Montego Bay's Resilient Coastal Strategy

The Irie Coast:
A Resilient Coastal Strategy for Montego Bay
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of Master of Urban Design in Urban Design
at
The Savannah College of Art and Design
By
Aaron Christopher Elswick
Savannah, GA
May, 2015
Ryan Madson, Committee Chair
Elaine Adams, Committee Member
Catalina Strother, Committee Member

for Laura Kathryn, Matthew, Ellie, Terri Ann, Barry
This thesis is dedicated to what has commonly been described to be my
weird obsession, sharks (Figure 1). Without these magnificent creatures
and their captivation of my imagination at such a early age none of
this would have been possible. Along with sharks I would also like to
dedicate the thesis to all of the other marine species and the individuals
who are working to increase the mutual sustainability of the relationship
between our cities and the marine environment.
I would like to thank the scientific community for their commitment
and dedication to the investigation of the health of the marine
environment. More specifically I would like to thank Dr.
George Sedberry and The Gray’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary; Daniel
J. Basta and NOAA’s office of Marine Sanctuaries; and John Knowles of
The Nature Conservancy’s Caribbean Program for the knowledge and
information they shared.
I would like to give special thanks to the Dr. Silvia Earle and the Mission
Blue Foundation for re-invigorating my marine curiosity, leading me to
the catalytic belief that I can make a difference, and for opening a direct
line of communication between the project and its inspiration (Figure 2).
Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the ocean for sustaining life as we
know it and for providing me with a lifetime of curiosity and joy.Figure 1: Excerpt from author’s sketch book
Figure 2: Dr. Silvia Earle and the Author at
Grey’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary Film
Festival in Savannah, GA (2015)

List of Figures |The Irie Coast 1
List of
Figures
[figure by author unless otherwise noted.]
1: Figure 2: Dr. Silvia Earle and the Author at Grey’s Reef National Marine Sanctuary Film Festival
in Savannah, GA (2015) pg.3
2: Figure 1: Excerpt from author’s sketch book pg.3
3: Figure 3: Marine Eco-system Services Provided to the City. pg.7
4: Figure 4: Hawaii Oceans and Beaches Image Credit: Matthew Ruttan; (source: http://dreamatico.
com/ocean.html). pg.9
5: Figure 5: The Earth From Space, the Blue Marble. (source: http://cdn9.staztic.com/ap-
p/a/1170/1170182/earth-from-space-live-wallpape-1-2-s-307x512.jpg) pg.10
6: Figure 6: Oceans: Benefits and threats to living organisms diagram, by Small-Island Develop-
ing-States. (source: http://www.scidev.net/filemanager/root/site_assets/global/oceans_infograph-
ic_no_layer.jpg) pg.11
7: Figure 7: Example of the direct impact of drilling ocean sprawl (source: http://static.guim.co.uk/
sys-images/Guardian/Pix/pictures/2010/6/14/1276519147734/Deepwater-Horizon-oil-spi-001.
jpg) pg.12
8: Figure 8: Dreging example of Ocean Sprawl, by OceanProtal; (source: http://www.lievensecso.
com/image/picture/LIEVENSECSO09595_960x600.jpg). pg.12
9: Figure 9: The Urban Whale, by The New England Aquarium (source: https://placesjournal.org/
assets/legacy/media/images/beatley-blue-urbanism-10.jpg). pg.13
10: Figure 10: Map of the world cargo shipping lanes depicting the extreme presence of man
through the seas, by Harold James;(source: http://www.princeton.edu/piirs/research-communities/
global-systemic-risk/shipping_green.png). pg.13
11: Figure 11: ABOVE TOP The Great Pacific Garbage Patch From Space, by NASA (source:
https://mscbcmnsep.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/pacific-garbage-patch-from-space.jpg). pg.14
12: Figure 12: ABOVE BOTTOM The Great Pacific Garbage Patch Up Close , by The Kaylie
Diary (source: https://thekayliediary.wordpress.com/2014/11/11/the-great-pacific-garbage-patch/)
pg.14
13: Figure 13: RIGHT Aquatic Dead Zones and Urban Centers, by NASA Earth Observatory
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)#/media/File:Aquatic_Dead_Zones.jpg)
pg.14
14: Figure 14: Examples of urban lifestyles impacting the marine environment top to bottom:
plastic pollution, shark finning operation, and the automobile (source: http://www.google.com/
image) pg.15
15: Figure 15: Amazing Coral Reefs, by Most Beautiful Things, (source: http://www.mostbeauti-
fulthings.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/amazing-coral-reefs-12.jpg) pg.16
16: Figure 16: Images of recently declared endangered caribbean coral species top to bottom-
Acropora cervicornis (Staghorn), Acropora palmata (Elkhorn), Mycetophyllia ferox, Dendrogyra
cylindrus, Orbicella annularis, Orbicella faveolata, Orbicella franksi, by ARKive (source: http://
www.arkive.org/invertebrates-marine/) pg.17
17: Figure 17: LEFT Lunch with a Whale Shark by Matthew Potenski (source: http://www.ocean-
conservancy.org/ecards-wallpaper/smartphone-images/phonebg11.jpg) pg.18
18: Figure 18: RIGHT The largest fish in the sea by NatGeo (source: http://media-cache-ak0.
pinimg.com/736x/c7/22/f3/c722f32334787bbb298048137cfb1f41.jpg) pg.18
19: Figure 19: ABOVE Welcome To Key Largo Dive Capital Of The World Roadsign Florida Keys
Usa, by Joe Fox; (source: http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large-5/welcome-to-
key-largo-dive-capital-of-the-world-roadsign-florida-keys-usa-joe-fox.jpg) pg.19
20: Figure 20: Acropora Coral Life Cycle, by NOAA (source: http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/protect-
ed_resources/coral/elkhorn_coral/images/acropora_life_cycle.jpg). pg.20
21: Figure 21: The Formation and Typologies of Coral Reefs (source: http://sky.scnu.edu.cn/life/
class/ecology/image/3/3-13.jpg) pg.20

