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Master	Thesis	
	
Design	and	Development	of	a	
Knee	Simulator	Device	
	
A.A.	2015/2016	
	
Student:	Antonino	Romeo	
																		Alfredo	Villani	
	
Relators:	Cristina	Bignardi	
																				Alberto	Audenino	
	
Supervisor:	Bernardo	Innocenti
[Titolo	documento]	
[Sottotitolo	documento]	
Antonino	Romeo
Abstract	
	
The	knee	joint	is	one	of	the	most	complex	articulations	of	the	human	body.	Its	stability	is	the	
result	of	a	combined	effort	from	structures	such	as	bones,	cartilages	and	soft-tissues.	Due	to	
several	different	aspects,	the	knee	joint	could	be	affected	by	pathologies	that	bring	a	person	to	
feel	pain	and	not	behaving	with	standards	movements.	
One	 of	 the	 possible	 solutions	 when	 a	 degenerative	 condition	 of	 the	 knee	 occurs	 is	 the	
replacement	of	the	articulation	with	a	total	knee	arthoplasty	(TKA).	
In	order	to	cover	the	patients’	requests	and	their	different	anatomical	attitude,	several	knee	
replacement	 designs	 are,	 nowadays,	 available.	 Unfortunately,	 often	 there	 is	 lacking	
information	about	their	biomechanical	behaviours	once	after	implanted.		
For	this	reason,	the	biomechanical	literature	reports	certain	approaches	in	order	to	provide	
the	 improvement	 of	 the	 knowledge	 about	 the	 different	 solutions	 available	 on	 the	 market	
before	that	a	surgeon	needs	to	select	the	best	prosthesis	for	a	specific	patient.	
Among	 the	 different	 methods	 of	 analysis	 and	 in	 vivo-in	 vitro	 tests,	 there	 is	 a	 specific	 part	
focused	 on	 the	 use	 of	 robotic	 rigs	 on	 which	 experimental	 evaluations	 can	 be	 performed,	
replying	and	judging	the	most	common	movements	tasks.	Unluckily,	these	devices	are	usually	
quite	expensive,	heavy	or	disagreeable	to	transport	easily	from	one	place	to	another,	besides	
specific	for	only	one	brand	or	one	type	of	TKAs.	
For	 these	 principal	 reasons,	 the	 purpose	 of	 this	 project	 is	 the	 design	 of	 a	 low-cost	 knee	
simulator	 device,	 capable	 of	 simulating	 the	 main	 daily	 movements	 of	 the	 articulation.	 This	
robot,	in	addiction,	will	be	used	to	analyse	movements,	forces	and	torques	acting,	in	order	to	
observe	 and	 compare	 the	 different	 biomechanical	 behaviours	 of	 the	 TKAs	 under	 boundary	
conditions.	
In	the	interest	of	the	design	and	the	development	such	robotic	device,	several	steps	must	be	
necessary	to	be	established:	
	
1) Knee	kinematics	and	kinetics	study;	
2) CAD	design;	
3) Static	and	dynamic	study	of	the	model;	
4) Optimization	of	CAD	model;	
5) Study	of	materials	and	costs	of	device’s	parts;	
6) Optimization	of	the	device	and	research	on	market	of	motors	and	controllers;	
7) Device	construction;	
8) Final	analysis	and	data	collection;	
9) Device	testing.	
	
The	movements	of	interest	were:	walking,	stairs	motion	(climbing	and	descending	phases),	
chair	motion	(sit	down-stand	up),	squat	(deep	flexion-deep	extension).	
For	each	task,	this	knee	simulator	device	can	assure	the	six	degrees	of	freedom,	considering	
only	 the	 tibio-femoral	 articulation:	 flexion	 and	 extension	 rotations,	 antero-posterior	
translations,	 intra-extra	 rotations,	 abduction	 and	 adduction	 rotations,	 medio-lateral	
translations,	proximo-distal	translations.
In	order	to	replicate	the	requested	movements,	four	motors	were	considered	to	be	able	to	
control	 both	 forces	 and	 kinematics	 in	 different	 directions.	 Furthermore,	 the	 abduction-	
adduction,	medio-lateral	and	proximo-distal	motions	were	selected	to	let	free,	this	could	leave	
the	possibility	to	adapt	the	structure	at	the	different	prosthesis	that	will	be	tested.	
According	 with	 the	 scheduled	 steps	 and	 the	 aim	 of	 the	 project,	 several	 prototypes	 were	
developed,	evaluated	and	analysed	to	find	the	one	that	could	respect	the	key	points	of	this	
work.	 Thanks	 to	 considerable	 meetings	 with	 specialized	 staff	 and	 the	 suggestions	 of	
responsible	of	the	experimental	laboratory	of	biomechanics	(BEAMS),	only	the	last	one	among	
four	 prototypes	 was	 approved	 and	 really	 developed,	 making	 some	 preliminary	 tests	 for	
behaviours’	device	and	prosthesis.	
All	in	all,	the	project	has	been	completed	in	regarding	of	one	of	the	main	features	to	follow:	
the	 budget.	 After	 an	 evaluation	 of	 other	 similar	 device	 already	 existed	 in	 the	 market	 and	
according	with	the	economic	resource	of	BEAMS	biomechanics	department,	a	fixed	amount	of	
5.000	€	was	considered	and	divided	into	the	two	fundamental	tasks:	the	major	percentage	of	
the	budget	(around	the	70%)	was	directed	to	the	motors	and	electronic	items	purchase,	the	
remaining	 part	 (30%)	 was	 dedicates	 at	 the	 development	 of	 the	 structure	 and	 other	
mechanical	parts.	Considering	the	total	motors	cost	(2.500	€),	the	wiring	system	obtained	(50	
€)	 and	 the	 purchase	 of	 some	 controls	 to	 develops	 first	 experimental	 tests	 and	 control	
prototype	 (around	 200	 €),	 the	 percentage	 budget	 for	 this	 part	 was	 correctly	 planned.	
Furthermore,	the	labour	for	the	structure	and	the	purchase	of	several	mechanical	components	
was	evaluated	up	to	1100	€.	Thus	the	whole	budget	was	excellent	evaluated	and	divided,	with	
a	great	quantity	preserved.	
To	 conclude,	 the	 knee	 simulator	 device	 was	 controlled	 and	 tested.	 Thanks	 to	 the	
implementation	of	a	software	that	can	handle	the	motors	motions,	a	certain	amount	of	data	
was	collected	and	several	table	generated	to	drive	the	device	and	to	allow	the	simulation	of	
the	desired	four	daily	activities.	
Considering	 its	 characteristics	 and	 its	 skills,	 the	 knee	 simulator	 device	 could	 be	 easily	
implemented	to	compare	already	existing	TKAs	designs	or	eventually	to	develop	several	tests	
to	generate	new	TKA	features.
Prefazione	
	
L’articolazione	 del	 ginocchio	 è	 una	 delle	 più	 complesse	 presenti	 nel	 corpo	 umano.	 La	 sua	
stabilità	è	il	risultato	di	un	lavoro	congiunto	tra	ossa,	cartilagini	e	tessuti	molli.	A	causa	di	vari	
aspetti,	il	ginocchio	può	essere	colpito	da	alcune	patologie	che	causano	dolore	alla	persona	e	
impediscono	di	eseguire	i	movimenti	standard.	
Una	 delle	 possibili	 soluzioni	 quando	 si	 presentano	 queste	 condizioni	 degenerative	
sull’articolazione	consiste	nel	sostituire	la	sede	articolare	con	una	protesi	totale	di	ginocchio	
(PTG).	
Per	 soddisfare	 le	 varie	 richieste	 dei	 pazienti	 e	 per	 seguire	 il	 diverso	 comportamento	
anatomico	di	ognuno	di	essi,	oggigiorno,	esistono	differenti	tipologie	di	protesi	al	ginocchio.	
Sfortunatamente	 però,	 spesso	 vi	 è	 una	 mancanza	 di	 informazioni	 sui	 loro	 comportamenti	
biomeccanici	prima	di	essere	impiantanti.	
Per	questa	ragione,	alcuni	studi	scientifici	biomedicali	riportano	vari	approcci	con	il	fine	di	
migliorare	le	conoscenze	che	ci	sono	tra	le	diverse	soluzioni	disponibili	sul	mercato	prima	che	
il	 chirurgo	 debba	 selezionare	 quale	 sia	 la	 miglior	 protesi	 da	 impiantare	 in	 uno	 specifico	
paziente.	
Considerando	 i	 diversi	 metodi	 di	 analisi	 e	 i	 test	 in	 vitro	 e	 in	 vivo,	 vi	 è	 una	 parte	 specifica	
concentrata	 sull’uso	 di	 dispositivi	 robotici	 con	 cui	 possano	 essere	 svolte	 delle	 analisi	
sperimentali	 per	 riprodurre	 e	 giudicare	 la	 maggior	 parte	 dei	 principali	 movimenti	 del	
ginocchio.	Generalmente	questi	dispositivi	sono	relativamente	costosi,	pesanti	e	di	dimensioni	
che	rendono	difficile	il	trasporto	da	una	parte	a	un’altra.	Inoltre	questi	device	sono	spesso	
specifici	per	un	solo	tipo	di	protesi	oppure	appartenenti	ad	una	sola	azienda	biomedica.		
Per	questa	ragione	fondamentale,	l’obiettivo	di	questo	progetto	è	basato	sulla	prototipazione	
e	 sviluppo	 di	 un	 dispositivo	 robotico	 a	 basso	 costo	 per	 la	 simulazione	 della	 cinetica	 e	
cinematica	 del	 ginocchio,	 capace	 di	 riprodurre	 i	 principali	 movimenti	 quotidiani	 di	
quest’articolazione.	Questo	robot,	inoltre,	sarà	utilizzato	per	un’analisi	dei	movimenti,	forze	e	
momenti	che	agiscono	sul	ginocchio,	in	modo	tale	da	poter	osservare	e	comparare	i	diversi	
comportamenti	biomeccanici	delle	varie	protesi	di	ginocchio,	secondo	determinate	condizioni	
al	contorno.	
Per	 progettare	 e	 sviluppare	 un	 tale	 dispositivo	 robotico,	 è	 stato	 necessario	 seguire	 alcuni	
passi:		
	
1) Studio	della	cinematica	e	cinetica	del	ginocchio;	
2) Progettazione	CAD;	
3) Studio	statico	e	dinamico	del	modello	CAD;	
4) Ottimizzazione	del	modello	CAD;	
5) Studio	dei	materiali	e	costo	delle	parti	del	dispositivo;	
6) Ottimizzazione	del	dispositivo	e	ricerca	in	commercio	dei	motori	e	controllori;	
7) Costruzione	del	robot;	
8) Analisi	finale	e	raccolta	dati;	
9) Studio	finale	del	dispositivo.
L’interesse	si	è	concentrato	su	quattro	movimenti:	cammino,	salire-scendere	le	scale,	alzarsi	
dalla	sedia	e	sedersi,	squat	(discesa	e	salita).	
Per	 ognuno	 di	 questi,	 il	 simulatore	 robotico	 deve	 assicurare	 i	 sei	 gradi	 di	 libertà	 propri	
dell’articolazione,	 considerando	 esclusivamente	 la	 tibio-femorale:	 flesso-estensione,	
traslazione	 antero-posteriore,	 intra-extra	 rotazione,	 traslazione	 medio-laterale,	 abduzione-
adduzione,	traslazione	prossimo-distale.	
Per	 poter	 replicare	 i	 movimenti	 e	 le	 forze	 richieste,	 quattro	 motori	 sono	 stati	 scelti	 per	
controllare	sia	le	forze	che	la	cinematica	nelle	differenti	direzioni.	Nonostante	ciò,	i	movimenti	
di	abduzione-adduzione,	la	traslazione	medio-laterale	e		la	prossimo-distale	sono	stati	scelti	
come	liberi,	ovvero	è	stata	lasciata	la	possibilità	di	adattare	la	struttura	alle	diverse	tipologie	
di	protesi	che	verranno	testate.	
Seguendo	i	vari	passi	organizzativi	del	progetto	e	in	base	allo	scopo	finale	da	raggiungere,	
sono	stati	sviluppati,	valutati	e	analizzati	differenti	prototipi,	per	riuscire	ad	arrivare	ad	uno	
definitivo	 che	 potesse	 rispettare	 i	 punti	 chiave	 prefissati.	 Grazie	 a	 numerosi	 incontri	 e	
presentazioni	 del	 progetto	 al	 personale	 specializzato	 e	 in	 seguito	 a	 suggerimenti	 del	
responsabile	 del	 laboratorio	 sperimentale	 di	 biomeccanica	 (BEAMS),	 solamente	 l’ultimo	
prototipo	 è	 risultato	 essere	 adatto	 e	 quindi	 approvato	 per	 la	 reale	 produzione	 del	 robot,	
svolgendo	qualche	test	iniziale	per	il	comportamento	degli	impianti	protesici.		
Nel	 suo	 complesso,	 il	 progetto	 è	 stato	 completato	 considerando	 il	 budget	 come	 una	 delle	
principali	caratteristiche	da	seguire.	In	seguito	ad	una	valutazione	di	altri	dispositivi	simili	già	
esistenti	in	commercio	e	in	base	alle	risorse	economiche	del	dipartimento,	una	cifra	di	cinque	
mila	euro	è	stata	prefissata	per	il	budget	e	divisa	in	due	parti	fondamentali:	la	percentuale	
maggiore	(circa	il	70%)	è	stata	dedicata	all’acquisto	dei	motori	e	di	alcuni	elementi	elettronici	
mentre	 la	 parte	 rimanente	 (ovvero	 il	 30%)	 è	 stata	 indirizzata	 alla	 manodopera	 volta	 alla	
costruzione	del	dispositivo	e	di	altre	parti	meccaniche.	Considerando	il	costo	totale	dei	motori	
(2.500	€),	il	sistema	di	cablaggio	(50€)	e	l’acquisto	di	controllori	per	lo	sviluppo	dei	primi	test	
sperimentali,	 il	 budget	 fissato	 per	 questa	 parte	 è	 stato	 dunque	 correttamente	 pianificato.	
Inoltre,	la	manodopera	per	l’ottenimento	della	struttura	unita	alla	spesa	dei	materiali	e	altri	
componenti	 è	 stata	 valutata	 intorno	 a	 1.100	 €.	 Di	 conseguenza,	 il	 budget	 è	 stato	
efficientemente	 sfruttato	 e	 la	 spesa	 complessiva	 è	 risultata	 essere	 minore,	 lasciando	 una	
buona	quantità	inutilizzata.	
In	 conclusione,	 un	 dispositivo	 robotico	 per	 la	 simulazione	 dei	 movimenti	 del	 ginocchio	
ècontrollato	e	testato.	Grazie	all’implementazione	di	un	software	in	grado	di	poter	controllare	
il	movimento	dei	vari	motori,	una	certa	quantità	di	dati	sono	stati	raccolti	e	organizzati	in	
diverse	tabelle	per	pilotare	il	dispositivo	e	permettere	al	simulazione	delle	Quattro	attività	
giornaliere	desiderate.	
In	base	alle	sue	caratteristiche	e	proprietà,	questo	dispositivo	può	facilmente	essere	utilizzato	
nello	studio	comparativo	di	PTG	già	esistenti	o	eventualmente	nello	sviluppo	di	differenti	test	
per	ricavare	nuove	soluzioni.
Table	of	contents	
	
1) Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..1	
	
2) State	of	the	art:	Knee	simulator	robots……………………………………………….5	
	
3) Aim	of	the	project………………………………………………………………………………..9	
3.1)	Design	specifications………………………………………………………………………9	
3.2)	Schedule	of	the	activity…………………………………………………………………11	
	 	
4) Knee	Joint:	Kinematics	and	Kinetics…...…………………………………………….14	
4.1)	Walking………………………………………………………………………………………..18	
4.2)	Chair	motion………………………………………………………………………………...20	
												4.3)	Stairs	motion………………………………………………………………………………..22	
												4.4)	Squat…………………………………………………………………………………………...23	
	
5) First	prototype…………………………………………………………………………………..25	
												5.1)	Design	&	Development…………………………………………………………………25	
												5.2)	Prototype	overview……………………………………………………………………...26	
												5.3)	Critical	discussion………………………………………………………………………...28	
	
6) Second	prototype………………………………………………………………………………29	
												6.1)	Design	&	Development…………………………………………………………………29	
												6.2)	Prototype	overview……………………………………………………………………...30	
												6.3)	Static	analysis………………………………………………………………………………32	
												6.4)	Dynamic	analysis………………………………………………………………………….38	
												6.5)	Critical	discussion………………………………………………………………………...42	
	
7) Third	prototype…………………………………………………………………………...……43	
7.1)	Design	&	Development………………………………………………………………….43	
												7.2)	Prototype	overview……………………………………………………………………...44	
												7.3)	Static	and	dynamic	analysis…………………………………………………………..45	
												7.4)	Critical	discussion………………………………………………………………………...46
8) Motors	……………………………………………………………………..………….….………	47	
8.1)	Technical	features	and	specifics	…………………………………….……..……	47	
8.2)	Research	on	market	…………………………………………………………………..	53	
8.3)	Final	choice	………………………………………………………………………………	54	
	
9) Definitive	prototype	……………………………………………………………..……….	57	
9.1)	Design	&	Development	…………………………………………………..…………..57	
9.2)	Prototype	overview	……………………………………………………………..……	59	
9.3)	Critical	discussion	……………………………………………………………………..	62	
	
						10)	Motor	Control	…….……………………………………………………………...…………	63		
10.1)	Evaluation	of	control	system	…………………………………………...…..		63		
10.2)	First	phase	of	the	control	……………………………………………………..	66	
10.3)	Final	phase	of	the	control	………………………………………………….....	70	
	
							11)	Tests	…………………………………………………………………………………………......	80	
	
							12)	Results	and	Discussion	……………………………………………….………………..	81		
	
							13)	Conclusion	and	future	improvements	…………………..…………………......	83
1	
1. Introduction	
	
The	knee	is	one	of	the	most	complex	articulations	of	the	body	and	has	to	support	loads	up	to	four	
times	the	body	weight.	Consequently,	this	kind	of	solicitations	can	become	the	cause	of	wear	
debris	and	degenerative	disease	that	is	characterized	by	damage	to	the	cartilage	in	synovial	joint	
and	change	in	the	subchondral	bone.	After	physical	therapy,	medication	and	other	treatments,	
joint	arthroplasty	often	remains	the	last	resort	to	restore	mobility	and	give	pain	relief	to	the	
patient.	For	this	reason,	one	of	the	motivation	because	many	people	have	to	undergo	a	surgical	
intervention,	replacing	their	unhealthy	knee	with	a	total	knee	replacement	(TKR).[1]	
Generally,	the	total	knee	prosthesis	might	be	decomposed	into	four	elements.	Up	to	three	bone	
surfaces	may	be	replaced:	
	
Ø The	lower	ends	of	the	femur.	The	metal	femoral	component	(in	titanium	alloy	
or	CoCr)	curves	around	the	end	of	the	femur.	It	is	grooved	so	the	kneecap	can	
move	up	and	down	smoothly	against	the	bone	as	the	knee	bends	and	
straightens.	
	
Ø The	top	surface	of	the	tibia.	The	tibial	component	is	typically	a	flat	metal	
platform	(titanium	alloy	or	CoCr	too)	with	a	cushion	of	strong,	durable	insert,	
in	Polyethylene	or	UMWPE	(Ultra	Molecular	Weight	PolyEthylene).		
	
Ø The	back	surface	of	patella.	The	patellar	component	is	a	dome-shaped	piece	of	
Polyethylene	that	duplicates	the	back	shape	of	the	patella	(kneecap)	to	allow	
the	smoothly	movement	on	the	femoral	prosthesis	component.[2]	
	
	 Fig.	1:	Front	view	of	knee	joint	with	TKA
2	
	
	
Although	this	surgical	procedure	may	be	seen	as	a	gold	standard	or	already	and	generic	for	all	
interested	patients,	young	people	and	elderly,	it	presents	different	approaches	to	be	developing,	
more	complex	or	less,	that	depends	especially	on	the	prosthesis	types.	Total	knee	replacement	
implants	are	not	one-size-fits-all	or	even	one-style-fits-all.	Prosthetic	implants	vary	greatly	by	
design,	fixation	and	materials.	
Besides,	surgeon,	based	upon	physical	situation,	age	and	lifestyle,	will	ultimately	make	the	choice	
of	implant.	
	
Generally,	total	knee	arthroplasty	can	be	divided	into	the	following	groups:[3][4]		
	
• Preservation	of	the	Posterior	Cruciate	Ligament	(Cruciate-Retaining,	CR):		
If	the	ligament	can	support	an	artificial	knee,	the	surgeon	may	leave	the	posterior	cruciate	
ligament	in	place	when	implanting	the	prosthesis.	The	artificial	joint	used	is	“cruciate-
retaining”	and	generally	has	a	groove	in	it	that	accommodates	and	protects	the	ligament,	
allowing	it	to	continue	providing	knee	stability.	Preserving	the	cruciate	ligament	is	
thought	to	allow	for	more	natural	flexion.	
	
• Removal	of	the	Posterior	Cruciate	Ligament	(Posterior-Stabilized,	PS):		
If	this	ligament	cannot	support	an	artificial	knee,	the	surgeon	will	remove	it	during	the	
total	knee	replacement	procedure.	In	its	place,	special	implant	components	(a	cam	and	
post)	are	used	to	stabilize	the	knee	and	provide	flexion.	This	“cam	and	post”	interaction	
mimics	the	normal	function	of	the	PCL	by	limiting	the	forward	roll	of	the	femur	over	the	
tibia	and	supporting	backward	movement	of	the	femur.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	2:	On	the	left	the	CR	prosthesis;	on	the	right	PS	prosthesis
3	
• Fixed	Bearing:		
The	most	common	knee	replacement	implant	is	referred	to	as	a	fixed-bearing	implant.	It	
is	referred	to	as	“fixed”	because	the	polyethylene	cushion	of	the	tibial	component	is	fixed	
firmly	to	the	metal	platform	base.	The	femoral	component	then	rolls	over	this	cushion.	
The	fixed-bearing	prostheses	provide	a	good	range	of	motion	and	just	as	long	lasting	as	
other	implants	for	most	patients.	In	some	cases,	excessive	activity	and/or	extra	weight	
can	cause	a	fixed-bearing	prosthesis	to	wear	down	more	quickly.	
	
• Mobile	Bearing:		
The	difference	between	a	fixed-bearing	implant	and	a	mobile	bearing	implant	is	in	the	
bearing	surface.	They	allow	to	the	patients	a	few	degrees	of	greater	rotation	to	the	medial	
and	lateral	sides	of	their	knee.	Because	of	this	mobility,	mobile-bearing	knee	implants	
require	more	support	from	the	ligaments	surrounding	the	knee.	If	the	soft	tissues	are	not	
strong	enough,	though,	the	knee	is	more	likely	to	dislocate.	Mobile-bearing	implants	may	
also	cost	a	bit	more	than	fixed-bearing	implants.	They	are	more	recommended	for	young	
and	active	people	and	designed	for	potentially	longer	performance	with	less	wear.	
	
• Fig.	3:	Prosthesis	with	fixed	and	mobile	bearing		
• Hinged	and	rotating	TKA:		
This	kind	of	prosthesis	is	the	most	constrained	due	to	the	hinge	component	that	link	the	
femur	component	with	the	two	tibial	components.	It	is	mostly	use	in	case	of	severe	
instability	of	soft	tissues,	in	case	of	infections	or	in	case	of	second	surgical	operation	after	
removal	of	previous	TKA.	In	a	rotating	platform,	the	polyethylene	insert	can	rotate	
slightly	around	a	conical	post,	thereby	copying	the	activity	of	the	natural	knee	joint.[5]	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.4:	Hinged	and	rotating	TKA
4	
	
	
Furthermore,	other	features	of	the	TKA	consist	in	the	possibility	to	have	a	femoral	
component	with	symmetric/asymmetric	condyles[6],	to	perform	the	contact	into	the	patella-
femoral	joint,	or	with	a	shape	named	“j-curved”	or”	single-radius”,	to	allow	a	more	anatomical	
approach	or	reduce	the	effort	from	quadriceps.	It	may	be	fixed	with	bone	cement	or	could	be	
a	cementless	fixation	design.[7]	
	
Due	to	this	variety	of	models	and	characteristics,	an	in	vitro	study	seems	not	be	an	
appropriate	solution	to	understand	the	difference	among	these	groups	and	to	identify	the	
essential	features	that	a	surgeon	needs	to	select	the	best	prosthesis	for	a	specific	patient.	
Along	these	lines,	the	following	dissertation	focalised	its	aim	on	this,	trying	to	simulate	
several	daily	activities	movements	to	test	the	prosthesis	and	observe	their	behaviour	during	
the	knee	joint	is	acting.	
This	study	may	be	useful	either	to	the	surgeon,	to	perform	the	right	choice	before	the	
surgery,	either	to	the	patient,	to	receive	a	prosthesis	that	could	guarantee	a	good	lifestyle	and	
respect	the	characteristics	of	own	natural	articulation	replaced.
5	
Fig.6:	AMTI	ADL	Knee	Simulator	
2.	State	of	the	art:	Knee	simulator	robots	
	
Starting	with	the	aim	of	developing	the	design	of	a	knee	simulation	device	capable	to	replicate	
some	daily	movements	and	to	have	several	information	about	the	head	level	of	general	
development	reached	until	now	for	this	class	of	robots,	it	was	done	a	research	on	Internet	and	on	
the	scientific	literature,	looking	for	the	main	devices	used	to	simulate	and	study	the	knee	joint	
movements.	
At	the	end,	the	attention	was	focused	on	five	devices	described	below.	
	
1) Kansas	Knee	Simulator	
The	device	was	designed	at	University	of	Kansas,	Department	of	Mechanical	
Engineering.	It	is	a	servo-hydraulic	dynamic	testing	device	that	can	apply	realistic	
loads	to	a	knee.	The	simulator	has	5	axes	of	control,	including	a	hydraulic	actuator,	
which	acts	like	a	quadriceps	muscle.	A	vertical	load	is	
applied	at	the	hip	to	simulate	the	body	weight	of	the	
subject.	The	hip	is	free	to	flex,	extend	and	translate	
vertically.	Vertical	rotation,	mediolateral	translation,	
and	ankle	flexion	loads	can	be	applied	at	the	base	of	
the	tibia.	Additionally,	the	tibia	is	free	to	rotate	in	
varus-vagus.	By	applying	these	loads	at	the	hip,	ankle,	
and	quadriceps	tendon,	the	simulator	can	perform	
many	dynamic	activities,	including	walking,	stair	
climbing,	and	cutting	manoeuver	profiles.	Typically,	
the	flexion-extension	position	of	the	knee	is	controlled	
by	the	quadriceps	actuator	while	the	remaining	axis	
are	left	in	load	control.	This	most	closely	resembles	
how	the	human	body	works	during	normal	activities.	
The	KKS	can	be	used	to	evaluate	the	performance	of	total	
knee	replacement	components.	The	components	are	
cemented	to	aluminium	fixtures	and	mounted	into	the	simulator.	Furthermore,	it	
could	be	used	with	real	knee	joint	of	cadaver	specimens	or,	instead,	with	steel	
components.	
	
		
2) AMTI	ADL	Knee	Simulator	
This	device	has	been	engineered	to	meet	the	
specialized	demands	of	biomechanical	
application	and	wear	testing	or	for	evaluating	
the	design	and	materials	of	knee	implants.	It	
is	built	to	replicate	the	motions	associated	
with	activities	of	daily	living,	such	as	running,	
deep	knee	bends,	and	even	swinging	a	golf	
Fig.5:	Kansas	Knee	Simulator
6	
club.	Up	to	twelve	different	physiological	motions	can	be	sequenced	to	define	a	
particular	lifestyle.	Also,	it	is	used	to	evaluate	the	design	
and	materials	of	most	of	the	world's	knee	implants.	Its	six	
test	stations	are	capable	of	force	control	or	displacement	
control	for	accurate	simulation	of	activities	of	daily	living.	
AMTI	joint	simulators	are	designed	to	replicate	the	
physiological	environment	of	the	joint	in	addition	to	its	
motions.	Each	simulator	station	is	oriented	in	the	
physiologically	correct	position.		
Knee	implant	wear	testing	and	life	testing	can	be	
performed	to	ISO	and	ASTM	standards,	as	well	as	user-
defined	activity	simulations	and	sequences.	
	
