Mcdonalds

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College Students and Fast Food Consumption:
A Measurement Model for McDonald’s
Allie Sommer
Boston University
April 28, 2016

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Contents
I. Introduction………………………………………………………………………3
II. Background………………………………………………………………………3
a. The Client………………………………………………………………….3
b. The Competition…………………………………………………………..6
c. The Industry……………………………………………………………….7
III. Literature Review..................................................................................................9
a. Scholarly Journals…………………………………………………………9
b. Newspaper Articles………………………………………………………20
c. Industry and Trade Publications…………………………………………20
IV. Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………...22
V. Proposed Predictors…………………………………………………………….24
a. Proposed Predictors from the Literature…………………………………24
b. Proposed Predictors Within the Theory of Planned Behavior……...……25
c. Selected Proposed Predictors…………………………………………….27
VI. Development of Measures……………………………………………………...28
a. Multiple-Item Measures………………………………………………….30
b. Single-Item Measures……………………………………………………35
VII. Development of Survey Instrument…………………………………………...37
VIII. Analysis of Measures…………………………………………………………...41
a. Qualitative Review………………………………………………………41
b. Assessment of Content Validity and Reliability…………………………43
IX. Revisions to the Survey Instrument………………………………………...…52
X. Conclusions……………………………………………………………………..57
XI. References……………………………………………………………………….58
XII. Appendix A: Inter-Item Correlations…………………………………………...i

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I. Introduction
In today’s health conscious world, “organic” is the new trend. Healthy
natural food is on the rise and the fast food industry is looked upon negatively. Its
inexpensive, processed, high trans fat, salty food offerings are seen as a major cause of
the rise in childhood obesity, and contributing factors to adult obesity and coronary heart
disease. It is high energy dense yet low nutritional content and typically served in large
portions. The fast food industry wants to regain its positive image especially among
college-aged consumers. Through research and data analysis, I will work towards
answering the research question: what factors influence fast food consumption among
college students. I will create, conduct, and pre-test a survey to determine the different
variables that contribute to young consumers’ motivation to visit fast food restaurants,
which will assist in the development of successful marketing strategies. Existing
literature and the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) will guide the development of this
survey. This analysis will help the client, McDonald’s, regain attraction and increase
market share among college students.
II. Background
The Client
McDonald’s golden arches are a universal symbol. With more than 36,000
restaurants in over 100 countries, McDonald’s is the largest fast food hamburger chain in
the world. It serves approximately 69 million people around the globe everyday
(McDonald's Corp., 2016a). Founded in 1948 by brothers Dick and Mac McDonald, the
restaurant started with a limited menu of hamburgers, fries and drinks in San Bernardino,
California. The local establishment was popular, but it was not until 1955 when Ray Kroc

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took over the company with the idea to franchise the business that the McDonald’s we
know today was born. Kroc opened his first McDonald’s with golden arches and the
iconic red and white tiled building in Des Plaines, Illinois. By 1959, 100 McDonald’s
franchises were scattered across the United States. (McDonald's Corp., 2016d)
Kroc created a unique business model. He wanted to develop a system that would
establish restaurants with quality and consistency. He lived by the slogan “ in business
for yourself, but not by yourself.” Kroc created universal standards that all the franchises
must uphold. In 1961, he founded Hamburger University, an employee-training program
to teach every employee how to successfully work at McDonald’s. Today, McDonald’s is
a publicly traded company (McDonald's Corp., 2016f).
Over the years, McDonald’s has greatly expanded its menu to serve more than
just hamburgers and fries. It now sells a variety of salads, snack wraps, chicken
sandwiches, chicken nuggets, fish sandwiches, pies, cookies, and ice cream cones, along
with beverages including milkshakes, milk, soft drinks, coffee and tea. It also has
broadened its scope by covering the first meal of the day. It serves an array of breakfast
foods including: muffins, biscuits, hotcakes, and egg sandwiches. McDonald’s is known
for their signature brand names such as Big Mac, Filet-O-Fish, Chicken McNuggets, Mac
Snack Wrap, McChicken, McMuffin, Mcgriddles and McCafe among others. All of these
items are very reasonably priced and most of them are on McDonald’s popular dollar
menu. This year, McDonald’s has slowly been rolling out its new “breakfast all day”
promotion. Now the restaurants will serve their breakfast menu all day instead of ending
service at 11am (Griswold, 2016).

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McDonald’s has always strived to be a child friendly, family oriented restaurant.
McDonald’s launched its famous mascot, Ronald McDonald in 1963. The smiling,
approachable clown has helped draw children into the franchises and has become a pop
culture icon. He has been featured in commercials and billboards. Balloons of Ronald
McDonald have even been featured in the annual Macy’s Thanksgiving Parades (Choi,
2015). One of the biggest draws for children is the “Happy Meal” debuted in 1977. A
“Happy Meal” includes an entrée, drink and side together with a current pop culture
character, typically a tie in with a popular children’s book or movie, all served in a
cardboard box that has arches as handles. Years later they created the “Mighty Kids
Meal” designed for older children who have bigger appetites. Nationwide, some
McDonald’s locations also have play spaces, which include enclosed jungle gyms.
Children can play for hours while the parents relax and enjoy their meal. McDonald’s
will even host your child’s birthday party providing Happy Meals, cake decorations and
party favors (McDonald's Corp., 2016e). Although not as heavily promoted today,
Ronald McDonald is still the face of the restaurants and as importantly, associated with
the company’s charity.
McDonald’s is widely known for the Ronald McDonald House charity (RMHC).
It was founded in 1974 with the idea to create a “home-away-from-home” for families
with sick children. As part of its philanthropy, McDonald’s contributes one cent to
RMHC every time someone buys a Happy Meal or Mighty Kids Meal. The charity
provides housing for families near their hospitalized child to help ease the expense of
staying together as a family away from home, as well as helps defray the cost of the
child’s medical care (McDonald's Corp., 2016g) Today, RMHC has local Chapters in 63

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countries, 203 Ronald McDonald Family Rooms, 49 Ronald McDonald Care Mobiles,
and 357 Ronald McDonald Houses (McDonald's Corp., 2016b).
McDonald’s vision is based on good food, good people, and good neighbor. It is
working hard to serve quality food while creating a good community. McDonald’s started
an initiative in 2014 to become more sustainable by purchasing more energy efficient
equipment and serving more fruits, vegetables and whole grains purchased from farmers
with better farming practices (McDonald's Corp., 2016c). With an eye towards offering
higher quality foods, last summer McDonald’s added premium sirloin burgers with a
lower fat content to its U.S. menus to compete with more upscale fast/casual, burger
restaurants. It charges a higher price for this product in line with Shake Shack and Five
Guys (Gaspparo, 2015). McDonald’s is working hard to transform its company to reflect
the evolving changes in society’s attitudes towards nutrition, food quality and sources, to
stay ahead of its competitors.
The Competition
The fast food industry has grown in popularity because the restaurants fit the
lifestyle of today’s society. More and more meals are eaten outside the home. Busy
families typically with both parents working, and college students juggle hectic and
uncoordinated schedules. These restaurants are convenient, moderately priced, and serve
consistent food products quickly. Although McDonald’s is a household name, Kentucky
Fried Chicken (KFC) and Burger King were founded years before (Vault, 2016).
Burger King is the second largest chain of fast food hamburger restaurants and
McDonald’s direct rival. It has over 12,100 locations in 76 countries and the United
States (MarketLine, 2012). Burger king is adding new menu items especially in the
breakfast category to continually fight for McDonald’s market shares. In 2015, Burger

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King refurbished 40 percent of its locations, which seemed to boost profits by 10 to 15
percent. Burger King has also introduced healthy options to stay culturally relevant
including its healthy side: apple fries (Yagalla, 2014).
Other competing major fast food franchises are owned by Yum! Brands. Yum!
Brands operates and franchises five different restaurant chains including, KFC, Pizza
Hut, Taco Bell, LJS and A&W, comprising over 37,000 dining establishments in 110
countries. They serve a variety of southern American, American and Mexican cuisines
(MarketLine, 2012).
Today, there is saturation in the fast food industry. More and more competitors
are entering the industry but riding the trend of eating healthy and unprocessed foods.
Consumers care more and want more. Fast casual dining restaurants like Panera Bread,
Chipotle and Shake Shack are stepping up to the plate and gaining market share by
offering more nutritious, natural food choices. They are moving the fast food industry
away from being a tradeoff between food quality and cheap prices. With the surge of
demand for healthy, organic, farm raised ingredients, and casual restaurants popping up
left and right in response, McDonald’s needs to change more to stay relevant with the
times (Krashinsky, 2014).
The Industry
The fast food industry was developed in parallel with the invention of the massed
produced automobile in the early twentieth century. When travel became popular,
roadside stands were built to feed the hurried travelers. Once highways and freeways
were built, restaurants were established near exits and thrived. By the 1950s, fast food
restaurants became popular and prospered through marketing. They used large road signs
and signature logos to make their franchise memorable. Chain restaurants became

