices
With many k-bit patterns and shorter hopping period…. Privacy and antijamming can be achieved
If there are M hopping frequencies, M channels can be multiplexed using the same Bss bandwidth
A station uses one hoping frequency during one hoping period, other M – 1 stations can use other M – 1 frequencies
In FDM, each channel uses 1/M of bandwidth with fixed allocation
In FHSS, each channel uses 1/M bandwidth but allocation is not fixed
Each data bit is replaced by an n bit spreading code, called chips
Chip rate is n times the data rate
Example of a sequence used in LANs, Barker sequence having n = 11
Polar encoding technique
Rate of original signal is N, that of spread signal is 11N
Means the required bandwidth is 11 times the bandwidth of original signal
Privacy: if intruder doesn’t know the signal
Immunity against interference: if each station uses different code