	
3) Knee	Musculoskeletal	Simulator,	Cleveland	Clinic	BioRobotics	Lab	
This	robotic	device	was	design	and	built	by	the	Cleveland	Clinic,	a	centre	of	
biomechanical	testing	of	biological	structures	and	biomaterials.	It	can	generate	6-
degree	of	freedom	testing	allowing	
researchers	to	simulate	loading	conditions	
on	a	cadaveric	joint	by	using	actuators	to	
simulate	muscle	forces	while	
simultaneously	applying	external	loads	to	
the	joint.	Thanks	to	five	tendons	actuators,	
it	could	replicate	a	muscular	force	up	to	
4000N.	The	flexion/extension	of	the	joint	
is	allowed	by	an	engine	that	turn	a	
metallic	arc,	directly	linked	to	femoral	
component.	In	opposite,	tibia	component	
is	locked	in	its	place.	Applications	of	this	type	of	testing	are	numerous	and	can	be	
used	to	provide	insights	into	orthopaedics,	joint	kinematics,	surgical	techniques,	
disease	pathologies,	and	many	other	areas.	
	
	
4) EndoLab	GmbH,	Thansau,	Germany	
This	device	is	based	on	four	independent	servo	
hydraulic	controllers	to	enable	precise	and	
reproducible	test	conditions	all	over	the	test	period.	
All	major	functions	of	the	simulator	can	be	reached	
using	a	control	panel	directly	at	the	machine	frame	
with	full	digital	control	equipment.	Machine	set-up	
is	easy	to	perform	using	that	panel.	Up	to	16	
independent	blocks	can	be	used,	defined	and	stored	
to	the	controller	using	their	own	software.			
Besides,	the	force	and	flexion	functions	given,	the	
Fig.7:	Global	view	of	AMTI	ADL	
Knee	Simulator	
				Fig.8:	Cleveland	Clinic	Biorobotics	Lab	Knee	Simulator	
Fig.9:	EndoLab	GmbH
7	
anterior-posterior	translation	as	well	as	the	rotation	of	the	components	can	be	
visualized	in	real	time.	The	device	can	simulate	not	only	daily	movements	of	the	knee	
joint	or	wear	essay	but	also	it	develops	several	tests	like	dislocation	of	a	prosthesis	
part,	fatigue	test	under	high	flexion,	contact	pressure	test	and	others.	
	
	
5) Knee	Gait	Simulator	for	Experimental	Test	
This	is	a	previous	project	for	the	Master	thesis	of	Félix	
De	Tavernier	at	ULB	University.	The	device	was	
designed	to	develop	a	low-cost	gait	simulator	in	order	
to	test	wear	debris	in	total	knee	prosthesis.	It	is	
composed	by	two	similar	motors,	which	allow	the	
flexion/extension	motion	on	the	upper	part	(femoral	
component)	and	the	axial	force	from	the	lower	part	
(tibial	component)	to	the	other	one.	Each	rotation	of	
femoral	part	is	followed	with	a	good	precision	(error	
≈3%),	but	the	axial	load	and	torques	are	not	regulated	
with	realistic	parameters.	Furthermore,	the	only	
movement	replicated	is	the	gait,	according	to	the	
international	standards	(ISO14243).	
	
	
	
	
Table	1:	Main	information	of	devices	showed	in	the	state	of	art.
	
	
Fig.10:	Knee	Gait	Simulator
8	
	
	
The	research	has	permitted	to	compare	different	approach	to	obtain	a	knee	simulator	device	but,	
in	the	other	hand,	it	has	showed	the	difficulty	to	find	some	low-cost	machine	that	can	reproduce	
several	movements,	also	because	each	device	analysed	is	made	for	industrial	use	(too	big,	too	
expensive)	or	made	as	university	prototype	(only	university	use).	
This	point	is	very	important	because	it	indicate	the	aim	of	our	project:	to	study,	design	and	
develop	a	low-cost	Knee	Simulation	Device	capable	of	reproduce	the	main	daily	knee	motions.
9	
3.	Aim	of	the	Project	
	
Due	to	the	vary	prosthesis	on	the	market,	due	to	their	models	and	characteristics,	the	
following	activity	focalised	its	aim	on	the	possibility	to	design	and	develop	a	device	capable	to	
simulate	several	basic	movements	in	order	to	test	these	various	genders	and	observe	their	
behaviour	during	the	motions	are	acting.	
	
	
3.1	Design	specifications	
	
Considering	the	aims	that	the	device	must	be	able	to	develop	and	after	the	evaluation	of	the	
several	robots	found	in	the	previous	research,	the	Knee	Simulator	Device	was	designed	and	
built	considering	either	structural	features	either	mechanical	features.	
	
Ø Structural	Specifications:		
The	main	feature	of	the	device	is	its	flexibility,	to	be	precise	the	possibility	to	
use	it	with	all	kind	of	prosthesis,	a	very	important	advantage	for	our	device.	In	
the	same	time	the	simulator	must	allow	a	quick	access	to	the	prosthesis	using	
interchangeable	supports.	The	presence	of	the	femoral	support	and	the	
container	for	fixing	the	tibial	tray	guarantees	this	aspect.	
The	last	important	feature	for	the	device	is	to	have	a	good	view	of	the	
movements	to	allow	a	great	study	about	the	behaviour	of	the	prosthesis.		
	
Ø Mechanical	Specifications:	
To	simulate	in	the	best	way	the	movements	of	the	natural	knee	it	is	necessary	
have:		
	
• Flexion/extension;	
• Axial	loads;	
• Antero-posterior	shear	loads;	
• Intra-external	rotations;	
• Abduction/adduction;		
• Proximal-distal	translations;		
• Medial-lateral	translations.		
	
The	flexion/extension	is	applied	on	the	femoral	part	that	can	rotate	from	0°	to	
120°,	the	axial	loads	are	developed	from	tibial	part	to	femoral	part	and	the	same	
is	for	the	antero-posterior	shear	loads	and	intra-extra	rotations.	The	medio-
lateral	and	the	proximo-distal	translations	and	the	abduction/adduction	are	
free	(they	can	adapt	themselves	for	any	different	prosthesis)	and	they	are	linked	
to	the	femoral	part.
10	
Another	important	specification	it	was	the	budget.	The	aim	of	the	project	was	the	design	and	
the	construction	of	a	low-cost	Knee	Simulator.	Considering	the	financial	resources	of	the	
BEAMS	Department	of	ULB	and	after	a	first	evaluation	on	the	general	cost	of	the	device,	5.000	
€	was	considered	as	the	amount	fixed	and	available	to	achieve	the	final	objective.	This	
quantity	was,	thus,	divided	into	two	fundamental	tasks:	the	major	budget	percentage	(around	
the	70%)	was	directed	to	the	motors	and	electronic	items	purchase,	the	remaining	part	(30%)	
was	dedicates	at	the	development	of	the	structure	and	for	other	mechanical	improvements.
11	
	
3.2	Schedule	of	the	activity	
	
To	optimize	in	the	best	way	the	time	available	during	the	mouths	of	planning,	to	design	and	
build	the	device,	the	job	advancement	was	divided	in	nine	sub-activities:	
	
1) Preliminary	study:	
To	study	kinematics	and	kinetics	of	the	knee,	a	certain	amount	of	data	and	
information	were	collected	from	scientific	papers	and	web-sites.	With	the	data	
that	were	taken,	it	was	possible	to	understand	the	range	of	values	of	the	forces	
acting	on	the	knee	joint.	Consequently,	due	to	graphs	found,	the	study	allowed	
to	find	trends	related	to	the	forces	and	torques	during	the	movements	cycle.			
Furthermore	to	have	several	information	about	the	head	level	of	general	
development	reached	until	now	for	this	class	of	robots,	it	was	done	a	research	
on	Internet	and	on	the	some	scientific	literature	looking	for	the	main	devices	
used	to	simulate	and	study	the	knee	joint	movements.	
	
2) CAD	design:	
Starting	with	the	knowledge	acquired	from	the	data	and	the	state	of	art,	the	first	
models	of	the	device	were	developed	and	evaluated.				
	
3) Static	and	dynamic	study	of	the	model:	
In	particular,	the	goal	of	the	static	analysis	was	to	analyse	the	effect	of	forces	
and	torques	on	the	upper	structure	(femur	parts)	and	to	define	the	dimensions	
of	each	part	of	it.		
Furthermore,	a	dynamic	study	was	developed	to	understand	the	features	that	
the	motors	must	have	to	allow	a	great	simulation	of	the	movements.		
	
4) Optimization	of	CAD	model:	
Thanks	to	some	meeting	with	technicians	and	engineers	it	was	possible	to	
improve	the	performance	and	the	mechanical	aspects	of	the	device.	
		
5) Study	of	materials	and	costs	of	device’s	parts:	
To	design	the	simulator,	it	was	done	a	study	to	understand	what	kind	of	
materials	could	be	used	to	build	the	different	parts	of	the	structure.	In	this	
phase	the	static	and	dynamic	study	of	the	structure	was	very	important	for	the	
choice.	To	reduce	the	costs	and	the	manufactory	time,	it	was	considered	also	
what	materials	and	tools	were	present	in	the	department.
12	
6) Optimization	of	the	device	and	research	on	market	of	motors	and	controllers:	
Basing	on	the	budget	and	the	time	available,	the	first	part	of	the	research	was	
focused	on	the	products	from	e-commerce	website	(from	Chinese	market).	It	
was	impossible	to	find	good	and	complete	information	and	references,	thus,	
thanks	also	to	increase	of	maximal	budget,	it	was	decided	to	move	the	research	
on	the	European	and	American	market.	Many	factories	were	searched	on	
internet	and	contacted	to	find	the	best	solution	in	terms	of	good	quality	and	
respecting	the	limits	of	the	budget.	After	the	research	on	market	for	the	motors	
it	was	started	a	research	to	find	the	best	way	to	control	them.	In	the	same	
period	an	optimization	of	the	device	was	made	to	adapt	in	the	best	way	the	
motors	to	simulator.	
	
7) Device	construction:	
Thank	to	the	technician	of	the	department	it	was	possible	to	build	the	different	
parts	of	the	device.	When	all	parts	were	available	the	construction	of	device	was	
started	and	completed,	verifying	that	all	parts	of	the	structure	worked	to	allow	
the	best	simulation	of	the	movements.		
	
8) Final	analysis	and	data	collection:		
Each	part	of	the	device	was	tested	separately	to	judge	if	the	mechanical	design,	
the	development	and	the	control	of	the	knee	simulator	were	made	correctly.	
Several	preliminary	tests	were	done	developing	simple	movements	and	
collecting	information	and	data.		
	
9) Device	testing:	
The	knee	simulator	device	was	tested	synchronizing	the	four	motors	and	
generating	all	the	movements	requested:	walking,	chair	motion,	stairs	motion	
and	squat.
13	
	Flow	chart	of	the	activity
14	
4.	Knee	Joint:	Kinematics	and	Kinetics	
	
	
The	knee	joint	is	the	largest	synovial	joint	of	the	body	and	is	made	of	three	bones.	On	the	top	
there	is	the	thigh	bone	(femur),	below	it	the	shin	bone	(tibia)	and	a	calf	bone	(fibula),	in	the	
front	there	is	the	knee	cap	(patella).	[8]	
This	joint	is	one	of	the	most	important	of	our	body.	It	is	positioned	between	the	two	longest	
lever	arms	of	the	skeleton	(hip	and	ankle).	
The	knee	could	be	considered	comprised	of	three	different	joints:	[7]	
	
Ø Medial	tibio-femoral	joint;	
Ø Lateral	tibio-femoral	joint;	
Ø Patello-femoral	joint.	
	
	
	
The	part	of	the	femur	that	forms	the	knee	joint	is	expanded	side	ways	and	behind	to	form	two	
oval	structures	called	condyles.	Similarly,	the	part	of	the	tibia	forming	the	knee	is	expanded	
and	forms	two	condyles	that	articulate	with	the	corresponding	femur	condyles.	The	one	on	
the	outer	side	is	called	the	lateral	condyle	and	the	one	on	the	inner	side	is	called	the	medial	
condyle.	On	the	front	the	patella	articulates	with	the	femur.	
These	interactions	with	the	tibia	and	the	patella	form	the	tibio-femoral	articulation	and	the	
patello-femoral	articulation.	[9]	
Fig.	11:	Anatomy	of	Knee	Joint
15	
	
The	bone	ends	are	covered	with	cartilage	(tough,	smooth	and	resilient	structure).	Function	of	
the	cartilage	is	to	provide	a	smooth	surface,	for	the	bones	to	move	easily	over	one	another.	It	
also	acts	as	a	shock	absorber.	
Another	important	feature	is	the	presence	of	four	soft	tissues	in	the	knee:	[10][11]	
	
1)	Ligaments.	For	the	tibio-femoral	joint,	the	most	important	are	the	collateral	(medial	
collateral	ligaments	(MCL),	lateral	collateral	ligaments	(LCL))	and	the	
cruciates	(anterior	cruciate	ligaments	(ACL),	posterior	cruciate	ligaments	
(PCL)).For	the	patello-femoral	joint,	the	most	important	are	the	medial-patello	femoral	
ligament	and	the	lateral	retinaculum.	The	role	of	the	ligaments	is	to	give	the	stability	and	to	
guide	the	kinematics	during	the	passive	motion.	
	
2)	Menisci.	Two	semi-circular	discs,	made	of	fibrous	cartilage	that	help	to	provide	a	congruent	
surface	for	the	thigh	bone	to	move	on	the	shin	bone.	There	are	one	lateral	and	one	medial	and	
they	ensure	the	stability,	the	force	transfer	and	the	shock	absorption.	
	