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recognizable places to stop and have standardized menus. People knew what to expect
when they ate there and the consistency was a draw. In the 1960s, fast food restaurants
made history by adding a standardized children’s menu. Restaurants focused their efforts
on families and making eating an affordable, fun family excursion (“The History of Fast
Food in America.” n.d.).
Today, with over 200,000 restaurant locations nationwide, America is the world
leader in the fast food industry. The industry created $160 billion in revenues last year.
(“Fast Food Industry Analysis 2016 - Cost & Trends,” 2016). The industry employs over
four million workers to prepare and serve the multitude of cuisines offered. The industry
focuses on low cost, high production and speed. In the past 10 years, there has been a
negative light shined on fast food restaurants. The food is tasty, but typically high in fat
and salt and highly processed. The rise in childhood obesity and documentaries such as
Fast Food Nation and Super Size Me, have highlights the unhealthy repercussions of
regular consumption of fast food (“Fast Food Industry Analysis 2016 - Cost & Trends,”
2016).
Today’s focus on health awareness and sustainable farming practices has
consumers looking for companies that offer nutritious dining choices and support more
environmentally friendly practices. Consumers, especially Millennials, are looking for
companies that are socially conscious. To stay relevant, fast food chains have to adapt.
They are now adding fresh, organic products to their menus and advertising their non-
processed methods. Companies are also exploring new products to capture other market
segments. McDonald’s is expanding its McCafe line that is driving consumers away from
Starbucks and into its stores (“Fast Food Industry Analysis 2016 - Cost & Trends,”

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2016). The fast food industry is changing to reflect society’s changing attitude toward
food.
III. Literature Review
Fast food has long been regarded as an inexpensive, convenient place to eat for all
ages including teenagers and young adults. With the changing temperament of today’s
society, unhealthy, processed trans fats are typically what people think about when they
think of traditional fast food restaurants. Consumers still want to eat convenient, fast food
but not at the cost of their health. New fast casual dining establishments are popping up
that address nutritional concerns and are gaining market share in relation to traditional
fast food restaurants. Fast food restaurants must discern why consumers visit their
restaurants to be able to withstand the challenge of these new (and old) rivals and step up
their share of the markets. Many research studies have been conducted to analyze and
measure: What motivates and determines consumers’ choice of fast foods and the
restaurants that sell it?
Scholarly Articles
Avram and Oravitan (2013) conducted a cross- sectional study evaluating the
frequency that university students ate fruits, vegetables and fast food. The goal was to
provide evidentiary information to increase their consumption of healthy foods so as to
prevent the development of heart disease. High levels of trans fatty acids and salt in
excess of the World Health Organization’s daily-recommended intake are typically found
in fast foods. Consumption of these products has been found to increase the odds of dying
from cardiovascular disease (Avram & Oravitan, 2013, p. 58).

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435 university students (mean age: 22) from Timisoara University Center,
Romania, answered a self-administered survey concerning their food intake. The survey
defined “fruits and vegetables” as any fruits and vegetables, whether fresh, frozen or
canned, other than potatoes (Avram & Oravitan, 2013, p. 55). It defined “fast food” as
“food sold in a restaurant or store with preheated or precooked ingredients, and served to
the customer in a packaged form for take-out/take-away”(Avram & Oravitan, 2013, p.
55).
The study found that most often the university students snacked after
school. Two thirds of them consumed no fruits or vegetables daily and 26% of them eat
fast food often (2-3 times a week or daily). For another 30% fast food was consumed
regularly (once a week). The study identified three primary determinants for the students’
choice of fast food: insufficient time, school program, and insufficient funds (Avram &
Oravitan, 2013, p. 57).
The accessibility of fatty, salty fast food is wide spread throughout Europe. From
1989 to 2009, McDonald’s alone increased the number of its restaurants there 1000
times. Fast food is convenient, available, tasty, efficient and low-cost. The study found all
these factors are causing a high prevalence of fast food consumption; nutrition education
and more affordable healthy food options are necessary to change these patterns and
reduce and possibly prevent cardiovascular disease (Avram & Oravitan, 2013, p. 58).
A study by Bryant and Dundes (2008) focused on how culture and gender
influence one’s opinions of fast food. Convenience samples of 196 college students, 89
from Spain and 107 from the United States were asked to take a survey in 2005. The
students from Spain studied at the University of Granada and the American students

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studied at either McDaniel College or Carroll Community College. The survey included a
ranking of priorities when eating fast food. These priorities included: ability to socialize
at the location, food’s taste/flavor, nutritional value, overall value, and convenience. An
open-ended question addressed their impressions on the growth of the fast food industry
in their home country (Bryant & Dundes, 2008, p. 328).
The study found that taste/flavor (76% Spaniards and 84% Americans) was highly
ranked as a priority. Ability to socialize while eating was only considered a priority to
14% of both groups. More American males deemed value (volume of food for the cost)
important than American females and Spaniards. Sixty percent of American females and
60% of Spaniards regarded nutritional value a priority (Bryant & Dundes, 2008, p. 328).
When students were asked why they eat fast food, the majority listed convenience as their
number one response. Significantly fewer Americans, particularly men, opposed the
increase in fast food establishments than Spaniards. Nearly 25% of the Spaniards
reported that they never consume or purchase fast food compared to only 3% of
Americans. It is believed Spaniards place more importance on nutritional value.
Shopping at local markets, daily, for fresh food is a custom in Spanish culture, unlike in
America (Bryant & Dundes, 2008, p. 329).
Driskell, Meckna and Scales (2006) conducted a survey to analyze the differences
in fast food restaurant eating habits among male and female college students. Students at
a Midwestern university aged 19 years and older were solicited to participate in the
survey. 113 respondents were male and 113 respondents were female. Thirteen percent
were freshmen; 24% sophomores; 44% juniors and 19% seniors. A two-page
questionnaire addressed the factors that influence eating at fast food restaurants including

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nutritional data provided for the food options, serving size and the student’s perception of
healthy foods. It also asked demographic questions and how often the participant ate at
fast food establishments (Driskell, Meckna, & Scales, 2006, p. 525).
They found, overall, at least once a week, more people eat at fast food
establishments during lunch (84% men and 58% women) and dinner (82% of
participants) rather than breakfast (11% of participants). Also, more men eat at fast food
restaurants than women. The more popular fast food places visited at least weekly served
deli sandwiches (73%), American burgers and fries (62%) and Mexican options (53%).
Types of beverages consumed with their food varied depending on gender. More men
typically ordered carbonated sodas while women ordered diet carbonated sodas and water
(Driskell et al., 2006, p. 526).
The study also found that the two primary reasons participants decided to eat fast
food were a time crunch (71%) and flavor (41%). The other reason most often selected by
the participants for choosing fast food included socializing, location, price, inability to
cook for themselves, variety of menu options and advertisements (Driskell et al., 2006, p.
526).
Another study conducted by Gerend (2009) analyzed the effects on fast food
choices by college students when calorie data is available. Introductory psychology
students (111 male and 177 female) with a mean age of 18.6 years, participated in the
experiment for course credit. In varying sized groups, the students chose what fast foods
they would eat based on three dining situations. Randomly, parts of the group were given
menus that displayed the calories for each food item, while some had menus without. The
dining choices reflected the usual items such as French fries, chicken nuggets, and salad

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with dressings, etc. All menu items included prices. The experiment also captured
demographics and the frequency students ate at fast food restaurants (Gerend, 2009, p.
84).
The study found that women who knew the calories associated with the food
items selected foods significantly lower in calories. They chose the menu items with
fewer calories, not just fewer items. The women also selected the less costly items when
the calories were displayed. In contrast, the study also found that having the calorie data
available played no part in men’s fast food choices (Gerend, 2009, p. 85).
A cross-sectional study performed by Boek, Bianco-Simeral, Chan, and Goto
(2012) investigated the role gender and race play in food choice by college students when
eating on campus, with the goal of applying the results to change dining behaviors. They
distributed a survey to 405 California State University college students 18 years or older
(mean age: 21.50 ±3.49 years) and used Chi-square and logistic regression to analyze the
results. Sixty-one percent of the participants were female and 39% male. The race
distribution aligned with the school’s population: 71.6% were white, 11.9%
Latino/Hispanic, 7.2% Asian, 1.7% African American, and the remaining 2.7% were
Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Native American. The survey’s independent variables
were gender and race. The dependent variables included where the preferred foods were
purchased on campus and individual participant’s preferences in taste and of unhealthy
foods. The survey was reviewed for content validity and readability by10 nutrition
professionals and three faculty members and pilot tested by eight students. Its test-retest
reliability was also confirmed (Boek, Bianco-Simeral, Chan, & Goto, 2012, p. 373).