3)	Capsule.	Internally,	the	whole	surface	of	the	joint	(excluding	cartilage)	is	covered	with	a	
thin	membrane,	called	synovium,	which	secretes	a	fluid	to	lubricate	the	joint	and	provides	
nourishment	to	the	avascular	(having	no	blood	supply)	cartilage.	
	
4)	Muscles	and	Tendons.	The	two	most	important	muscles	are	the	hamstrings	(medial	and	
lateral),	which	work	for	the	knee	flexion,	and	the	quadriceps	that	help	the	knee	during	the	
extension.	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	12:	The	four	soft	tissues	with	the	bones	of	the	knee
16	Fig.	14:	The	knee	joint	movement:	rolling	and	sliding	
	
Correct	joint	kinematics	is	fundamental	to	protect	articular	functionality;	any	alteration	may	
change	the	transmission	of	physiological	loads.		
The	motion	of	the	knee	is	complex	and	involves	rotations	and	translation	with	six	degree	of	
freedom	during	most	ambulatory	activities.		
The	knee	movements	take	place	on	each	of	three	spatial	planes	(the	Frontal,	Sagittal	and	
Transversal	plane).	[11]	
In	the	tibio-femoral	joint,	the	distal	extremity	of	the	femur	and	the	proximal	extremity	of	the	
tibial	slide	on	each	other	to	set	up	the	movements,	the	knee	has	6	degrees	of	freedom:	
	
Ø Three	rotations:	flexion-extension,	axial	rotation,	abduction-adduction;	
Ø Three	translations:	antero-posterior,	medio-lateral,	proximo-distal.	
	
	
In	particular,	on	the	Sagittal	plane,	is	where	take	place	the	most	large	part	of	movement,	in	
fact	is	where	the	joint	can	develop	the	flexion-extension,	during	which	the	knee	usually	shows	
angles	from	0°	to	120-135°.	
The	knee	movement	is	a	composition	of	rolling	and	sliding.	During	the	initial	degrees	of	
flexion,	the	femoral	condyles	roll	posteriorly	toward	the	tibial	plateaus.	Gradually,	pure	
rolling	motion	converts	to	sliding	motion	as	the	posterior	margins	of	the	tibial	plateau	are	
approached.	Since	the	medial	tibial	plateau	is	convex	and	the	medial	meniscus	is	less	mobile	
than	the	lateral,	rolling	motion	is	converted	to	sliding	motion	earlier	on	the	medial	side	than	
on	the	lateral	meniscus.	This	difference	produces	an	automatic	internal	rotation	of	the	tibia	on	
the	femur	as	flexion	proceeds	and	conversely	an	external	rotation	in	the	last	degrees	of	
extension.	[12]	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	13:	Six	degrees	of	freedom	of	knee
17	
On	the	others	planes,	the	knee	can	develop	abduction-adduction	and	proximo-distal	
translations	on	frontal	plane	and	medio-lateral	translation	and	intra-extra	rotation	on	
transversal	plane.	
	
Since	the	aim	is	to	observe	the	prosthesis’	behaviours,	this	project’s	study	has	focused	the	
attention	on	four	main	daily	motions:	
	
Ø Walking;	
Ø Stairs	motion	(Climbing	and	descending	phases);	
Ø Chair	motion	(Sit	down-Stand	up);	
Ø Squat	(Deep	flexion-deep	extension).	
	
For	each	of	these,	it	was	done	a	research	about	all	the	information	available	to	find	the	ranges	
of	values	for	the	forces	and	the	torques	that	are	applied	to	the	joint	and,	furthermore,	how	
these	ranges	are	dispenses	during	the	previous	movements.	
Following	this	research,	several	data	were	taken	from	Orthoload	site,	a	free	public	database.		
(The	loads	acting	in	human	joints	were	measured	in	the	Julius	Wolff	Institute	of	the	Charité	in	
Berlin	directly	in	patients	by	using	instrumented	implants.	Measurements	during	many	
routine	and	sportive	activities	were	taken	in	hip,	knee,	shoulder	and	spinal	implants.	
OrthoLoad	supplies	numerical	load	data	and	videos,	which	contain	load-time	diagrams	and	
synchronous	images	of	the	subject’s	activities).[13]	
Besides,	these	data	were	collected	considering	that	z	is	the	axis	of	the	implant	stem,	x	is	the	
axis	for	medial	translation	and	y	is	the	anterior/posterior	translation	axis.		
Additional	information	were	achieved	thank	to	database	of	the	BEAMS	Department,	helpful	to	
make	a	comparison	with	the	other	data	and	to	be	a	reference	for	subsequent	studies	or	tests.
18	
	
4.1	Walking		
	
The	analysis	of	biometric	gait	recognition	has	been	studied	for	a	longer	period	of	time	for	the	
use	in	identification,	surveillance	and	forensic	systems	and	is	becoming	important,	since	it	can	
provide	more	reliable	and	efficient	means	of	identity	verification.	[14]	
During	the	normal	walking	(or	gait	cycle)	two	main	phases	could	be	recognized:	the	stance	
phase	when	the	foot	is	on	the	ground	(about	62%	of	gait	cycle)	and	the	swing	phase	when	the	
foot	is	in	the	air	(about	38%	of	gait	cycle).	The	figure	15	shows	the	phases	of	the	gait.	
In	the	first	phase,	the	foot	changes	direction	of	the	ground	force	and	this	allows	to	the	body	to	
take	the	support	required	for	making	a	new	step.	During	the	stance	phase	the	
flexion/extension	move	reaches	about	20°.	At	the	end	of	this	phase,	all	leg	joints	perform	the	
beginning	of	flexion	movement	called	“pre-swing”.	The	swing	phase	starts	with	the	knee	
flexion,	which	it	can	increase	up	to	more	than	60°	and	it	finishes	with	the	contact	of	the	heel,	
that	it	also	the	beginning	of	a	new	step.	[15]	
	
	
Fig.	15:	Different	phases	of	the	gait	
	
Considering	the	loads	on	the	knee	joint	during	the	walking	activity,	there	is	more	variation	
about	their	values	and	they	depend	a	lot	on	the	walking	speed,	the	ground	slope,	the	weight,	
the	age	and	the	sex	of	the	patient.	
Below	are	showed	the	graphs	relative	to	forces	and	torques	that	allow	understanding	how	
these	parameters	act	on	the	knee	(figure	16	and17).		
During	the	gait	the	maximum	peak	of	force	is	when	the	person	charges	all	his	weight	on	one	
leg	(about	2600	N	for	the	axial	force)	in	the	“midstance”	phase.	
The	others	forces	have	an	action	negligible,	actually	all	of	them	have,	in	general,	a	modulus	
lower	than	150	N.	
All	torques	have	an	important	action	on	the	knee	but	the	highest	value	is	for	My	torque	that	is	
the	component	linked	to	the	abduction-adduction	movement.
19	
The	Mx	is	the	only	one	that	has	always	a	positive	value,	instead	Mz	and	My	start	positive	but	
become	negative	during	the	cycle.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	13	
Fig.16:	The	forces	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	cycle;			Fx	=	medial,	Fy	=	anterior,	-Fz	=	distal,	Fres	=	Resultant	
force		and	z-axis	=	Axis	of	implant	stem	
Fig.	17:	The	torques	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	movement;	Mx	=around	x,	My=	around	y,	
Mz	=around	z,	Mres	=	Resultant	torque	and	z=	Axis	of	implant	stem
20	
	
4.2	Chair	motion		
	
During	a	normal	daily	routine,	studies	demonstrate	that	we	spend	up	to	10	hours	sit	down[16].		
The	chair	motion	can	be	considered	as	divided	in	two	steps	of	movement:	
Ø Stand	up;	
Ø Sit	down.	
During	rising	from	a	chair,	the	flexion	angle	of	our	knee	can	arrive	up	to	90°.	The	forces	
applied	on	the	joint	are,	above	all,	concentrated	on	axial	load,	which	go	to	almost	2250	N.		
However,	the	rate	of	these	movements	seems	to	be	generally	symmetric	during	sitting-down	
and	standing-up	phases.	[17]	
For	the	torques,	differently	from	the	gait,	the	most	important	component	is	Mx	with	a	peak	of	
about	8	Nm	that	is	caused	by	flexion-extension	movement.	My	is	the	abduction-adduction	
moments	and	it	reaches	the	minimum	value	(about	-7	Nm)	in	the	30%	of	load	cycle.	
	
Fig.18:	The	forces	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	cycle;			Fx	=	medial,	Fy	=	anterior,	-Fz	=	distal,	Fres	=	Resultant	
force		and	z-axis	=	Axis	of	implant	stem	
Fig.19:	The	torques	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	movement;	Mx	=around	x,	My=	around	y,	Mz	=around	z,																
Mres	=	Resultant	torque	and	z=	Axis	of	implant	stem
21	
	
In	contraposition,	during	the	sit	down,	the	axial	force	reaches	the	maximum	value	when	the	
flexion	is	near	to	90°	with	2000	N,	but	for	the	other	forces	the	value	is	about	zero	during	the	
whole	cycle.	
	
	
	
As	 the	 stand-up,	 the	 torque	 that	 has	 the	 most	 significant	 effect	 is	 the	 Mx.	 During	 this	
movement,	the	minimum	value	is	reached	by	the	Mz	(intra-extra	rotation).		
Mz	and	My	have	a	similar	trend	but	the	values	are	different.	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	16	
Fig.	20:	The	forces	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	cycle;			Fx	=	medial,	Fy	=	anterior,	-Fz	=	distal,	Fres	=	
Resultant	force		and	z-axis	=	Axis	of	implant	stem	
Fig.	21:	The	torques	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	movement;	Mx	=around	x,	My=	around	y,	Mz	
=around	z,	Mres	=	Resultant	torque	and	z=	Axis	of	implant	stem
22	
	
4.3	Stairs	motion	
	
Climbing	and	descending	stairs	represent	one	of	the	most	common	locomotion	activities	
driven	by	the	knee	joint.	[18]	
Unlike	stand-up	and	sit-down,	forces	and	torques	during	go	up	and	down	by	stairs	have	a	
different	rates	and	values.	
The	axial	force	rises	up	to	2465	N	during	the	ascent	move	and	2225	N	during	the	opposite	
action.	Also	the	knee	flexion	is	absolutely	different	between	them:	how	is	showed	in	the	charts	
below	(figure	22),	there	is	a	gap	of	about	30°	in	the	maximum	value	of	flexion	if	the	movement	
is	making	in	one	or	in	the	other	direction.	
	
	
Fig.	22:	The	forces	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	cycle;			Fx	=	medial,	Fy	=	anterior,	-Fz	=	distal,	Fres	=	Resultant	
force		and	z-axis	=	Axis	of	implant	stem	
For	the	torques	the	My	component	is	the	most	significant	during	both	movement	but	during	
the	stairs	up	the	Mx	is	about	the	50	%	of	the	My,	but	in	the	stairs	down	the	values	of	two	
torques	are	similar	and	have	almost	the	same	trend.	
	
	
Fig.	23	:	The	torques	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	movement;	Mx	=around	x,	My=	around	y,	Mz	=around	z,																
Mres	=	Resultant	torque	and	z=	Axis	of	implant	stem
23	
4.4	Squat	
	
The	squat	is	one	of	the	most	frequently	used	exercises	in	the	field	of	strength	and	
conditioning,	as	well	as	it	is	becoming	increasingly	popular	in	clinical	settings	and	testing	as	a	
means	to	strengthen	lower-body	muscles	and	connective	tissue	after	joint-related	injury.	[19]	
As	the	two	last	motions	evaluated,	the	squat	might	be	split	up	in	to	sequential	phases:	deep	
flexion	and	deep	extension.	
Maximum	values	for	the	axial	load	are	approximately	5000	N	at	120°	of	knee	flexion	and	were	
consistent	with	maximal	forces	at	the	quadriceps	tendon.	
These	forces	slowly	decreased	to	about	550	N	while	the	knee	joint	angle	goes	down	until	15°.	
The	anterior-posterior	shear	is	the	highest	among	the	four	movements	proposing	and	its	
values	go	from	-40	N	to	180	N.	
Fig.	24:	The	forces	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	cycle;			Fx	=	medial,	Fy	=	anterior,	-Fz	=	distal,	Fres	=	Resultant	
force		and	z-axis	=	Axis	of	implant	stem	
	
Instead,	the	torques	have	a	very	different	trends	in	fact	the	Mx	is	always	positive	with	a	
maximum	value	of	9,5	Nm	while	My	starts	as	positive	but	it	is	negative	from	30%	to	70%	of	
the	cycle.	Furthermore	Mx	is	always	positive	but	Mz	is	negative	for	all	cycle.	
	
	
Fig.	25:The	torques	that	act	on	the	joint	during	the	movement;	Mx	=around	x,	My=	around	y,	Mz	=around	z,																																										
Mres=	Resultant	torque	and	z=	Axis	of	implant	stem
24	
At	the	end,	all	the	applied	minimum	and	maximum	values	for	axial	load,	flexion	angle,	
anterior-posterior	shear	load	and	intra-extra	rotational	torque,	during	each	activities,	were	
collected	and	resumed	in	several	tables	to	have	the	main	regions	of	interest	and	to	be	used	
after	for	motors	control.
25	
Fig.	26:	The	CAD	representation	of	the	first	prototype:	on	the	left	the	frontal	view,	on	the	right	the	
trimetric	prospective.	
5.	First	prototype	
	
5.1	Design	&	Development	
	
Starting	with	the	information	got	from	the	devices	observed	in	state	of	the	art,	considering	the	
knee	anatomy	and	kinematics,	a	first	version	of	the	knee	simulator	robot	was	proposed.		
With	the	purpose	to	appraise	determined	characteristics	of	prototypes	designed,	CAD	
software	was	used	as	principal	tool	for	this	aim.	
The	structure	has	the	intent	of	reproduce	the	flexion-extension	realistically,	employing	two	
semi-circular	guides.	This	structure	is	formed	by	two	arches	that	containing	a	slot	where	a	
pole	can	move.	Besides,	this	pole	is	linked	to	a	T	structure	that	clamps	the	femoral	component.		
In	opposite,	the	tibial	component	is	positioned	on	a	vertical	support,	fixed	on	the	base	on	the	
whole	structure.	In	the	frontal	part,	a	big	arch	supports	the	semi-circular	guides	and	a	
telescopic	actuator	moves	the	T	structure	to	generate	the	flexion-extension	with	the	
angulation	desired.	
	