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The study found taste was the most frequent reason for a food like across all
members of the study. With respect to food dislikes, however, gender and race had a
meaningful effect on the food choices of the participants. The non-white participating
students (Latino, Asian, African American, Hawaiian and Native American) were
decidedly more inclined to select inconvenience, price and taste over unhealthiness, for
reasons for disliking food than white students. It also found that men were more inclined
to choose price, taste, and bad quality over healthiness as reasons for disliking food;
however women were more inclined to take into account nutrition when buying food
(Boek et al., 2012, p. 375). The study concluded that on a diverse campus, a tailored
marketing campaign to improve nutrition knowledge and influence dietary choices might
work better than a race and gender-neutral campaign. (Boek et al., 2012, p. 376)
In 2000, Knutson conducted a study to determine, “what drives students’ choices
among fast-food restaurants and how are fast-food brands positioned in the college
market?” (Knutson, 2000, p. 69). To answer these questions, college students from
Michigan State University were solicited to participate in two focus groups. Each group
contained members of both sexes representing all college years. All participants had
eaten at a fast food establishment one or more times in the preceding month. From the
information learned from the focus groups, a survey to administer over the telephone was
developed. The survey included three parts. Part one requested the participants to rank
the importance of 13 features when selecting a fast food establishment. Part two
questioned which fast food establishment the participant thought of upon hearing 13
positioning traits. The third part collected demographic data about the participants and

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addressed the frequency at which they dined at fast food establishments. Knutson then
performed analysis on the collected data using SPSS (Knutson, 2000, p. 71).
The study found, on average 40.4% of the participants dined at a fast food
establishment four times a week. Most students (63.2%) spent $4 to $5 a visit. The most
popular restaurant visited was McDonald’s (28%), followed by Subway (21%) and
Burger King (16%). The vast majority of the students (69%) said the driving force for
going to their fast food restaurant was cleanliness. This surprising result was attributed to
recent media coverage of contaminated hamburgers at Jack in the Box. The next biggest
influence was the friendliness of workers (67.5%), followed by price (67%) (Knutson,
2000, p. 72). Other driving factors for college students to go to a fast food restaurant
were, fast service (61.5%), menu constancy (60%), array of food choices (59.5%), and
location (59%). Knutson also identified less popular factors influencing restaurant
choices such as short-term price promotions, coupons, and atmosphere (Knutson, p. 72).
The study concluded that more marketing dollars should be spent targeting college
students, promoting the cleanliness and friendliness of a restaurant should be a stronger
focus, and clearer brand images should be presented to this group who are transitioning
from their parent’s home and developing their own brand loyalties (Knutson, 2000).
Dave, An, Jeffery, and Ahluwalia (2009) performed a study to investigate the
relationship between opinions about fast food and how often it is consumed among
adults. Five hundred thirty Minnesota residents older than 18 years took a 10-minute
telephone survey. Information on opinions about fast food was only gathered from those
interviewed that had eaten fast food in the past week. The survey measured
demographics, how often fast food was consumed and opinions about fast food. Attitudes

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toward fast food were calculated using a 13-item scale with a 5-point Likert scale
response category. Data analysis was conducted using SPSS (Dave, An, Jeffrey, &
Ahluwalia, 2009, p. 1165).
The participants had a mean age of 42.3 +/- 13.5 years. Most of the participants
were white (94%) and married (70%). Sixty-five percent were female and 35% were male
(Dave et al., 2009, p. 1165). The study found men were more inclined to dine at fast food
establishments than women, and the frequency of fast food intake decreased as the
participant’s age increased. The marital status of the participants also was relevant;
single individuals were more inclined to consume fast food than married/partnered (or
previously married/partnered) individuals. (Dave et al., 2009, p. 1166). The study found
strong substantial connections between the incidence of fast food consumption with
ease/accessibility of fast food and the participants’ aversion towards preparing hi/her own
meals (Dave et al., 2009, p. 1168).
Another study led by Lucan, Barg, and Long (2010) set out to find what boosts
and blocks the intake of fruits, vegetables and fast food among urban, low income
African Americans and to determine variations among gender and age. They held
interviews in Philadelphia in a predominantly African American neighborhood. The
participants self-identified themselves as African American and were between the ages
18 to 81. The study questioned 20 men and 20 women, 10 of each group were 18-35
years and the balance over 35 years. The principal investigator or a trained research
assistant conducted the interviews throughout the day and evening. All participants
received $15 to take part in the study. Participants verbalized “freelists” in response to

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visual and verbal prompts. The interviews were recorded and analyzed (Lucan, Barg, &
Long, 2010, p. 631).
The study found that every participant believed taste and flavor were the biggest
boosters promoting the intake of all foods and cost was the biggest block. A craving
boosted the intake of fast food and personal favorites boosted the intake of fast food and
fruits, but were a block for vegetables. Ease and access encouraged fast food
consumption, but was a block to fruits and vegetables. Wellbeing was a booster for fruits
and vegetables, while a barrier to fast food. For men, family or friend influence
promoted vegetables, while for women, the idea of being part of a meal promoted
vegetables (Lucan et al., 2010, 631).
Longacre and associates (2012), conducted a survey to examine if having fast
food restaurants in the geographic neighborhood influences fast food consumption among
adolescents and parents, and to determine if there is a connection, if it is affected by
family access to cars. One thousand five hundred forty seven adolescents and parents
from New Hampshire and Vermont communities participated in telephone surveys
conducted by qualified interviewers between 2007 and 2008. Through special telephone
computer technology, the adolescents and parents were surveyed separately. Fast food
consumption was measured through self-report. Family car accessibility was determined
by measuring how many cars there were for each licensed driver in the family. How
many fast food restaurants were located in the community was measured through on-site
community assessments (Longacre et al., 2012, p. 579).
The adolescents questioned ranged in age from 12 to 18 years with a mean age of
14.4 years. Fifty percent were female and 94.3% of the sample characterized as non-

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Hispanic white. Only 5.5% of the adolescents had a driver’s license. Most adult
participants were mothers aged 40 and above. Forty three percent of households reported
an income of more than $75,000. Eleven percent of the families lived in a household with
low vehicle accessibility (less than one car for each licensed driver), while 27.5%
advertised a high level of access to cars (more than one car per licensed driver). There
were 163 fast food restaurants located in the 32-town sampling area ranging from 0 to 46
per town (Longacre et al., 2012, p. 582).
The study found, about 50% of adolescents and 33% of parents ate fast food at
least once during the week before the survey, and parent and adolescent fast-food intake
is correlated. Living in a neighborhood with five or more fast food restaurants resulted in
parents and adolescents being 1.22-1.28 times more inclined to consume fast food.
Among the parents who ate fast food, they were more apt to be younger with less formal
education, with a family income of below $35,000 (Longacre et al., 2012, p. 583).
Adolescents in a household with moderate or high car access were more inclined to eat
fast food (Longacre et al., 2012, p. 584).
Emond, Bernhardt, Gilbert-Diamond, Li, and Sargent (2016) conducted a study to
examine the relationship between children’s exposure to television network
advertisements for child-oriented fast food meals with collectible toys and the regularity
at which the family dines at those fast food establishments. One hundred children aged 3-
7 (mean age: 5.3 years ±1.4 years) and one of their parents/guardians living in rural New
England participated in this study. One-half of the children were male and 95% were
white and non-Hispanic. The children watched TV advertisements for fast food meals
and then were questioned while parents filled out a survey. The study focused on two

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specific fast food chains, McDonald’s and Burger King, and four commercial TV
networks with programming designed for preschoolers and young children: Nickelodeon,
Nicktoons, Cartoon Network, and Disney (Emond et al., 2016, p. 159).
The study found, factors that highly correlated with more recurrent visits to these
fast food restaurants include less formal parental education, lower incomes, higher level
of expectations by parents regarding the value of fast food, a greater number of TVs in
the household, and a TV set located in the child’s bedroom. The more time a child
watched commercial TV with fast food advertisements targeted for children was also
associated with more frequent visits (Emond et al., 2016, p. 160). Frequency of viewing
PBS (a network without commercials) was not related to more recurrent visits to fast food
chains. (Emond et al., 2016, p. 161). Further, a child’s request for a fast food dining
experience influences the parent’s choice of restaurant and the child’s choice is
influenced by premiums advertised by the various establishments (Emond et al., 2016, p.
162).
A cross-sectional study conducted by Grier, Mensinger, Huang, Kumanyika, and
Stettler explored in a culturally varied sample, parental influence on the consumption of
fast food. They sampled 312 parents of children aged 2 to 12 years from eight Clinical
Research Centers (CHC) located on the eastern seaboard of the United States. These
CHCs support over 14 million predominantly poor and minority clients living at the
poverty level. The population of children served by the CHCs is more likely to become
obese and develop obesity related health issues (Grier et al., 2007, p. 226).
Dieticians, nurses, or health educators administered the questionnaire along with
obtaining the child’s physical characteristics. The questionnaire captured the following