	
	
The	important	feature	of	this	prototype	is	the	visibility:	the	two	semi-circular	guides	permit	to	
improve	the	lateral	vision,	appreciating	a	good	view	of	whole	knee	movements	and	its	flexion,	
and	the	big	frontal	arch	allows	a	good	vision	on	the	knee	articulation,	observing	the	contact	
between	femoral	and	tibial	parts.
26	
5.2	Prototype	overview	
	
It	was	been	thought	to	realize	the	structure	entirely	in	aluminium,	a	material	easy	to	find	on	
the	market	and	favourable	to	be	cut	or	curved,	thus	a	optimal	material	for	the	singular	
structure	designed.	
Each	single	part	was	designed	using	CAD	software	and	this	has	permitted	to	develop	a	first	
study	of	the	prototype	and	to	observe	if	our	design	choice	was	reasonable.	
Below	are	showed	an	overview	of	the	prototype	and	the	single	parts	to	illustrate	how	they	
were	designed	and	for	what	function	they	are	evolved.	
		
	
Fig.	27:	Exploded	view	of	the	first	prototype	and	the	table	of	each	part’s	name	
		
• The	T	structure:	is	the	part	that	clamps	the	femur	component	on	one	side	and	in	the	
other	is	linked	with	the	pole	that,	thanks	to	semi-circular	arches,	allows	the	flexion-
extension.	Important	to	observe	is	the	particular	screw	with	the	nuts	that	allow	to	
achieve	the	medio-lateral	translation;	
	
	
Fig.	28:	The	T	structure
27	
	
• The	tibial	component:	the	yellow	part	has	the	aim	to	fix	the	polyethylene	compontent	
of	the	prosthesis.	Besides,	the	black	structure	is	a	system	with	two	motors,	one	for	the	
intra-extra	rotation	and	the	other	one	for	the	axial	force;	
	
	
Fig.	29:	Tibial	part	with	system	of	motors.	
	
• Telescopic	actuator:	it	pushes	down	and	up	the	T	structure	into	the	arches	slots	to	
generate	the	flexion/extension	movement;	
	
Fig.	30:	Telescopic	actuator	
• Main	structure:	it	provides	to	sustain	the	whole	device	and	to	generate	the	way	
forward	the	T	structure	moves	for	the	flexion/extension.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	30:	Main	structure	in	
trimetric	back	overview
28	
	
5.3	Critical	discussion	
	
As	a	result	of	an	analysis	made	with	the	Professor	of	the	BEAMS	department	and	after	a	
consultation	with	the	technician	for	manufacturing	the	device’s	pieces,	this	first	version	of	the	
robot	was	considered	not	suitable	to	reach	the	main	goal	of	the	project.	
Several	issues	were	discovered:	
	
• High	cost	and	difficult	to	manufacture	the	arches:		
Discussing	with	the	technician	of	the	laboratory,	the	main	problem	for	the	
construction	of	the	structure	were	the	semi-circular	arches.	Since	their	shape	
must	be	made	with	minimum	possible	errors	and	since	the	two	structures	must	
be	perfectly	the	same	to	avoid	issue	during	the	flexion/extension	movements,	to	
manufacture	these	pieces	it	should	be	necessary	so	much	time	and	expensive	
tools	to	make	it	possible.	
	
• Lack	of	anterior/posterior	motion:	
This	first	prototype	doesn’t	consider	the	anterior/posterior	translation	as	
possible	movement	because	of	the	space	available	don’t	allow	to	introduce	an	
additional	motor	to	move	the	tibial	component,	thus	to	generate	the	lacked	
movement.	
	
• Not	very	functional	abduction/adduction	structure:		
After	a	first	dynamic	study	of	the	structure,	it	was	observed	that,	while	the	axial	
force	works,	the	femoral	component	might	be	raised	from	its	position	and	thus	to	
realize	a	lacking	contact	between	femur	and	tibia	(lack	of	the	axial	force	
function).	
	
	
These	issues	have	been	considered	as	important	as	evaluating	to	not	be	able	to	continue	with	
the	development	of	this	prototype.	Consequently,	another	design	study	was	made	and	a	new	
prototype	was	designed.
29	
Fig.	31:	The	CAD	representation	of	the	first	prototype:	on	the	right	the	frontal	view,	on	the	left	the	trimetric	
prospective.	
6.	Second	prototype	
	
6.1	Design	&	Development	
	
Considering	the	lacks	from	the	first	prototype	and	in	order	to	preserve	the	good	features	from	
this	one,	the	concept	of	the	second	design	was,	indeed,	totally	different.	
This	new	architecture	permits	to	have	a	very	good	view	of	the	movement	and	it	gives	the	
possibility	to	do	the	motion	that	in	the	other	device	were	impossible	to	achieve.	
	
	
From	the	previous	structure,	the	femoral	and	tibial	components	have	been	left	equal.		
On	the	contrary,	the	flexion/extension	movement	now	is	generates	by	a	lateral	motor,	moving	
the	biggest	arch.	This	last	one	is	linked	with	another	small	arch	by	a	metal	component	that	
acts	as	a	cardan	joint	to	generate	the	abduction/adduction	motions.	To	ensure	more	stability	
to	the	structure,	it	was	added	a	lateral	support	in	the	opposite	side.	The	aim	of	this	new	
support	is	to	reduce	the	stress	and	shears	acting	on	the	upper	part	of	the	structure.	
The	screw	with	rectangular	nuts	was	maintained	but	now	their	function	is	restricted	to	allow	
only	the	medio/lateral	translation.	
Furthermore,	since	now	the	base	has	more	space,	it	was	possible	to	add	the	
anterior/posterior	translation,	given	by	a	motor	fixed	at	the	bottom	of	the	lower	part.
30	
	
6.2	Prototype	overview	
	
Following	the	first	prototype,	the	architecture	was	designed	to	be	in	aluminium.	More	
specifically,	only	the	cylindrical	support	of	the	flex/extension	motor	and	the	other	one	of	the	
lateral	support	of	the	structure	are	in	stainless	steel.	This	choice	was	assumed	to	permit	a	
smoothly	motion	between	the	two	different	material	(in	the	support,	the	stainless	steel	
cylinder	must	turn	inside	the	hole)	and	avoid	the	damage	of	this	parts	that	are	very	stressed	
by	the	forces	acting	on	the	structure.	
Below	are	showed	an	overview	of	the	prototype	and	the	single	parts	to	illustrate	how	they	
were	designed	and	for	what	function	they	are	evolved.	
	
	
Fig.	32:	Exploded	view	of	the	prototype	and	the	table	of	each	part’s	name	
	
Below	are	proposed	the	single	new	parts	with	its	function:	
	
• Base	with	the	lateral	motor	for	the	flexion/extension	
This	structure	was	made	only	as	a	sketch	due	to	the	fact	that	there	is	not	yet	
information	about	motors	and	their	shape.	However,	this	linear	motor	was	design	
to	be	linked,	directly	with	its	axis,	with	the	biggest	arch,	in	order	to	generate	the	
flexion/extension	rotation.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	33:	Base	for	the	motor	and	
motor	for	the	F/E	motion
31	
	
	
• Motor	to	give	anterior/posterior	motion	
To	make	available	this	feature	on	our	device,	it	was	thought	to	introduce	
another	motor	(drown	as	a	metal	box	because	of	unknown	motor	
characteristics)	to	move	a	metal	square	sets	under	the	tibial	structure.	In	this	
way,	it	was	created	a	system	for	the	lower	part	that	can	be	able	to	reproduce	
intra-extra	rotation,	axial	force	(the	two	are	given	by	the	black	cylindroid)	and,	
now,	even	the	anterior/posterior	translation.	
	
	
Fig.	34:	Tibial	support	plus	the	system	to	develop	anterior-posterior	translation	
	
• Abduction/adduction	and	medio-lateral	structure	
The	upper	part	was	re-designed	according	to	the	issue	of	instability	given	by	
the	last	architecture.	Now,	two	arches	have	the	assignment	to	assure	that	
abduction/adduction	and	medio-lateral	movements	could	be	free	and	adapted	
to	the	different	prosthesis	that	will	be	tested.		
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
To	design	the	femoral	support	in	order	to	test	different	types	of	prosthesis	models,	a	realistic	
TKA	femoral	component	size	was	positioned	inside	the	structure	as	references	for	the	first	
testing	(appendix	3	for	seeing	other	information).	
Fig.	35:	Upper	part	of	two	arches	plus	
femoral	support
32	
Fig.	36:	Upper	system	of	second	
prototype	with	the	focus	on	the	two	
arches.	
	
6.3	Static	analysis	
	
The	aim	of	the	static	analysis	was	to	analyse	the	effect	of	forces	and	torques	on	the	upper	
structure	(femur	parts)	and	to	define	the	suitable	dimensions	of	each	part	of	it,	to	avoid	every	
possibility	to	damage	it	while	it	is	in	action.		
Since	the	device	must	be	able	to	simulate	in	a	realistic	way	the	main	movements	of	the	knee	
but,	being	difficult	to	reach	the	maximum	realistic	values	for	the	axial	force	of	the	knee	with	a	
low-cost	device	as	this	one	developed,	it	was	accorded	to	limit	the	maximum	value	of	the	axial	
force	to	1000	N.	This	force	was	seemed,	however,	acceptable	values	to	allow	the	observation	
of	several	prosthesis	behaviours	during	the	movements	are	acting.	
The	static	analysis	was	developed	considering	the	following	boundary	conditions,	to	permit	
an	easier	study	but,	otherwise,	maintaining	the	main	features	of	the	CAD	model:		
	
Ø Maximum	dimensions	were	measured	on	the	biggest	TKA	femoral	
	component	(GEMINI	SL,	size	x-large,	view	on	appendix	2);			
	
Ø Default	materials:	stainless	steel	and	aluminium;			
	
Ø Simplification	of	the	whole	structure:	it	was	compared	as	a	beams	
system	to	simplify	the	study,	but	maintaining	the	real	
characteristics;		
	
Ø Only	the	weight	force	of	the	femoral	part	and	axial	force	were	
considered.		
	
Considering	the	figure	36	below,	it	shows	the	device	with	the	components	analysed	as	the	
most	solicited	and	structurally	critical.	It	has	place	in	the	upper	part	of	the	Knee	Simulator	
and	consisting	of	the	two	arches	of	the	femoral	part.		
	
These	parts	were	studied	to	define	their	dimensions	and	behaviours	when	forces	and	torques	
are	applied.
33	
The	analysed	structure	was	simplified	respect	to	the	one	realized	with	CAD	software:	it	was	
reduced	to	a	beam	system,	taking	an	average	of	the	real	dimension	of	the	two	arches,	but	
maintaining	the	same	weight	of	real	structure	and	the	same	center	of	mass.				
	
Consequently,	the	structure	was	studied	on	two	different	planes	(x-y	and	y-z)	to	consider	all	
the	forces	effects	and	boundary	reactions.	The	only	known	forces	to	consider	acting	on	this	
part	of	the	device	were	the	weight	of	the	femoral	part	(39,24	N)	and	the	axial	load	(1000	N).			
	
• On	x-y	plane,	the	structure	could	be	represented	as	an	arch	with	two	joints.		
		
As	it	shows	in	the	figure	37,	there	were	studied	two	different	structure	sections:	
the	orange,	with	a	rectangular	shape,	and	the	two	green	that	were	designed	with	a	
cylindrical	shape.		
The	blue	arrow	represents	the	resultant	between	the	weight	and	the	axial	force.	Its	
value	was	evaluated	considering	the	force	at	the	maximum	value	that	it	can	reach	
and	the	weight	concentrated	in	the	center	of	mass	(in	the	middle	of	the	arch	
approximately)	to	be	able	to	evaluate	the	most	critical	condition.	
	
	
Fig.	37:	Simplification	of	the	upper	structure	of	the	robot	prototype.	
	
To	accomplish	the	requests	of	the	design	of	the	machine	coupled	with	the	request	
of	the	minimum	expense	possible,	before	proceeding	in	the	dimensioning	of	the	
structure	of	the	robot,	an	overview	of	the	already	available	materials	and	
dimensions	has	been	obtain	under	the	guidance	of	a	the	technician	of	the	BEAMS	
lab.	After	their	consults,	the	material	and	the	thickness	were	fixed:		
	
• Aluminium	for	the	parts	with	rectangular	section	(size	40x20	mm);			
• Stainless	steel	for	the	parts	with	circular	section	(diameter	of	12	mm).		
	
The	study	was	performed	by	the	advice	of	Ftool	software	(Tecgraf/PUC-Rio),	
normally	used	in	the	BEAMS	department	where	the	project	was	developed.		
The	program	is	an	excellent	tool	for	structural	calculation;	it	allows	performing	
calculations	of	planar	structures	in	a	rapid	and	intuitive	way,	avoiding	the	use	of
34	
more	complex	softwares	or	tools	when	the	structures	are	simple.	Furthermore,	
Ftool	can	immediately	get	the	diagrams	of	normal	effort,	cut,	moment	and	
deformation.	
	
The	simplified	structure	represented	seems	to	be	hyperstatic,	due	to	the	two	hinges	present	at	
each	end,	but,	otherwise,	the	architecture	of	the	femoral	part	is	designed	symmetrically.	
Consequently,	it	can	be	further	simplified,	developing	the	study	analysis	only	for	half	part,	
supposed	as	a	hinged	beam.	
The	results	of	study	were	collected	and	they	are	listed	above:		
	
Ø Constraining	reactions	
	
Since	the	structure	is	symmetric,	for	this	reason	the	horizontal	and	vertical	
forces	are	equal.	The	same	is	valid	for	the	torques:	
	
!! = !!
!
= 139,8 !
!! = !!
!
= −480,4 !
!! = !!
!
= 8,37 !"
	
	
Ø Normal	stress	
	
Studying	the	parts	with	the	circular	section	and	the	top	of	the	arch,	the	normal	
force	has	the	same	value	of	139,83	N.	This	is	due	to	the	constrain	Rx	(or	Rx’)	
that	is	acting	without	other	force	added	in	the	same	plane.		
In	the	vertical	parts,	the	normal	force	is	generated	by	the	constrain	Ry	(or	Ry’)	
and	it	has	a	value	of	480,38	N.	
The	most	solicited	pieces	of	structure	by	the	normal	component	are	the	
vertical	sides	of	the	arch.	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	38:	Stress	diagram	of	the	normal	stress	(in	orange)	directly	on	the	structure
35	
	
Ø Shear	stress	
	
As	observed	for	the	normal	force,	the	only	effort	acting	on	the	structure	is	the	
constraining	reaction,	excluding	the	beam	on	the	top.	
On	the	left	part,	with	the	circular	section,	the	tangential	force	has	the	value	of						
-480,38	N	and	it	is	due	to	Ry’.	In	the	other	side,	in	the	right	part	the	value	is	
+480,38	N	and	it	is	due	to	Ry.		
In	the	vertical	parts	the	tangential	force	is	generated	by	Rx	and	Rx’	and	it	has	
the	same	magnitude	of	139,83	N.	
On	the	top	of	the	arch	the	tangential	force	start	with	value	of	-480,38	N	and	it	
changes	its	sign	in	the	point	where	is	applied	the	axial	force,	so	in	the	end	of	
the	piece	the	value	is	480,38	N.	
	
	
Fig.	39:	Stress	diagram	of	tangential	forces	drown	directly	on	the	structure	
	
	
Ø Bending	moment	
	
On	each	parts	with	the	circular	section,	the	bending	moments	were	evaluated	
with	the	same	trend:	from	a	maximum	value	of	8,45	Nm	to	the	minimum	value	
of	0	Nm	in	centre	of	these	parts.		
Also	on	the	vertical	components	of	the	structure	the	moment	has	the	same	
trend	with	maximum	value	of	17,42	Nm	that	it	is	reached	on	the	top.	
The	most	solicited	pieces	of	structure	by	the	bending	moment	is	the	point	
where	is	applied	the	force	in	fact	the	value	of	moment	is	33	Nm.
36	
	
Fig.	40:	Stress	diagram	of	bending	moment.	
To	understand	if	the	dimensions	for	the	sections	of	the	structure	were	chosen	correctly	
for	the	device	behaviour,	it	was	studied	the	linear	deflection.	The	results	of	this	study	
shows	that	the	linear	deflections	(figure	41	and	figure	42)	are	very	modest:	
	
Ø 7,92 ∙ 10!!
mm (maximun value)	for	the	parts	with	circular	section;	
	
	
												
Fig.	41:	Capture	of	SW	Ftool	:	Linear	deflection	in	the	parts	with	circular	section.
37	
Ø 5,80 ∙ 10!!
mm (maximum value)	for	the	parts	with	rectangular	section.	
	
	
															Fig.	42:	Capture	of	SW	Ftool:	Linear	deflection	in	the	parts	with	rectangular	section.	
	
The	values	obtained	are	in	the	order	of	the	micrometres,	thus	as	mite	as	to	be	retain	
meaningless	for	influencing	the	behaviour	of	the	structure	dimensioned.		
			
On	y-z	plane,	the	structure	is	represented	only	as	a	beam	with	a	single	hinge:	
	
	
Fig.	43:	The	structure	view	on	y-z	plane.	P	is	the	weight	and	F	is	axial	forces	from	the	lower	part.		
	
The	equations	are:		
!! = −! + ! = 960,76 !
!! = 0 !
!! = !ℎ + !" = 32,26 !"
	
	
This	case	is	not	realistic	because	the	weight	is	all	concentrated	at	the	end	of	beam	but	it	was	
study	to	be	able	to	simulate,	as	usual,	the	worst	possible	situation.	
Mm	is	the	maximum	motor	torques	that	the	device	must	have	to	allow	the	movement.	
	
	
ℎ = 185 !!
! = 25 !!
38	
	
6.4	Dynamic	analysis	
	
The	aim	of	the	dynamic	study	is	to	know	the	minimum	torque	that	the	motor	must	have	to	
win	the	inertia	and	other	forces	that	impede	the	movement	requested.	
For	the	dynamic	analysis	the	structure	was	studied	on	the	plane	y-z	and,	to	consider	
always	the	worst	case	in	order	to	be	as	secure	as	possible,	in	was	considered	the	case	
on	which	the	structure	is	placed	at	90°:	
	
Fig.	44:	Structure	view	on	y-z	plane	with	the	dynamic	forces	and	torques.	
	
The	weight	(P)	was	assumed	to	be	concentred	in	the	center	of	mass	(CM),	in	the	hinge	is	
considered	the	Mm	(motor	torque)	in	counter-clockwise	direction,	the	moment	of	inertia	was	
assumed	to	be	concentrated,	when	considering	its	rotational	motion,	in	the	center	of	inertia	
(CI)	and	the	axial	force	(F)	was	considered	as	acting	against	the	motor	torque.		
The	Euler's	rotation	equation	was	used	for	this	aim:	
	
!! + !! = !!	
	
	
In	this	case	Me=Mm-Fb,	Mi=−
!!
!
	and	! = !!" + !!!
= 3,94 ∙ 10!!
!"!!
.		
The	minimum	couple	that	the	motor	must	give	to	allow	the	movement	is:	
!! = !! +
!!
!
+ !" = 29,96 !".	
The	!	was	calculated	with	Matlab:	the	Orthoload	data	(flexion-extension	angles)	were	taken	
as	excel	file	and	convert	in	points	of	a	function	in	order	to	find	the	one	that	could	describe	the	
trend	of	the	angles	during	the	cycle.	This	function	was	derived	twice	using	a	“for	cycle”	where	
was	implemented	the	discrete	derivate	equation.		
At	the	end,	the	biggest	value	among	all	movements	(gait,	chair,	stair,	squat)	was	taken.		
	
	
	
ℎ = 185 !!
! = 25 !!
! = 76 !!
39	
Fig.	45:	Walking	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	
of	F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.	
Below	are	showed	the	results	of	the	tasks	previous	described	for	each	movements	(flexion-
extension	function,	first	and	second	derivate):	
	
	
Fig.	46:	Stairs	Up	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	
of	F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.
40	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	2	1	
Fig.	47:	Stairs	Down	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	of	
F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.	
Fig.	48:	Stand	Up	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	of	
F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.
41	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
Fig.	49:	Sit	Down	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	
of	F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.	
Fig.	50:	Squat	study.	In	order	from	up	to	down:	comparison	between	discrete	and	continuous	trend	of	
F/E,	first	derivate	and	second	derivate.
42	
	
6.5	Critical	discussion	
	
The	second	prototype	did	not	have	particular	issues	but	it	respected	the	specifics	necessary	
for	a	correct	simulation	on	the	knee	movements.	However,	starting	with	the	data	of	static	and	
dynamic	analysis	and	thanks	to	the	discussion	with	technician	of	the	BEAMS	lab	it	was	
possible	to	make	some	improvements	to	the	device:	
	
1) Second	screw	on	the	top	of	the	femoral	parts	to	avoid	the	rotation	of	piece	
due	to	the	action	of	axial	force	while	the	flexion/extension	is	acting;	
	
2) Support	beam	to	reinforce	the	arch	structure	(size	210x20x5	mm);	
	
3) Deep	tibial	support	to	let	the	support	suitable	for	different	tibial	
components	(using	the	cement);	
	
	
Below	is	showed	the	new	design	of	the	device:	
	
	
Fig.	51:	Overview	of	the	improvements.
43	
7.	Third	prototype	
	
7.1	Design	&	Development	
	
To	test	the	quality	of	the	design	of	the	device,	the	second	prototype	was	showed	to	some	
technicians.	After	these	meetings,	it	was	made	a	more	specific	study	of	the	structure	that	has	
allowed	having	further	improvements.	
This	third	prototype	has	a	new	smaller	structure	with	less	weight.	Those	changes	have	permitted	
to	remove	the	support	beams	(1)	of	the	precedent	prototype.	Furthermore,	in	the	new	prototype	
are	present	two	stainless	steel	cylinders	of	30	mm	(2)	on	the	upper	part,	instead	of	12	mm	
considered	in	the	previous	static	and	dynamic	study,	becoming	even	more	precautionary	in	the	
planning	of	the	device.		
Another	important	difference	between	the	two	prototypes	is	that	in	the	last	one	is	not	present	
the	joint	between	the	two	arcs	(3),	that	was	complex	to	build	and	supposed	to	became	fragile	
during	the	movements	will	act,	but	the	function	of	this	part	is	maintained	by	a	new	design	(4).	
	
	
Fig.	52:	Comparison	between	the	second	and	the	third	prototype	and	particular	of	the	improvements.	
	
The	colours	on	the	figures	are	different	only	to	underline	the	difference	between	the	materials	
and	components	of	the	device:	motors	(red),	architecture	of	the	device	(grey	aluminium),	joint	
components	(beige	stainless	steel)	and	the	device	base	(black).
44	
	
7.2	Prototype	overview	
	
The	third	prototype	was	designed	with	the	same	materials	of	the	second	one;	in	the	specific,	
all	parts	are	in	aluminium	but	the	cylindrical	supports,	for	the	flexion/extension	motor	and	
for	the	lateral	pivot,	are	in	stainless	steel.	
The	main	changes	between	the	two	versions	of	the	device	are	in	the	upper	part,	in	particular	
for	the	abduction/adduction	and	medio-lateral	structure.	The	big	arch,	that	was	a	single	
pieces,	is	divided	is	four	parts:	
	
• Two	slim	beams	that	have	the	aim	to	reduce	the	stress	and	the	weight	of	the	
structure	but	also	to	make	easier	to	build	this	parts;	
	
• Two	lateral	parts,	where	are	situated	the	cylindrical	supports	for	the	
flexion/extension	motor	and	for	the	lateral	pivot.	
	
The	cardanic	joint	in	aluminium	is	replaced	by	the	cylindrical	support	in	stainless	steel	that	is	
inserted	in	the	hole	of	the	new	beams	and	has	the	aim	to	allow	the	abduction/adduction.	
	
	
Fig.	53:	Focus	on	the	new	upper	part.
45	
	
7.3	Static	and	dynamic	analysis	
	
Even	if	there	were	some	differences	between	the	second	and	the	third	prototype,	with	the	
simplification	used	in	the	previous	static	analysis,	the	structure	studied	remained	almost	the	
same.	For	this	reason	the	static	analysis	has	not	showed	essential	changes,	thus	the	data	
rested	the	same	for	this	study.	In	this	particular	case,	having	increased	the	diameter	of	the	
stainless	steel	cylinders,	the	structure	became	more	stable	and	sure	to	hold	up	the	forces	and	
torques	and	to	guarantee	the	flexion/extension	movement.		
Instead,	for	the	dynamic	analysis,	the	structural	modifications	have	changed	some	parameters	
(the	Inertia,	the	geometrical	dimensions	and	the	weight	of	femoral	parts	(P)),	hence	it	was	
necessary	a	revision	of	this	study.		
	
	
	
	
The	weight	(P)	is	concentred	in	the	center	of	mass	(CM)	and	in	the	joint	there	is	the	Mm	
(motor	couple).	The	equation	considered	was	the	Euler's	rotation	equation	as	usual:	
	
!! + !! = !!	
	
	
In	this	case	Me=Mm-Fb,	Mi=−
!!
!
		and	! = !!" + !!!
.		
The	minimum	couple	that	the	motor	must	give	to	allow	the	movement	is:	
!! = !! +
!ℎ
2
+ !"	
The	new	value	for	the	torque	is	Mm	=28,28	Nm	that	is	the	minimum	torque	that	the	motor	
must	be	able	to	deliver	to	the	structure	to	generate	the	movements.			
Also	in	this	case	the	!	was	calculated	with	Matlab:	
The	Orthoload	data	(flexion-extension	angles)	were	used	to	find	a	function	that	describes	the	
trend	of	the	angles	during	the	cycle.	This	function	was	derived	twice	and	the	biggest	value	
among	all	movements	(walking,	chair	motion,	stairs	motion,	squat)	was	taken.
46	
	
7.4	Critical	discussion	
	
The	main	result	obtained	with	this	prototype	is	presented	in	the	dynamic	analysis.		
Thanks	to	structural	improvements	it	was	possible	to	reduce	the	minimum	torque	that	the	
motor	must	have	to	allow	the	movements.	Knowing	the	correct	value	for	the	torque	it	was	
also	possible	to	start	a	research	on	market	of	the	motors.		
Although	the	third	prototype	represents	a	possible	final	shape	for	the	structure,	there	were	
some	aspects	that	could	be	fixed:	
	
• The	motors	for	the	tibial	parts.	Considering	the	upper	part	definitely	correct	for	its	
aim,	the	study	was	focused	on	the	lower	part,	trying	to	understand	if	the	best	solution	
is	to	have	only	one	pieces	for	the	intra/extra	rotation	and	for	the	axial	force	or	two	
different	motors	to	transmit	the	forces;	
	
• How	to	reduce	the	friction	forces	and	the	wear	for	the	cylindrical	parts	during	the	
flexion/extension;	
	
• How	to	make	more	robust	the	structure	to	avoid	structural	failure	during	the	different	
movements.	
	