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factors regarding the parents’ relationship with fast food: availability, exposure to
advertisements/discounts, fast food attitudes, social norms about fast food, and the
frequency their children ate fast food, through self-report (Grier et al., 2007, p. 226).
The study found, that greater exposure to advertisements for fast food correlates
with views that consuming fast food is a standard/acceptable practice among the
participants’ family, friends and community. It is also related to a higher level of intake
of fast food among children. The study also found that parents’ beliefs that their
community looks more favorably on fast food consumption controls the relationship
between exposure to fast food advertisements and a higher incidence of children’s intake
of fast food. The connection between social norms, parental exposure to fast food
marketing and children’s regular intake of fast food suggests that social marketing
techniques to alter community attitudes and perceptions about fast food may reduce the
intake of this unhealthy food (Grier et al., 2007, p. 230).
Newspaper Articles
Beyond research studies, more popular media have addressed topics and stated
attitudes about fast food consumption. In an article by Mike O’Sullivan, posted on Voice
Of America’s website, he describes Millennials as more conscious of health and wellness
which they find in fast casual restaurants such as Chipotle and Panera. These restaurants
still serve fast food but it is customizable and has the appearance of being higher quality.
Shake Shack, the hot dog and burger joint that originated in New York City, is another
casual restaurant that is increasingly popular and gaining market share. Its hamburgers
are more expensive but are 100% Angus beef. Sullivan found, “Recent statistics over the
last four years have shown that Millennials, on average, have been increasing their

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consumption of fast casual by 5 percent annually, whereas their consumption of fast food
has remained largely flat.” (Sullivan, 2015, para. 15). These casual restaurants are the
way of the future. Fast food restaurants are adding more healthy options to their menus,
but they must innovate to keep up with these changing tastes and culture (Sullivan, 2015).
Trade Publications
Trade publications also spotlight articles on the makeovers necessary for fast food
restaurants to remain viable and capture the Millennial market. Morris discusses how to
attract Millennials in The QSR Magazine. He recognizes that Millennials are a very
diverse group in taste and lifestyle, but a brand can generally capture their loyalty by,
“including their desire to connect digitally; their support for nonprofits, local businesses,
and charitable causes; and their desire for brands to feel organic and real” (Morris, 2016,
para. 2). As of 2015, Millennials make up the largest age group of the population,
surpassing the baby boomers. They are the consumers companies are trying to target.
Authenticity, reliability and a sense of belonging are important values to them.
Restaurants need to facilitate genuine experiences and be open to new forms of
communication. Many restaurants are using social media and technology to create loyalty
programs with Millennials (Morris, 2016).
In another QSR article, Noah Glass discusses the new age of causal restaurants
and digital ordering. With today’s busy lifestyles, 70% of quick-service restaurant
transactions are drive-thru transactions. The new fast casual restaurants that have been
popping up are making these fast food purchase transactions even more convenient by
letting customers order and pay in advance. Customers can pre-pay and have their
personalized meal prepared as they are driving to the restaurant. He/she can park, pick up

22
the order without waiting in line and be on the way back faster than going through a
drive-thru. (Glass, 2015).
Today, nearly 50% of fast casual restaurants use digital ordering. It creates many
advantages. It increases order size because customers do not feel rushed and are given
order recommendations. It also has increased visit frequency. Loyal guests return more
frequently because they can skip the line. It improves order accuracy and reduces food
waste. These fast casual restaurants are embracing the digital age and have created a new
norm that customers expect (Glass, 2015, para. 3). Digital ordering will also allow
restaurants to better know their guests and to personalize their experience with
customized recommendations. Fast food restaurants need to make the change to join the
digital revolution to increase productivity (Glass, 2015).
IV. Theoretical Framework
The previous sections have reviewed available scholarly, newspaper, and trade
articles addressing fast food consumption among various populations. The articles
identify many factors that lead people to visit fast food restaurants and consume fast
food. However, these factors have been identified in a wide range of studies that use a
variety of perspectives. Thus, a theoretical framework is needed to organize these
predictors in a meaningful way. The framework for this research project is Icek Azjen’s
Theory of Planned Behavior (2006).
For McDonald’s, the ability to predict and influence consumer behavior, such as
the choice to eat a particular fast food, is of great importance. Individual behavior,
however, is not easy to understand. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), which has

23
been extensively studied and accepted in the research field, will offer insight into the
various beliefs and attitudes that influence human behavior.
The TPB model explains that three types of beliefs guide human behavior:
behavioral beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs (Azjen, 2006). Behavioral
beliefs include beliefs about likely outcomes of a particular behavior and the evaluation
of these outcomes. Behavioral beliefs create a positive or negative stance toward the
belief (Azjen, 2006). Normative beliefs include beliefs about the perceived expectations
of others and the desire to conform to these expectations. These beliefs result in
perceived social pressure (subjective norm) (Azjen, 2006). Control beliefs contain beliefs
about the existence of factors that may promote or hinder that behavior and the perceived
power of these factors, which results in perceived behavioral control (Azjen, 2006).
Together, attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral
control generate behavioral intention (Azjen, 2006). The more positive the attitude and
subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control, the stronger the behavioral
intention will be. Intention thus results as the direct antecedent to behavior. Note, that in
addition to being influenced by intention, behavior is also influenced by perceived
behavioral control. Although sometimes behavior is intended, external factors can limit
an individual’s behavior. The model also links actual behavioral control from perceived
behavioral control and behavior (Azjen, 2006). Below (figure 1) is a graphical
representation of the TPB model.

24
Figure 1: Model of the Theory of Planned Behavior from Azjen (2006)
The TPB model is applicable to the fast food industry because it explains planned
behavior. The following section sets forth a comprehensive list of the proposed predictors
identified in the literature review. It will also display how the factors fit within the TPB
model.
V. Proposed Predictors
The scholarly, newspaper and trade literature reviewed above have indicated a
large number of potential predictors for fast food consumption. These predictors are
listed below. For convenience, they have been divided into categories.
Proposed Predictors from the Literature
Service Attributes
• Perceived Quality of Food (Boek et al., 2012)
• Perceived Speed of Service (Knutson, 2000)
• Importance of Menu Variety (Knutson, 2000)
• Perceived Menu Consistency (Knutson, 2000)
• Perceived Taste (Bryant & Dundes, 2008)

25
• Perceived Value (food to price ratio) (Bryant & Dundes, 2008)
• Importance of Food Portion (Driskell et al., 2006)
• Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants (Bryant & Dundes, 2008)
• Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food Restaurants (Knutson, 2000)
Customer Service
• Perceived Cleanliness of Fast Food Restaurant (Knutson, 2000)
• Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast Food Restaurants (Knutson, 2000)
Pricing and Promotional Offers
• Perceived Price (Knutson, 2000)
• Exposure to Advertisements (Emond et al., 2016)
• Importance of Short-Term Promotions and Discounts (Knutson, 2000)
Convenience Factors
• Perceived Convenience (Dave et al., 2009)
• Lack of Time (Avram & Oravitan, 2013)
• Accessibility of Restaurant (Avram & Oravitan, 2013)
• Accessibility to Car (Longacre et al., 2012)
• Time of Day of Meal (Driskell et al., 2006)
Customer Attributes
• Dislike toward Cooking (Dave et al., 2009)
• Lack of Cooking Skills (Driskell et al., 2006)
• Importance of Nutritional Value (Bryant & Dundes, 2008)
• Parental Influence (Longacre et al., 2012)
• Parental Beliefs about Fast Food (Emond et al., 2016)

26
• Race (Boek et al., 2012)
• Gender (Drikell et al., 2006)
• Income (Longacre et al., 2012)
• Marital Status (Dave et al., 2009)
• Education (Dave et al., 2009)
• Social Norms about Eating Fast Food (Grier et al., 2007)
Proposed Predictors Within the Theory of Planned Behavior
Behavioral Belief Antecedents (Falls outside of TPB)
• Race
• Gender
• Income
• Education
• Dislike toward Cooking
• Lack of Cooking Skills
• Time of Day of Meal
Behavioral Beliefs
• Perceived Quality of Food
• Perceived Speed of Service
• Perceived Convenience
• Lack of Time
• Perceived Taste
• Perceived Value
• Importance of Food Portion

27
• Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurant
• Perceived Speed of Service
• Importance of Menu Variety
• Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food Restaurant
• Perceived Cleanliness of Fast Food Restaurant
• Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast Food Restaurant
Normative Beliefs
• Parental Beliefs about Fast Food
• Parental Influence
Control Beliefs
• Social Norms about Eating Fast Food
• Perceived Price
• Importance of Nutritional Value
• Marital Status
• Exposure to Advertisements
• Importance of Short-Term Promotions and Discounts
• Perceived Menu Consistency
• Accessibility of Restaurant
• Accessibility to Car
Selected Proposed Predictors
After reviewing all the proposed predictors for fast food consumption, I selected
to investigate further only the following 13, due to the study’s limited time frame and
sample size. I chose these proposed predictors because they appear in multiple research

28
articles in the literature review and fit well into the Theory of Planned Behavior
framework. Also, it seemed their scope would be sufficient to elicit the information
needed to examine the subject matter and ultimately draw conclusions from the data for
the client.
Behavioral Beliefs
• Perceived Quality of Food
• Perceived Convenience
• Lack of Time
• Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food Restaurants
• Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast Food Restaurants
• Perceived Taste
• Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants
Control Beliefs
• Perceived Price
• Importance of Nutritional Value
• Perceived Menu Consistency
• Accessibility of Restaurant
• Social Norms about Eating Fast Food
• Importance of Short-Term Promotions and Discounts
VI. Development of Measures
To test these proposed predictors, a survey instrument will be used to capture
what factors influence fast food consumption among college students. The survey
instrument will include 12 multi-item measures to test the proposed predictors and single-
item measures to capture demographics and the dependent variable.
To quantify the errors and confirm the measures are reliable and valid, multi-
items will be used. The constructs and correlating measures were modified from The
Marketing Scales Handbook volumes 5 through 7. The measures were modified based on
the principles of measurement to create the most effective survey instrument with
minimal error. The principles applied are discussed in the table below.