These	points	posed	some	questions	to	definitely	approved	this	prototype	as	the	final,	
consequently	new	studies	and	ideas	were	carried	out	in	order	to	answer	at	the	aspects	to	fix	
and	to	make	possible	an	exhaustive	design	of	the	simulator.
47	
8.	Motors	
	
8.1	Technical	features	and	specifics	
	
The	project	is	focused	on	the	control	of	some	motors	to	simulate	the	main	movements	of	the	
natural	knee.	Before	to	talk	about	the	specifics	of	the	motors,	it	is	important	to	focus	on	the	
mechanical	structure	that	is	was	developed.	The	two	most	important	parts	that	must	be	
controlled	are:		
	
1. Abduction/adduction	and	medio-lateral	structure	
This	part	of	the	device	includes	the	femoral	support	and	thus,	it	must	develop	a	rotation	
motion,	in	order	to	simulate	the	flexion/extension	of	the	knee	joint;	
	
2. Tibial	structure	
The	lower	part	of	the	device	involves	in	the	remaining	motion	that	would	be	reproduced	
(the	axial	force,	the	intra	extra	rotation	and	the	anterior-posterior	translation).	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
According	to	the	aim	of	reproducing	all	the	four	movements	(Figure	30)	and	considering	the	
established	design	as	the	one	available	to	make	them	possible,	four	motors	had	been	chosen:	two	
rotary	motors	that	will	be	adopted	for	flexion/extension	and	intra-extra	rotations	and	two	linear	
actuators,	used	one	for	the	axial	load	and	another	one	for	the	anterior-posterior	translation.		
	
	
Fig.	30:	Possible	movements	of	tibial	and	abduction/adduction	and	medio-lateral	structures
48	
To	establish	the	right	approach	to	follow	for	the	research	on	the	market	of	these	motors,	two	
main	features	were	used	as	focal	points	to	be	considered:	
	
• Maximum	flexion-extension	torque	that	allows	the	rotatory	movement	of	the	
upper	part	must	be	28,28	Nm	(responders	from	static	and	dynamic	analysis);	
	
• Maximum	value	of	axial	force	used	for	future	test	must	be	1000	N	(values	
imposed	during	the	design	phase).		
	
Furthermore,	the	choice	of	the	motors	was	performed	also	by	considering	the	time	with	which	
each	movement	acts.	It	was	enlarged,	established	with	BEAMS	department	responsible,	than	
natural	stage	to	be	able	to	analyse	more	specifically	each	single	particular	of	the	motion	while	is	
operating.		
The	table	below	shows	the	main	characteristics	known	for	each	motion	and	time	chosen:	
	
Table	2:	Main	characteristics	of	the	movements.	
	
Movements	
	
Time	(s)	 Flexion	angle	(°)	
	
Walking	 5	 10-65	
Stand	up	 5	 10-90	
Sit	down	 5	 10-90	
Stairs	climbing	 5	 20-90	
Stairs	descent	 5	 15-100	
Squat	 16	 10-120	
	
The	values	for	the	flexion-extension	movements	were	taken	by	Orthoload	site	as	the	principal	
points	of	interest,	where	the	movement	curve	had	some	significant	variation.			
	
The	successive	step	of	the	project	was	to	understand	which	kinds	of	characteristics	the	motors	
required:	the	Orthoload	graphs	were	used	to	know	the	forces,	the	torques	and	the	velocity	
necessary	to	simulate	all	the	movements	(Appendix	B1).	
For	each	parameter	(flexion,	forces	and	torque)	of	interest	were	taken	on	the	graphs	the	most	
significant	points	and	it	was	calculate	the	percentage	of	the	cycle,	the	duration	and	the	velocity.	
Below	is	showed	an	example	for	the	walking.
49	
																																																									Fig	31:	Example:	Main	points	of	interest	for	the	walking		
Table	3:	Data	of	main	phases	of	the	walking.	
	
	
	
	
	
The	other	step	was	to	understand	what	kind	of	motors	should	be	the	best	choice	to	replicate	the	
movements:	
Ø Flexion/extension	and	intra/extra	rotation	
There	are	two	categories	of	motors:	
• AC	motors;		
• DC	motors;		
The	AC	motors	have	a	higher	power	and	angular	velocity	than	the	DC	motor	but	the	
first	category	is	principally	more	expensive	than	the	other,	so	the	market	research	
was	focused	on	DC	motor	only.		
With	the	term	DC	motors	it	is	assembled	three	motors	categories:	DC,	Servo	and	
Stepper.		
The	first	type,	when	the	power	is	supplied,	starts	spinning	until	that	power	is	
removed.	Most	DC	motors	run	at	a	high	rpm.	The	speed	of	DC	is	controlled	using	
pulse	width	modulation	(PWM),	a	technique	of	rapidly	pulsing	the	power	on	and	off.	
STEP	 F/E		 CYCLE	 DURATION		 RPM	
1	 10°	-	20°	 0%	-14,8%	 0,74	s	 2,25	
2	 20°-13°	 14,8%-30%	 0,76	s	 1,54	
3	 13°	 30%-50%	 1	s	 	
4	 13°-65°	 50%-76,5%	 1,33	s	 6,51	
5	 65°-10°	 76,5	%	-	100%	 1,2	s	 7,65
50	
Each	pulse	is	so	rapid	that	the	motor	appears	to	be	continuously	spinning	with	no	
stuttering.			
Servomotors	are	generally	an	assembly	of	four	parts:	a	DC	motor,	a	gearing	set,	a	
control	circuit	and	a	position-sensor	(usually	a	potentiometer).	The	position	of	
servomotors	can	be	controlled	more	precisely	than	those	of	standard	DC	motors.	
Power	to	servomotors	is	constantly	applied	and	they	are	designed	for	more	specific	
tasks	where	position	needs	to	be	defined	accurately.	Servomotors	do	not	rotate	
freely	like	a	standard	DC	motor,	in	fact,	the	angle	of	rotation	is	limited	to	180	
degrees	back	and	forth.		Furthermore,	when	a	servo	is	commanded	to	move,	it	will	
move	to	the	position	and	hold	that	position,	even	if	external	force	pushes	against	it.	
At	last,	stepper	motor	is	essentially	a	servomotor	that	uses	a	different	method	of	
motorisation.	Where	a	servomotor	uses	a	continuous	rotation	DC	motor	and	
integrated	controller	circuit,	stepper	motors	utilise	multiple	toothed	electromagnets	
arranged	around	a	central	gear	to	define	position.				
Stepper	motors	require	an	external	control	circuit	or	micro	controller	(e.g.	a	Dspace	
or	Arduino)	to	individually	energise	each	electromagnet	and	make	the	motor	shaft	
turn.	Each	rotation	from	one	electromagnet	to	the	next	is	called	a	"step",	and	thus	
the	motor	can	be	turned	by	precise	pre-defined	step	angles	through	a	full	360-
degree	rotation.		The	design	of	the	stepper	motor	provides	a	constant	high	holding	
torque	without	the	need	for	the	motor	to	be	powered	and,	provided	that	the	motor	
is	used	within	its	limits,	positioning	errors	don't	occur,	since	stepper	motors	have	
physically	pre-defined	stations.		
	
Table	4:	Summary	of	features	of	Servo	DC	and	Stepper	DC:		
	
Features	
Servo	 Stepper	
Excellent	in	applications	requiring	
speeds	greater	than	2000	RPM		
	
Excellent	for	low	to	medium	acceleration	
rates	and	for	high	holding	torque		
	
Rotation	limited	to	180°		
	
Doesn’t	lose	steps	or	require	encoders		
	
More	expensive	 Less	expensive		
	
	
Considering	that	the	velocity	necessary	are	not	very	high	(max	20	rpm)	and	that	torques	
have	important	values,	the	best	choice	possible	for	the	motors	was	the	Stepper	type.
51	
	
Ø Axial	load	and	antirior/postirior	translation:	
	
The	choice	for	simulating	these	two	parameters	was	immediately	focused	on	the	
linear	actuators	type.		
They	are	systems	that	create	motion	in	a	straight	line,	in	contrast	to	the	circular	
motion	of	a	conventional	electric	motor.	Generically,	it	is	possible	to	divided	linear	
actuators	into	6	types:	
	
1) Mechanical	actuators:	they	typically	operate	by	conversion	of	rotary	motion	into	
linear	motion.	Conversion	is	commonly	made	via	a	few	simple	types	of	
mechanism:	screw	(it	translates	turning	motion	into	linear	motion),	wheel,	axle	
and	cam.	
	
2) Hydraulic	actuators:	also	named	as	hydraulic	cylinders,	typically	involve	a	
hollow	cylinder	having	a	piston	inserted	in	it.	An	unbalanced	pressure	applied	
to	the	piston	generates	force	that	can	move	an	external	object.	
	
3) Pneumatic	actuators:	they	are	similar	to	hydraulic	actuators	except	they	use	
compressed	gas	to	generate	force	instead	of	a	liquid.	They	work	similarly	to	a	
piston	in	which	air	is	pumped	inside	a	chamber	and	pushed	out	of	the	other	side	
of	the	chamber.	Air	actuators	are	not	necessarily	used	for	heavy-duty	machinery	
and	instances	where	large	amounts	of	weight	are	present.	
	
4) Piezoelectric	actuators:	The	piezoelectric	effect	is	a	property	of	certain	
materials	in	which	the	application	of	a	voltage	to	the	material	causes	it	to	
expand.	Very	high	voltages	correspond	to	only	tiny	expansions.	As	a	result,	
piezoelectric	actuators	can	achieve	extremely	fine	positioning	resolution,	but	
also	have	a	very	short	range	of	motion.	
	
5) Electro-mechanical	actuators:	Electro-mechanical	actuators	are	similar	to	
mechanical	actuators	except	that	the	control	knob	or	handle	is	replaced	with	an	
electric	motor.	Rotary	motion	of	the	motor	is	converted	to	linear	displacement.	
There	are	many	designs	of	modern	linear	actuators	and	every	company	that	
manufactures	them	tends	to	have	a	proprietary	method.		
	
6) Telescoping	linear	actuator:	this	type	is	a	specialized	linear	actuators	group	
used	where	space	restrictions	exist.	Their	range	of	motion	is	many	times	greater	
than	the	unexpended	length	of	the	actuating	member.	A	common	form	is	made	
of	concentric	tubes	of	approximately	equal	length	that	extend	and	retract	like	
sleeves,	one	inside	the	other,	such	as	the	telescopic	cylinder.	
	
Analysing	the	list	of	these	actuator,	with	their	characteristics,	the	stroke	and	the	
dynamic	load	that	they	can	sustain,	the	only	one	that	seemed	to	be	respectful	of	the
52	
features	researched	and	the	budget	available	has	been	the	electro-mechanical	
actuators.	
		
The	dynamic	load	is	the	maximum	value	of	force	that	the	linear	actuator	can	
generate	when	it	pushes	or	pulls.	Since	for	the	project	the	axial	force	it	was	limited	
to	raise	up	to	1000	N,	the	dynamic	load	that	must	searched	in	the	linear	actuator	is	
1200	N	more	or	less,	in	order	to	be	sure	to	realize	the	correct	movement.		
The	stroke	was	not	considered	as	main	parameter	because,	since	one	of	the	linear	
actuators	must	replicate	the	axial	force,	there	could	be	always	the	contact	between	
the	tibial	and	femoral	part	and,	additionally,	the	anterior/posterior	translations	
were	considered	as	limited	to	influence	the	choice.		
In	addiction	to	this,	for	the	project	it	was	chosen	to	control	the	anterior/posterior	
translations	with	the	forces.
53	
8.2	Research	on	market	
	
Fixed	the	specifics	and	the	technical	features	for	the	motors,	it	was	started	the	research	
on	market,	basing	it	on	a	safety	factor	of	20%	to	be	sure	that	the	motors	can	handle	the	
necessary	forces	and	torques.		
In	this	step	of	the	project	it	was	also	very	important	to	consider	the	budget.	At	the	beginning,	the	
total	amount	available	was	discussed	and	it	was	fixed	to	1500	€.	For	this	reason	the	research	on	
market	was	focused	on	e-commerce	web	sites	and	on	the	Oriental	market.		
After	a	global	exploration,	the	most	important	companies	were	found	on	the	Chinese	market:	the	
brands	were	Sito	Motor	and	SZGH.	Several	negotiation	were	enrolled	with	these	companies	and	
some	estimate	were	receive,	but	the	first	one	sold	only	the	linear	actuators	and	the	second	one	
was	not	exhaustive	enough	to	give	detailed	information	about	the	products,	hence	they	were	
abandoned	and	the	research	was	continued.	
After	a	this	first	period,	with	an	increase	of	the	budget	(3000	€),	the	research	was	moved	on	the	
European	and	American	market.	
To	be	sure	to	find	the	best	quality	and	feature	to	achieve	the	right	product,	with	the	best	price,	
several	companies,	like	shows	in	the	table	in	appendix	B2,	were	contacted.	Beckhoff,	ABB,	
Maxom,	Setec	are	some	example	of	the	brands	contacted.	
During	this	part	of	the	project,	two	main	problems	appeared:	the	price	for	the	motors,	they	were	
more	expensive	than	the	selected	budget,	and	the	values	of	torques	and	forces,	they	were	too	
high	for	finding	easily	different	motors	to	make	a	comparison.	
Despite	these	issues,	continuing	the	research	it	was	found	Garnet	Srl	company.	It	has	provided	an	
offer	that	was	considered	as	the	best	solution	for	the	quality,	the	price	and	also	for	the	assistance	
furnished.		In	this	way	it	was	possible	to	buy	the	four	motors	with	a	final	price	of	2500	€.
54	
8.3	Final	choice	
	
Below	there	is	an	explication	of	the	chosen	motors.	
	
Ø Flexion/extension	motor:		
	
The	S-SERVO-PR-60L-PG-PN50	is	a	motor	with	gearbox	installed	and	a	step	angle	of	
1.8°.		
The	gearbox	allows	to	have	less	speed	but	an	increase	of	the	torque.		
All	its	principal	data	have	been	set	on	table	5,	for	more	information	see	the	appendix	
B3.		
	
Table	5:	Principal	features	of	flexion/extension	motor.	
	
Motor	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Phases	 	 2	
Current	per	Phase	 A	 4	
Maximum	Holding	Torque	 Nm	 27	
Rotor	Inertia	Moment	 Kgm2	 690x10-7	
Reduction	Gear	Ratio	 	 50	
Maximum	Torque	 Nm	 50	
Speed	Range	 rpm	 0-60	
Permitted	axial	load	 N	 640	
	
This	motor	is	linked	to	SV-NDR-60	driver	to	control	the	velocity	and	the	torque.	The	
main	data	of	the	driver	have	been	set	on	table	6,	for	more	information	see	the	
appendix.	B3.		
	