29
Principles of Measurement
Language & Word
Choice
The language used is simple and straightforward. The survey is
written in conversational language in order for participants to
clearly understand the questions.
Length of Measures The measures are short and concise while still maintaining ease
of comprehension and simplicity.
Length of Response
Categories
All the interval measures are asked on a 5-point Likert scale to
ensure a full understanding of every participant’s opinion. The
nominal measures are exhaustive to capture exactly what the
participate thinks.
Focus All measures have only one focus in order to avoid double
barreled answers and results that are impossible to analyze.
Length of Instrument The survey instrument is optimized to capture many constructs
within the limited time frame. The survey is purposely short to
eliminate participant fatigue, dropouts or unwillingness to
participate.
Assumed Knowledge The survey instrument is written in a way that does not assume
the participant knows anything about the topics that are covered.
Order effect The measures are randomized to eliminate order effect.
Measures are also organized generic to specific to make
participants more comfortable, not intimidated, and willing to
answer.
Relevance The topic of fast food is very relevant to college students, which

30
made it easier to solicit participants.
Incentive When soliciting participants I gave away free candy to give them
more of an incentive to participate in the survey.
Burden These principles were followed to minimize the burden on the
participants when taking the survey. I provided them with a hard
copy of the survey instrument and a pen to use. The measures
were short and easy to read and only took approximately 10
minutes to complete.
Privacy and
Confidentiality
The survey instrument states all answers are anonymous to make
the participant comfortable and willing to answer all questions
openly and honestly.
a. Multi-Item Measures
Multi-item measures were used to capture the 13 proposed predictors of fast food
consumption.
Construct: Perceived Quality of Food
Definition: “The degree to which a person believes that a brand has been made by a
trustworthy company, is high quality, and is better than the competition” (Carter & Curry,
2013).
Strongly
Disagree
Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
Agree
This brand’s fast food products
are made by reputable
companies
This brand’s fast food is high
quality
This brand’s fast food products
are superior in quality compared
to other fast food products

31
Construct: Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food Restaurant
Definition: “The degree to which a person believes that the interior of a certain brand’s
stores are pleasant and organized well” (Kwon, 2012).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
The interior of this fast food
restaurant is nice
This fast food restaurant is well
laid out
The ordering/check-out process
of this fast food restaurant is
pleasant
Construct: Perceived Taste
Definition: “How well a food tastes.” (Poor, Morgan, Duhachek & Krishnan, 2013).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
This brand’s fast food is flavorful
This brand’s fast food is delicious
This brand’s fast food has a good
taste
Construct: Accessibility of Restaurant
Definition: "Measures how easily a consumer believes it is to contract a particular
service provider and/or go to its place of business.” (Keh & Pang, 2010)
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
It is easy to contact this fast food
chain
It does not take much time to
reach this fast food restaurant.
I am able to get to this fast food
chain quickly

32
Construct: Perceived Menu Consistency
Definition: “The degree to which a consumer believes a brand is consistently good.”
(Folse, Garretson, Netemeyer, & Burton, 2012).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
This fast food chain always
meets my expectations
I can always trust this fast food
chain to be good
This fast food chain is reliable
Construct: Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast Food Restaurants
Definition: “The degree to which a customer believes the relationship he/she has with an
employee is warm and pleasant” (Gremler & Gwinner, 2000).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I enjoyed interacting with this fast
food chain’s employees
This fast food chain’s employees
create a friendly environment
This fast food chain’s employees
relate well to me
I am comfortable interacting with
this fast food chain’s employees
Construct: Importance of Nutritional Value
Definition: “Not only the degree of importance a person places on eating healthy but also
the amount of attention devoted to nutritional information in a particular (recent)
situation” (Chandon & Wansink, 2007).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I watch what I eat
Eating healthy food is important
to me
Nutritional information influences
my food choices
I pay attention to what I eat

33
Construct: Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurant
Definition: “The degree to which a person is motivated to observe and interact with other
people when shopping” (Noble, Griffith & Adjei, 2006).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I enjoy watching other people
when I go to a fast food
restaurant
I enjoy interacting with others
when I go to a fast food
restaurant
I miss the experience of
interacting with people when
eating fast food take-out at home
Construct: Perceived Price
Definition: “Measures a person’s attitude regarding a particular investment, with an
emphasis on how “good” it is considered to be.” (Raghubir & Das, 2010)
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Buying fast food is a good way to
spend money
Fast food is worth the cost
When I go to a fast food
restaurant, I know I will get my
money’s worth
Construct: Perceived Convenience
Definition: “The degree to which a consumer believes a particular store is easy to shop at
in terms of its location, business hours, and parking” (Seiders, Voss, Godfrey, and
Grewal, 2007).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I am able to get to this fast food
restaurant easily
This fast food restaurant offers
convenient parking
This fast food chain offers
convenient locations
This fast food restaurant offers
convenient store hours

34
Construct: Lack of Time
Definition: “The degree to which a person is concerned about time and engages in
behaviors to manage its efficient usage” (Kleijnen, Ruyter & Wetzels, 2007).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I usually have a time schedule for
everything
I usually feel pressed for time
I often combine tasks to use my
time most efficiently
I prefer to be able to plan in
advance what tasks I need to do
Construct: Importance of Short-Term Promotion and Discounts
Definition: “A Consumer’s enjoyment of sales promotion deals and tendency to buy
products associated with such offers” (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer & Burton, 1995).
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
I am very likely to purchase
products that come with
promotional offers
I feel like a successful shopper
when I purchase products that
offer special promotions
I love special promotional offers
for products
When I purchase products
through a special promotion, I
feel I am getting a good buy

35
Construct: Social Norms about Eating Fast Food
Definition: “The utility derived from the perceived ability of a particular product to
enhance its user’s self-concept and social approval” (Soutar, 2014).
Given today’s fitness conscious culture how do you feel about your consumption of fast
food:
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Eating fast food helps me feel
accepted by my peers
Eating fast food makes a good
impression on other people
Eating fast food is socially
acceptable
Eating fast food makes me feel
trendy/up-to-date
b. Single-Item Measures
Variable: Fast food visitation
Definition: An individual’s reported number of visits to a fast food restaurant in the past
month
Approximately how many times have you gone to a fast food
restaurant in the past month?
______________
Variable: Fast food affiliation
Definition: An individual’s most visited fast food chain
Among the following, which fast food restaurant do you visit most often?
____Burger King ____KFC ____McDonald’s ____Taco Bell

36
Variable: Likelihood to visit a fast food restaurant in the future
Definition: An individual’s reported likelihood to visit a fast food restaurant in the next
month.
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not Sure Likely Very
Likely
How likely are you to visit a fast food
restaurant in the next month?
Variable: Likelihood to choose a particular fast food restaurant
Definition: An individual’s reported likelihood to choose (1) Burger King, (2) KFC, (3)
McDonald’s, or (4) Taco Bell if they were choosing a restaurant to go to tomorrow.
If you were to go to a fast food restaurant
tomorrow, how likely would you go to:
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not
Sure
Likely Very
Likely
Burger King
KFC
McDonald’s
Taco Bell
Variable: Academic level
Definition: An Individual’s academic level/grade
Which of the following describes your current academic level?
___Freshman ___Sophomore ___Junior ___Senior ___Graduate Student ___Non-Student
Variable: Age
Definition: An individual’s age
How old are you? ______________
Variable: Gender
Definition: An individual’s gender
Gender: ___Male ___Female ___Other

37
Variable: Race
Definition: An individual’s race
Race: ____White/Caucasian ____Black/African American ____Non-White Hispanic
____Asian ____American Indian or Alaska Native ____Other
VII. Development of Survey Instrument
The survey instrument used in the pre-test is provided below.

Student Opinion Survey
38
We are conducting this study to learn about students’ opinions concerning a variety of current
topics. Thank you for taking the time to complete our survey. Your responses are anonymous.
For each of the following general statements, please tell us if you agree or disagree by
checking the box corresponding with your choice.
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
everything
Eating healthy food is important to me
I often combine tasks to use my time
most efficiently
I enjoy interacting with others when I
go to a fast food restaurant
spend money
Nutritional information influences my
food choices
I feel like a successful shopper when I
purchase products that offer special
promotions
I usually feel pressed for time
I enjoy watching other people when I
When I go to a fast food restaurant, I
know I will get my money’s worth
I love special promotional offers for
products
I prefer to be able to plan in advance
what tasks I need to do
I miss the experience of interacting
with people when eating fast food take-
out at home
When I purchase products through a
special promotion, I feel I am getting a
good buy
I watch what I eat
I am very likely to purchase products
that come with promotional offers
Approximately how many times have you gone to a fast food restaurant in the past
month? (If none, please write “0”) ____________

39
Approximately how many times have you gone to this fast food restaurant in the past
WITH THE RESTAURANT INDICATED ABOVE IN MIND, please answer the
following questions about its quality and service:
STILL WITH THIS RESTAURANT IN MIND, please answer the following
questions about its convenience:
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
This fast food restaurant offers convenient
store hours
It is easy to contact this fast food chain
The interior of this fast food restaurant is nice
This fast food chain offers convenient locations
This fast food restaurant is well laid out
It does not take much time to reach this fast
food restaurant
I am able to get to this fast food restaurant
easily
The ordering/check-out process of this fast
food restaurant is pleasant
I am able to get to this fast food chain quickly
parking
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
This brand’s fast food products are made by
reputable companies
This brand’s fast food has a good taste
I am comfortable interacting with this fast food
chain’s employees
This fast food chain’s employees create a friendly
environment
This brand’s fast food is high quality
This fast food chain always meets my expectations
This fast food chain’s employees relate well to me
This brand’s fast food products are superior in
quality compared to other fast food products
I can always trust this fast food chain to be good
I enjoy interacting with this fast food chain’s
employees

40
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not
Sure
Likely Very
Likely
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not
Sure
Likely Very
Likely
Burger King
KFC
McDonald’s
Taco Bell
How old are you? ____________
Thank you for your participation.
Given today’s fitness conscious
culture how do you feel about
your consumption of fast food:
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Eating fast food is socially
acceptable
trendy/up-to-date

41
VIII. Analysis of Measures
This survey was conducted on March 25th and 26th
, 2016 between 12 and 2pm
with 110 randomly selected people eating lunch at Boston University’s George Sherman
Union Building. After reviewing the surveys, I found eight of them had been filled out
haphazardly or only halfway, causing the total sample size to drop to 102. Following the
collection of the completed survey instrument, I began analyzing the data results to
determine the effectiveness of the survey. I conducted both a thorough qualitative and
quantitative analysis.
a. Qualitative Review
First, I qualitatively reviewed all the items in each construct to make sure they
overlapped in meeting and correctly relating to the construct definition. I also looked to
make sure items were well worded and easy to understand. The items that may not
overlap as well as others are red flagged in the chart below. At this point it is too soon to
take out items that may not capture the right knowledge from the survey taker.
Qualitative Screening:
Construct Matched Item From Survey Qualitative Overlap
Perceived Quality of
Food
Q22: This brand’s fast food products are made by
reputable companies
Q27: This brand’s fast food is high quality
Q32: This brand’s fast food products are superior
in quality compared to other fast food products
Inter-Item Overlap
Red Flag: Q22 does not
overlap as much
Perceived
Atmosphere of Fast
Food Restaurants
Q37: The interior of this fast food restaurant is
nice
Q39: This Fast food restaurant is well laid out
Q42: The ordering/check-out process of this fast
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Perceived Taste Q31: This brand’s fast food is flavorful
Q28: This brand’s fast food is delicious
Q23: This brand’s fast food has a good taste
Inter-Item Overlap

42
Accessibility of
Restaurant
Q36: It is easy to contact this fast food chain
Q40: It does not take much time to reach this fast
food restaurant.
Q43: I am able to get to this fast food chain
quickly.
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Perceived Menu
Consistency
Q29: This fast food chain always meets my
expectations
Q33: I can always trust this fast food chain to be
good
Q24: This fast food chain is reliable
Inter-Item Overlap
Perceived
Friendliness of Staff
at Fast Food
Restaurants
Q34: I enjoyed interacting with this fast food
chain’s employees
Q26: This fast food chain’s employees create a
friendly environment
Q30: This fast food chain’s employees relate well
to me
Q25: I am comfortable interacting with this fast
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Importance of
Nutritional Value
Q16: I watch what I eat
Q2: Eating Healthy food is important to me
Q6: Nutritional information influences my food
choices
Q10: I pay attention to what I eat
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Ability to Socialize
at Fast Food
Restaurants
Q9: I enjoy watching other people when I go to a
fast food restaurant
Q4: I enjoy interacting with others when I go to a
fast food restaurant
Q14: I miss the experience of interacting with
people when eating fast food take-out at home
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Perceived Price Q5: Buying fast food is a good way to spend
money.
Q18: Fast food is worth the cost.
Q11: When I go to a fast food restaurant, I know
I will get my money’s worth.
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Perceived
Convenience
Q41: I am able to get to this fast food restaurant
easily
Q44: This fast food restaurant offers convenient
parking
Q38: This fast food chain offers convenient
locations
Q35: This fast food restaurant offers convenient
store hours
Inter-Item Overlap

43
Lack of Time Q1: I usually have a time schedule for everything
Q8: I usually feel pressed for time
Q3: I often combine tasks to use my time most
efficiently
Q13: I prefer to be able to plan in advance what
tasks I need to do
Inter-Item Overlap
overlap as much
Importance of Short-
Term Promotions
and Discounts
Q17: I am very likely to purchase products that
come with promotional offers
Q7: I feel like a successful shopper when I
purchase products that offer special promotions
Q12: I love special promotional offers for
products
Q15: When I purchase products through a special
promotion, I feel I am getting a good buy
Inter-Item Overlap
Social Norms about
Eating Fast Food
Q45: Eating fast food helps me feel accepted by
my peers
Q46: Eating fast food makes a good impression
on other people
Q47: Eating fast food is socially acceptable
Q48: Eating fast food makes me feel trendy/up-
to-date
Inter-Item Overlap
Red Flag: Q46 & Q48
does not overlap as much
b. Assessment of Content Validity and Reliability
After qualitatively reviewing the measures, I took many steps to prepare the data
for quantitative analysis. First, I assigned a unique identification number to each
administered survey and entered the data into the SPSS program by coding each
response. I reviewed each item in connection with its construct definition and determined
no items needed to be reverse coded.
Next, to clean the data and confirm the validity and reliability of each measure, I
analyzed the frequencies of all the measures and checked for outliers. No outliers or
coding errors were found.
Then, I conducted inter-item correlations between the items in each of the 13
proposed predictors using the correlation coefficient (r). This analysis is performed to

44
ensure that the proposed construct groupings are reasonable and to red flag any that may
cause a problem later during factor analysis. It also checks for any reverse coding issues.
Any measures that were properly reverse coded, yet still yielded a negative correlation
coefficient were eliminated. In the construct, Perceived Convenience, Item Q44 (This fast
food restaurant offers convenient parking) was eliminated and in the construct, Lack of
Time, both Q8 (I usually feel pressed for time) and Q3 (I often combine tasks to use my
time most efficiently) were eliminated because they had negative inter-item correlations.
Other items were red flagged because they did not have comparable strengths like the
others in the grouping.
Two constructs were also red flagged, Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food
Restaurants and Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants because although their
items had comparable strengths the strengths overall were very low. The inter-item
correlations can be seen in the chart below.
Inter-Item Correlations:
Items Correlation Coefficient
Perceived Quality of Food Q22 & Q27: r=.19 *Red Flag
Q22 & Q32: r=.16 *Red Flag
Q27 & Q32: r=.48
Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food
Restaurants *Red Flag
Q37 & Q39: r=.29
Q37 & Q42: r=.35
Q39 & Q42: r=.21
Perceived Taste Q31 & Q28: r=.66
Q31 & Q23: r=.72
Q28 & Q23: r=.66
Accessibility of Restaurant Q36 & Q40: r=.37 *Red Flag
Q36 & Q43: r=.34 *Red Flag
Q40 & Q43: r=.72
Perceived Menu Consistency Q29 & Q33: r=.42