Table	6:	Principal	features	of	driver.	
	
Driver	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Input	Voltage	 VDC	 24	
Current		 mA	 500	
Rotation	Speed	Range	 rpm	 0-3000	
Resolution	Range	 P/R	 500-50000	
Communication	Interface	 RS485-Serial	with	the	PC	
Position	Control	 Absolut/Incremental	mode
55	
Ø Intra/extra	rotation	motor:		
	
The	S-SERVO-PR-60L-PG-PN25	is	a	motor	with	gearbox	installed	and	a	step	angle	of	
1.8°.		
All	its	principal	data	have	been	set	on	table	7,for	more	information	see	the	appendix	
B3.		
	
Table	7:	Principal	features	of	intra/extra	rotation	motor.	
	
Motor	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Phases	 	 2	
Current	per	Phase	 A	 4	
Maximum	Holding	Torque	 Nm	 27	
Rotor	Inertia	Moment	 Kgm2	 690x10-7	
Reduction	Gear	Ratio	 	 25	
Maximum	Torque	 Nm	 50	
Speed	Range	 rpm	 0-120	
Permitted	axial	load	 N	 790	
	
This	motor	is	linked	to	SV-NDR-60	driver	to	control	the	velocity	and	the	torque.	The	
main	data	of	the	driver	have	been	set	on	table	8,	for	more	information	see	the	
appendix.	B3.		
	
Table	8:	Principal	features	of	driver.	
	
Driver	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Input	Voltage	 VDC	 24	
Current		 mA	 500	
Rotation	Speed	Range	 rpm	 0-3000	
Resolution	Range	 P/R	 500-50000	
Communication	Interface	 RS485-Serial	with	the	PC	
Position	Control	 Absolut/Incremental	mode
56	
Ø Axial	force:	
	
The	NEMA23C2120A4-200SMS	is	captive	hybrid	precision	linear	actuator.	
It	is	a	system	composed	by	the	motor	with	the	standard	NEMA	23	size	and	a	
system	that	transforms	the	rotatory	motions	in	a	translation	(the	linear	actuator	as	
normally	named).	
All	its	principal	data	have	been	set	on	table	9	and	10,	for	more	information	see	the	
appendix.	B3.		
	
Table	9:	Principal	features	of	the	motor.	
	
Motor	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Phases	 	 2	
Current	per	Phase	 A	 2.8	
Maximum	Holding	Torque	 Nm	 0.538	
Rotor	Inertia	Moment	 gcm2	 1207	
Weight	 g	 470	
Length	 mm	 41	
	
	
Table	10:	Principal	features	of	linear	actuator	device.	
	
Linear	Actuator	Data	 Unit	 Value	
Dynamic	Load		 N	 1200	
Screw	Diameter	 mm	 9,5	
Lead	 mm	 0,635	
Stroke	 mm	 50	
Motor	Length	 mm	 45	
	
	
Ø Anterior/posterior	translation:	
	
For	this	movement	it	was	chosen	the	same	motor	of	the	axial	force.	The	reason	of	
this	choice	is	to	have	a	more	easy	control	of	the	motors,	maintaning	the	same	
characteristics.	Before	the	purchase	it	was	checked	that	the	NEMA23C2120A4-
200SMS	had	correct	technical	features,	as	force	or	lead,	to	develop	the	movement.
57	
9.	Definitive	prototype	
	
9.1	Design	&	Development	
	
After	the	research	on	the	market	of	the	motors	and	their	purchase,	coupled	with	others	further	
meetings	with	specific	technicians	that	have	been	shown	others	positive	and	negative	attitudes,	it	
was	possible	to	define	the	last	and	definitive	version	of	the	structure	device.	
Considering	the	motors	shape	and	according	with	the	study	of	few	mechanical	parts	to	be	
performed,	this	prototype	represents	an	optimization	of	the	third	one	with	more	specific	details,	
in	order	to	ensure,	as	usual,	the	whole	degrees	of	freedom	during	each	simulated	motion.	
Furthermore,	for	this	aim,	more	specific	particulars	were	added	to	be	able	to	develop	the	
movements	and	to	control	them	in	a	easier	and	safer	approach.	
	
	
Fig.	32:	Forth	prototype	CAD	
	
The	new	prototype	shows	the	concretization	of	how	motors	can	replicate	the	movements	of	
interest.	In	particular,	it	was	designed	the	separation	in	two	different	device	of	the	lower	part,	in	
order	to	generate	intra/extra	rotation	and	axial	load	with	two	different	systems	(a	linear	actuator	
and	a	rotatory	motor)	but	coupled	together	thanks	to	a	pulley	system.		
The	design	of	the	frame	on	the	lower	part,	where	these	two	motors	have	place,	was	re-considered	
and	changed	to	allow	a	clear	and	smooth	anterior/posterior	movement.
58	
Furthermore,	the	tibial	and	femur	supports	of	the	previous	design	were	substituted	with	
components	made	by	the	3D	printer	presents	in	the	university	department	in	the	interest	of	
being	able	to	develop	several	initial	tests	and,	only	after	those	one,	construct	the	supports	in	
metals	(as	considered	in	the	previous	prototypes).
59	
9.2	Prototype	overview	
	
Considering	the	budget	remained	after	the	motors	purchase	and	the	possibility	to	gain	time	
for	building	the	structure’s	parts,	the	material	considered	to	be	used	for	the	greatest	part	of	
the	components	of	the	device	were	still	the	aluminium.	This	choice	seemed	to	be	the	best,	
regarding	the	good	features	of	this	material	(ductile	and	malleable	metal)	and	the	possibility	
to	manufacture	them	in	the	same	department	were	the	project	was	developing.	
Besides,	the	joint	parts	(cylinder	supports	for	the	upper	and	laterals	parts	and	the	arches	
connection)	are	supposed	to	be	manufactured	in	stainless	steel,	either	for	its	stronger	
proprieties	and	corrosion	resistance,	either	for	ensuring	a	better	motions	control	guide	and	
feasibility	of	a	smooth	movement.	
At	the	end,	to	avoid	all	possible	presence	of	friction	while	the	device	is	moving,	it	was	decide	
to	add	two	rolling	bearing	inside	the	cylinders	situated	into	the	laterals	supports.	
	
Below,	an	overview	of	the	last	prototype	and	a	focus	of	each	news	components	were	showed.	
	
	
	
																																																																													
	
As	possible	to	see	in	the	overview,	another	lateral	support	was	added	(n°19).	The	aim	of	this	
second	beam	on	the	side	where	the	motor	is	place	is	to	block	several	tangential	or	axial	forces	
and	reduce	the	load	on	the	motor	shaft.		
In	addiction,	two	cylindrical	rolling	bearings	(n°7)	were	placed	inside	the	supports	holes.	
Their	function	is	to	avoid	friction	between	the	metallic	parts	of	the	supports	and	the	cylinders,	
handling	stress	and	generating	a	smoother	movement.	
Among	several	type	of	rolling	bearings	(spherical,	gear,	needle,	etc.)	this	type	was	chosen	
because	of	their	behaviour	to	carry	heavy	loads,	which	means	the	load	is	distributed	over	a	
Fig.	33:	Overview	of	forth	prototype
60	
larger	area,	enabling	the	bearing	to	handle	larger	amounts	of	weight.	This	structure,	however,	
means	the	bearing	can	handle	primarily	radial	loads,	but	is	not	suited	to	thrust	loads.	
All	the	lower	parts	were	re-designed:	to	avoid	the	use	of	a	heavy	aluminium	block,	the	frame	
for	the	anterior/posterior	translation	(n°11)	was	divided	in	a	thin	part	(to	fix	the	support	
where	will	be	positioned	the	intra-extra	rotation	motor,	the	linear	actuator	for	the	axial	force	
and	the	pulley	system)	and	another	composed	of	two	square	beams	(n°12)	to	guide	and	avoid	
problems	of	non-alignment	during	the	back	and	forth	movement.		
	
	
In	particular,	the	pulley	system	(n°17)	was	made	considering	a	gear	ratio	which	can	allowing	
the	motor	to	transfer	his	movement	quickly	and	without	complex	calculation:	the	pulley	
under	the	axial	load	motor	has	an	internal	diameter	of	80	mm	and	the	other	one	40	mm,	thus	
the	gear	ratio	considered	was	2.	
	
		Fig.	35:	Pulley	system	for	the	intra	extra	rotation	
	
In	conclusion,	the	flexion/extension	motor	support	(n°9)	was	performed	to	be	similar	to	a	
simple	table;	this	can	permit	to	have	more	space	on	the	frame,	less	weight	and	more	
feasibility	to	be	manufactured.	
	
Fig.	34	:	Anterior/posterior,	intra/extra	rotation	and	axial	force	system
61	
The	supports	and	the	tibial	trial	container	were	printed	in	3D	due	to	their	difficulty	and	time	
to	manufacture	if	there	were	built	in	aluminium	as	designed	previously.	The	3D	printer	uses	
PLA	as	ink	(Young	modulus	of	3.5	GPa),	which	is	melted	and	deposed	on	a	glass	base,	through	
a	nozzle	with	a	diameter	of	0.5	mm	(it	determines	the	resolution).		
All	these	components	were	designed	with	a	CAD	program	and	after	transfer	on	software	
linked	to	the	3D	printer.	The	development	of	the	pieces	is	reached	following	a	deposition	of	
the	PLA	ink	layer	by	layer,	with	a	sponge	structure	inside	(hexagonal	cells)	and	a	thick	cover.	
This	composition	is	regulated	by	different	parameters	setup:	the	density,	the	thickness	of	the	
cover	and	the	layers.		Another	important	features	of	these	PLA	parts	is	that	their	shapes	is	
different	from	the	original	shapes	because	in	this	way	it	was	possible	to	reduce	the	time	of	
production	using	less	material.	
	
		
	
	
	
Fig.	36:	From	left	to	right:	Tibial	support,	femoral	support,	container	for	fixing	the	tibial	tray
62	
9.3	Critical	Discussion	
	
According	to	the	feedback	received	from	several	qualify	staff	of	the	BEAM	department	and	
considering	that	the	dynamic	and	static	analysis	was	not	changed	from	the	previous	
prototype	due	the	same	upper	structure,	this	version	was	approved	as	the	right	choice	on	
which	starts	the	real	construction	of	the	Knee	Simulator	Device.		
Consequently,	each	single	component	was	modelled	as	a	technical	drawing	(appendix	B6)	and	
disposed	for	mechanical	technician,	so	as	to	proceed	with	the	real	construction.		
This	step	permitted	to	advance	in	the	development	of	the	device,	arriving	at	the	final	
construction	of	the	architecture.	
	
	
Fig.	37:	Final	overview	of	the	device	
	
Besides,	finishing	the	manufacture	step	of	the	project	and	according	with	the	negotiation	of	
manpower	obtained,	it	was	possible	also	to	evaluate	the	total	amount	for	the	construction	and	
the	manufacture	time	spent	by	the	technician.	
The	mechanical	technician	spent	an	average	of	30	hours	of	working	at	20	€/h	and,	evaluating	
the	price	on	the	market,	he	used	a	huge	total	amount	of	material	equal	to	approximately	of	
500€.	
Therefore,	the	budget	disbursed	for	this	part	of	the	project	was	1100€,	that	it	should	be	
respected	considering	the	segmentation	proposed	in	the	total	budget	at	the	begging	of	the	
project	(70%	of	5000€	for	the	motors	purchase	and	30%	for	the	architecture	development).
63	
10.	Motors	control	
	
10.1	Evaluation	of	control	system	
	
After	the	choice	of	the	motors,	the	next	step	of	the	project	was	to	evaluate	how	to	control	the	
motors.	
Through	to	the	state	of	the	art	and	with	researches	on	Internet,	it	was	discovered	that	the	main	
controllers	used	are:	
	
Ø dSPACE:	
The	main	features	that	dSPACE	generally	proposes	are:	completely	customizable	to	fit	
customer/user	needs,	manage	and	preserve	all	types	of	digital	content	(PDF,	Word,	JPEG,	
MPEG…)	and	possibility	to	be	installed	out	of	the	box.	This	processor	boards	provide	the	
computing	power	for	a	real-time	system	and	also	functions	as	interfaces	to	the	I/O	boards	
and	the	host	PC.	The	dSPACE	is	the	board	of	choice	for	applications	with	high	sampling	
rates	and	a	lot	of	I/O	capacity.	High	processing	power	plus	fast	access	to	I/O	hardware	
with	minimum	latencies	make	dSPACE	processor	boards	considerably	faster	than	
solutions	based	on	commonly	available	PCs.	Furthermore,	this	board	is	available	to	run	on	
Windows,	Linux,	Unix	but	not	with	MacOS.	
	
Ø Raspberry	PI:	
This	controller	unit	is	a	series	of	single-board	computers	developed	in	England.	Even	if	the	
models	and	functions	are	different,	the	hardware	is	the	same	across	all	manufacturers.	
Raspberry	PI	products	have	the	possibility	to	grow	up	the	number	of	pins	(up	to	40),	in	
the	same	time	also	have	more	than	4	USB	ports	and	the	prospect	to	use	a	micro-SD	card	
(included)	as	memory	where	find	the	script	to	test	the	components.	Raspberry	runs	with	
Ubuntu,	Linux	and	Windows	10.	
	
Ø Arduino:	
Is	an	open-source	computer	hardware	and	software	company,	a	user	community	that	
designs	and	manufactures	microcontroller-based	kits	for	building	digital	devices	and	
interactive	objects	that	can	sense	and	control	objects	in	the	physical	world.	The	Arduino	
board	exposes	most	of	the	microcontroller's	I/O	pins	for	use	by	other	circuits.	It	programs	
may	be	written	in	any	programming	language	with	a	compiler	that	produces	binary	
machine	code,	but	despite	on	this,	it	possess	a	specific	informatics	environment	for	the	
controllers	(Arduino	Software	IDE).	This	last	one,	it	is	user	friendly,	compatible	with	
several	type	of	operative	system	(also	MacOS)	but	without	an	exceptional	memory	(32	
kB).
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