45
Q29 & Q24: r=.46
Q33 & Q24: r=.30
Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast
Food Restaurants
Q34 & Q26: r=.66
Q34 & Q30: r=.64
Q34 & Q25: r=.36
Q26 & Q30: r=.52
Q26 & Q25: r=.55
Q30 & Q25: r=.40
Importance of Nutritional Value Q16 & Q2: r=.59
Q16 & Q6: r=.63
Q16 & Q10: r=.74
Q2 & Q6: r=.52
Q2 & Q10: r=.56
Q6 & Q10: r=.61
Ability to Socialize at Fast Food
Restaurants *Red Flag
Q9 & Q4: r=.26
Q9 & Q14: r=.07 *Red Flag
Q4 & Q14: r=.14 *Red Flag
Perceived Price Q5 & Q18: r=.65
Q5 & Q11: r=.54
Q18 & Q11: r=.72
Perceived Convenience Q41 & Q44: r=.02
Q41 & Q38: r=.61
Q41 & Q35: r=.29
Q44 & Q38: r=-.03
Q44 & Q35 r=.15
Q38 & Q35: r=.50
Eliminated Q44:
Q41 & Q38: r=.61
Q41 & Q35: r=.29
Q38 & Q35: r=.50
Lack of Time Q1 & Q8: r=.03
Q1 & Q3: r=.21
Q1 & Q13: r=.47
Q8 & Q3: r=-.08
Q8 & Q13: r=.06
Q3 & Q13: r=-.01
Eliminate Q8:
Q1 & Q3: r=.21
Q1 & Q13: r=.47

46
Q3 & Q 13: r=-.005
Eliminate Q3:
Q1 & Q13: r=.47
Importance of Short-Term Promotions and
Discounts
Q17 & Q7: r=.43
Q17 & Q12: r=.51
Q17 & Q15: r=.48
Q7 & Q12: r=.48
Q7 & Q15: r=.60
Q12 & Q15: r=.50
Social Norms about Eating Fast Food Q45 & Q46: r=.65
Q45 & Q47: r=.29 *Red Flag
Q45 & Q48: r=.60
Q46 & Q47: r=.31 *Red Flag
Q46 & Q48: r=.56
Q47 & Q48: r=.22 *Red Flag
**A complete inter-item correlation chart can be found in Appendix A**
After all the inter-item correlations between items have been calculated and
problem items have either been deleted or red flagged, it is time to conduct factor
analysis. This type of analysis determines the content validity of the proposed constructs.
It will confirm that these items are capturing what they set out to capture fully and
accurately and are capturing nothing else. Due to the small sample size, I conducted the
factor analysis in four stages. There were three groups with three factor groupings and
one with four. Each factor analysis had a total variance explained above the industry
average of 50 percent.
The first round which included the constructs, Perceived Quality of Food,
Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food Restaurants, and Perceived Taste was the only factor
analysis that caused a problem. The first time I ran it, the total variance captured was 62.4
percent and it placed Q22 which belongs to the construct Perceived Quality of Food (This
brand’s fast food products are made by reputable companies) in the construct Perceived

47
Taste. Even then, however, its factor loading was very low. Having a low factor loading
can be interpreted as having a low correlation with that construct. Given that I had
already red flagged Q22 in the qualitative review, I decided to remove that item. Once
removed, the total variance explained increased to 68.9 percent and all the groupings
worked. The final factor loading is shown below.
Factor Analysis Results:
Total Variance Explained= 68.90% Component
Construct Items 1 2 3
Perceived Quality
of Food
Q27: This brand’s fast food is high
quality
.175 .010 .830
Q32: This brand’s fast food products are
superior in quality compared to other fast
food products
.203 -.028 .802
Perceived
Atmosphere of
Fast Food
Restaurants
Q37: The interior of this fast food
restaurant is nice
.120 .782 -.004
Q39: This fast food restaurant is well laid
out
-.113 .686 .234
Q42: The ordering/check-out process of
this fast food restaurant is pleasant
.039 .714 -.261
Perceived Taste Q31: This brand’s fast food is flavorful .850 .041 .280
Q28: This brand’s fast food is delicious .852 .048 .125
Q23: This brand’s fast food has a good
taste
.896 -.022 .094
The next factor analysis included the constructs, Accessibility of Restaurant,
Perceived Menu Consistency, and Perceived Friendliness of Staff at Fast Food
Restaurants. The total variance explained was 64.5 percent. All the items were grouped
with their construct on the first try and had high factor loadings as displayed below.
Accessibility of
Restaurant
Q36: It is easy to contact this fast food
chain
-.065 .648 .1
Q40: It does not take much time to reach
this fast food restaurant
.098 .875 .047
Q43: I am able to get to this fast food
chain quickly
.002 .876 .027
Perceived Menu Q29: This fast food chain always meets .096 -.081 .831

48
Consistency my expectations
Q33: I can always trust this fast food
chain to be good
.121 .087 .711
Q24: This fast food chain is reliable -.074 .181 .753
Perceived
Friendliness of
Staff at Fast Food
Restaurants
Q34: I enjoy interacting with this fast
.839 .023 .087
Q26: This fast food chain’s employees
create a friendly environment
.861 -.030 -.047
Q30: This fast food chain’s employees
relate well to me
.787 -.140 .157
Q25: I am comfortable interacting with
this fast food chain’s employees
.698 .137 .002
The next factor analysis included the constructs, Importance of Nutritional Value,
Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants, and Perceived Price. The total variance
explained was 66.33 percent. All the items were grouped with their construct on the first
try and had high factor loadings except for Q14 in the construct Ability to Socialize at
Fast Food Restaurants. The item had a factor loading of .585 while the other items in the
construct Q9 and Q4, had factor loadings .644 and .764 respectively. This discrepancy
indicates that item Q14 does not fit into that construct as much as the others and may
cause problems when conducting a reliability test. The factor analysis results are
displayed below.
Importance of
Nutritional Value
Q16: I watch what I eat .887 -.091 -.032
Q2: Eating healthy food is important to
me
.761 -.205 .207
Q6: Nutritional information influences
my food choices
.809 -.120 -.120
Q10: I pay attention to what I eat .872 -.063 -.062
Ability to Socialize
at Fast Food
Restaurants
Q9: I enjoy watching other people when I
.044 .163 .644
Q4: I enjoy interacting with others when I
-.057 .037 .764
Q14: I miss the experience of interacting
with people when eating fast food take-
out at home
-.019 -.171 .585

49
Perceived Price Q5: Buying fast food is a good way to
spend money
-.133 .854 -.019
Q18: Fast food is worth the cost -.165 .899 .042
Q11: When I go to a fast food restaurant,
I know I will get my money’s worth
-.101 .852 .006
The final factor analysis included the constructs, Perceived Convenience, Lack of
Time, Importance of Short-term Promotions and Discounts, and Social Norms about
Eating Fast Food. The total variance explained was 65.64 percent. All the items were
grouped with their construct on the first try and had high factor loadings except for item
Q35 in the construct Perceived Convenience and item Q47 in the construct Social Norms
about Eating Fast Food. Both these items have factor loadings far below the other items
in their perspective constructs. They do not correlate with their construct as well as the
others and might cause a problem when conducting a reliability test. The factor analysis
results are displayed below.
Construct Items 1 2 3 4
Perceived
Convenience
Q41: I am able to get to this fast
food restaurant easily
.067 .165 .811 -.042
Q38: This fast food chain offers
convenient locations
-.056 .034 .892 .065
Q35: This fast food restaurant offers
convenient store hours
.185 -.307 .684 .123
Lack of Time Q1: I usually have a time schedule
for everything
.028 -.055 .038 .880
Q13: I prefer to be able to plan in
advance what tasks I need to do
.280 .022 .066 .808
Importance of
Short-Term
Promotions and
Discounts
Q17: I am very likely to purchase
products that come with promotional
offers
.743 .114 -.086 .100
Q7: I feel like a successful shopper
when I purchase products that offer
special promotions
.798 -.082 .079 .051
Q12: I love special promotional
offers for products
.789 .052 .132 .059
Q15: When I purchase products
through a special promotion, I feel I
am getting a good buy
.809 .017 .052 .132

50
Social Norms
about Eating Fast
Food
Q45: Eating fast food helps me feel
.067 .840 -.108 .007
Q46: Eating fast food makes a good
-.013 .835 -.089 -.029
Q47: Eating fast food is socially
acceptable
.060 .497 .113 .035
Q48: Eating fast food makes me feel
trendy/up-to-date
-.028 .810 .024 -.075
After confirming the validity of the survey items through factor analysis, I tested
for reliability using Cronbach’s Alpha. This assessment will ensure that the items are
consistently capturing the same concept. The 13 proposed predictors were reliable in
varying degrees. Item Q36 had to be eliminated from the construct Accessibility of
Restaurant because it was not reliable. Even after removing item Q14 from the construct
Ability to Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants, I determined the entire construct to be
unusable. This construct did not capture anything reliable and should be taken out of the
survey instrument. Finally, item Q47 had to be eliminated from the construct Social
Norms about Eating Fast Food because it was unreliable. Notice all three items that were
eliminated were also red flagged in previous qualitative and quantitative tests and had
low factor loadings in factor analysis. The remaining constructs all had a “good” or “very
good” Cronbach’s alpha except for the construct Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food
Restaurants which was “weak”. The results from the reliability test are displayed below.
Reliability Output:
Construct Cronbach’s Alpha
Perceived Quality of Food α=.64 Good
Perceived Atmosphere of Fast Food
Restaurants
α=.55 Weak
Perceived Taste α=.86 Very Good

51
Accessibility of Restaurant α=.84 Very Good
Eliminated Q36
Perceived Menu Consistency α=.66 Good
Perceived Friendliness of Staff at
Fast Food
α=.81 Very Good
Importance of Nutritional Value α=.86 Very Good
Ability to Socialize at Fast Food
Restaurants Eliminate
α=.41 Not Usable
Eliminate Q14
Perceived Price α=.84 Very Good
Perceived Convenience α=.73 Very Good
Lack of Time α=.61 Good
Importance of Short-Term
Promotions and Discounts
α=.80 Very Good
Social Norms about Eating Fast
Food
α=.82 Very Good
Eliminate Q47
After analysis, it may be concluded that the remaining 12 constructs and
remaining 36 items listed below are valid and reliable and can be used in a survey
measurement instrument for a research project.
Remaining Constructs and Corresponding Measure:
Construct Corresponding Measure
Perceived Quality of
Food
Q27: This brand’s fast food is high quality
Q32: This brand’s fast food products are superior in quality compared to
other fast food products
Perceived Atmosphere
of Fast Food
Restaurants
Q37: The interior of this fast food restaurant is nice
Q39: This Fast food restaurant is well laid out
Q42: The ordering/check-out process of this fast food restaurant is pleasant
Perceived Taste Q31: This brand’s fast food is flavorful
Q28: This brand’s fast food is delicious
Q23: This brand’s fast food has a good taste
Accessibility of
Restaurant
Q40: It does not take much time to reach this fast food restaurant.
Q43: I am able to get to this fast food chain quickly.

52
Perceived Menu
Consistency
Q29: This fast food chain always meets my expectations
Q33: I can always trust this fast food chain to be good
Q24: This fast food chain is reliable
Perceived Friendliness
of Staff at Fast Food
Q34: I enjoyed interacting with this fast food chain’s employees
Q26: This fast food chain’s employees create a friendly environment
Q30: This fast food chain’s employees relate well to me
Q25: I am comfortable interacting with this fast food chain’s employees
Importance of
Nutritional Value
Q16: I watch what I eat
Q2: Eating Healthy food is important to me
Q6: Nutritional information influences my food choices
Q10: I pay attention to what I eat
Perceived Price Q5: Buying fast food is a good way to spend money.
Q18: Fast food is worth the cost.
Q11: When I go to a fast food restaurant, I know I will get my money’s
worth.
Perceived Convenience Q41: I am able to get to this fast food restaurant easily
Q38: This fast food chain offers convenient locations
Q35: This fast food restaurant offers convenient store hours
Lack of Time Q1: I usually have a time schedule for everything
Q13: I prefer to be able to plan in advance what tasks I need to do
Importance of Short-
Term Promotions and
Discounts
Q17: I am very likely to purchase products that come with promotional
offers
Q7: I feel like a successful shopper when I purchase products that offer
special promotions
Q12: I love special promotional offers for products
Q15: When I purchase products through a special promotion, I feel I am
getting a good buy
Social Norms about
Eating Fast Food
Q45: Eating fast food helps me feel accepted by my peers
Q46: Eating fast food makes a good impression on other people
Q48: Eating fast food makes me feel trendy/up-to-date
IX. Revisions to the Survey Instrument
After conducting thorough qualitative and quantitative analysis on the measures
used for this survey, I am able to revise the survey instrument to be able to better capture
the variation of consumer’s attitudes in further research.

53
After conducting inter-item correlations, I found that Q44 (This fast food
restaurant offers convenient parking) did not correlate well with the other items in the
Perceived Convenience construct and Q8 (I usually feel pressed for time) and Q3 (I often
combine tasks to use my time most efficiently) did not correlate with the items in the
Lack of Time construct. I flagged Q8 in my qualitative review because I did not think it
overlapped well with the others in the construct or that it captured the construct well. Q44
and Q3 are not needed to capture the respective constructs’ meaning and therefore I
deleted them from the survey instrument.
After conducting Factor Analysis, I identified that Q22 (This brand’s fast food
products are made by reputable companies) from the construct Perceived Quality of Food
was not valid and did not capture the information it was designed to capture. I noted
during my qualitative review that it did not overlap with the other items in the construct
well. Once it was removed from the analysis, the percent of variance captured
significantly increased. Now, looking back, Q22 does not have simple language and
could have caused confusion to survey participants in contemplating what is meant by
“reputable” and how they were to know the brand of ingredients used to cook the fast
food products.
During my last round of analysis I tested for reliability using Cronbach’s alpha. I
determined an entire construct and two items not to be reliable. The construct, Ability to
Socialize at Fast Food Restaurants, was found not usable. The items Q9 (I enjoy watching
other people when I go to a fast food restaurant), Q4 (I enjoy interacting with others
when I go to a fast food restaurant), and Q14 (I miss the experience of interacting with

54
people when eating fast food take-out at home) did not capture any reliable data and thus
I removed it from the survey instrument.
The reliability test also found items Q47 (Eating fast food is socially acceptable)
from the construct Social Norms about Eating Fast Food and Q36 (It is easy to contact
this fast food chain) from the construct Accessibility of Restaurant as unreliable, and thus
I took them out of the survey instrument. Q36 was red flagged during the qualitative
review as being unrelated. Q47 could have different answers depending on whether the
participant was thinking about peers or family. Q36 could also be interpreted in different
ways given the various modes of contact/communication (telephone, mobile app or
internet) available to the participant. Both questions are vague and confuse survey
participants.
The revised survey instrument (displayed below) now with 12 proposed predictors
and 48 questions will be significantly more effective in capturing what factors influence
fast food consumption among college students.

Revised: Student Opinion Survey
55
We are conducting this study to learn about students’ opinions concerning a variety of current
topics. Thank you for taking the time to complete our survey. Your responses are anonymous.
For each of the following general statements, please tell us if you agree or disagree by
checking the box corresponding with your choice.
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
everything
Eating healthy food is important to me
spend money
Nutritional information influences my
food choices
I feel like a successful shopper when I
purchase products that offer special
promotions
When I go to a fast food restaurant, I
know I will get my money’s worth
I love special promotional offers for
products
I prefer to be able to plan in advance
what tasks I need to do
When I purchase products through a
special promotion, I feel I am getting a
good buy
I watch what I eat
I am very likely to purchase products
that come with promotional offers
Approximately how many times have you gone to a fast food restaurant in the past
Approximately how many times have you gone to this fast food restaurant in the past

56
WITH THE RESTAURANT INDICATED ABOVE IN MIND, please answer the
following questions about its quality and service:
STILL WITH THIS RESTAURANT IN MIND, please answer the following
questions about its convenience:
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
store hours
The interior of this fast food restaurant is nice
This fast food chain offers convenient locations
This fast food restaurant is well laid out
It does not take much time to reach this fast
food restaurant
I am able to get to this fast food restaurant
easily
The ordering/check-out process of this fast
I am able to get to this fast food chain quickly
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
This brand’s fast food has a good taste
I am comfortable interacting with this fast food
chain’s employees
This fast food chain’s employees create a friendly
environment
This brand’s fast food is high quality
This fast food chain always meets my expectations
This fast food chain’s employees relate well to me
This brand’s fast food products are superior in
quality compared to other fast food products
I can always trust this fast food chain to be good
I enjoy interacting with this fast food chain’s
employees

57
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not
Sure
Likely Very
Likely
Very
Unlikely
Unlikely Not
Sure
Likely Very
Likely
Burger King
KFC
McDonald’s
Taco Bell
How old are you? ____________
Thank you for your participation.
Given today’s fitness conscious
culture how do you feel about
your consumption of fast food:
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
trendy/up-to-date

58
X. Conclusions
To help the client McDonald’s regain attraction and increase market share among
college students, I carefully and strategically created a survey instrument to determine
what factors influence fast food consumption among the targeted group. This research
project presents the process of how to develop and pre-test a survey instrument. It shows
the importance of testing the items for correlation, reliability and validity through
qualitative and quantitative analysis. Applying the process yielded critical information,
which enabled me to revise my initial survey instrument so as to capture quality data with
fewer possible errors in the future, when a full-scale study is conducted.
To conduct a full-scale research study to capture what factors influence fast food
consumption among college students, I recommend a researcher use this survey
instrument with a large probable sample. Having a large probable sample will minimize
sampling error and allow McDonald’s to discover relevant information that can be
generalized to the total target population to help McDonald’s increase its market share
among college students.

59
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Appendices | i
APPENDIX A: INTER-ITEM CORRELATIONS

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