2 The Irie Coast | List of Figures
22: Figure 22: Images of the local pressures effecting coral reefs, top to bottom overfishing, in-land
sourced sedimentation and watershed pollution, coastal development, and marine-based contami-
nation, by NOAA (source: http://www.bing.com/image) pg.21
23: Figure 23: Reefs at Risk in the Present, 2030, and 2050 by The World Resource Institute.
(source: World Resources Institute. Reefs at Risk Revisited Data DVD. 2011.) pg.22
24: Figure 24: Common Herbaceous Parrot Fish, by Ken-ichi Uede (source: http://cdn2.arkive.org/
media/C6/C6AD8F37-4A71-4F9F-8987-B9C642F1949F/Presentation.Large/Common-parrot-
fish-side-profile.jpg pg.23
25: Figure 25: Reefs at Risk in the Atlantic Caribbean, by The World Resource Institute. (source:
World Resources Institute. Reefs at Risk Revisited Data DVD. 2011.) pg.26
26: Figure 26: Belize Barrier Reef (source: http://ambergriscaye.com/images/slides/barrierreef3.jpg)
pg.28
27: Figure 27: Reef loss in Jamaica, by Enpundit (source: http://ambergriscaye.com/images/slides/
barrierreef3.jpg) pg.29
28: Figure 28: Montgo Bay Beach (source google.com/image) pg.32
29: Figure 29: Site specific examples of local pressures and percentage of coral reefs impacted, by
NOAA (source: http://www.bing.com/image) pg.33
30: Figure 30: Inventory analysis of Montego Bay’s Urban Context (Data Source: Knowles, J. The
Nature Conservancy. 2015.) pg.34
31: Figure 32: Emergency Services pg.35
32: Figure 33: Utilities pg.35
33: Figure 34: Municipalities pg.35
34: Figure 35: Economic Producers (source: “Urban Development and Climate Change: Current
and Historic Urban Footprint, Urban Growth Scenarios and Basic Studies on Climate Change
Mitigation and Adaptation” #12-031.) pg.35
35: Figure 31: Montego Bay’s EconomicRisk and Social Vulnerability to Climate Change (data
source: “Urban Development and Climate Change: Current and Historic Urban Footprint, Urban
Growth Scenarios and Basic Studies on Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation” #12-031.)
pg.35
36: Figure 40: Inventory analysis of Montego Bay’s Urban Context (Data Source: Knowles, J. The
39: Figure 38: Economic Producers pg.36
40: Figure 36: Utilities pg.36
43: Figure 43: Economic Producers pg.37
44: Figure 44: Utilities (source: “Urban Development and Climate Change: Current and Historic
Urban Footprint, Urban Growth Scenarios and Basic Studies on Climate Change Mitigation and
Adaptation” #12-031.) pg.37
45: Figure 45: Inventory analysis of Montego Bay’s Marine Context (Data Source: Knowles, J. The
46: Figure 46: Inventory analysis of Montego Bay’s Shoreline Protection being provided by coral
reefsContext (Data Source: Knowles, J. The Nature Conservancy. 2015.) pg.39
47: Figure 47: TOP Land-use inventory (Data Source: Knowles, J. The Nature Conservancy.
2015.) pg.40
48: Figure 48: BOTTOM Population density by watershed analysis (Data Source: Knowles, J. The
49: Figure 49: TOP MIDDLE urban and agriculture land-use intensity analysis (Data Source:
Knowles, J. The Nature Conservancy. 2015.) pg.40
50: Figure 50: MIDDLE BOTTOM Edge condition inventory (Data Source: Knowles, J. The

Abstract |The Irie Coast 3
51: Figure 51: TOP Analysis of soil erosion rates (Data Source: Knowles, J. The Nature Conservan-
cy. 2015.) pg.41
52: Figure 52: BOTTOM critical habitiats analysis analysis (Data Source: Knowles, J. The Nature
Conservancy. 2015.) pg.41
53: Figure 54: Section cut location map pg.42
54: Figure 53: Inventory of Coastal dynamics pg.42
55: Figure 55: Illustrative Master Plan pg.44
56: Figure 56: ABOVE Plan view of the Regional approach ato the coast. pg.47
57: Figure 57: Diagram of impementation strategy. pg.47
58: Figure 58: A continuous green and blue network pg.48
59: Figure 59: Program Diagram pg.49
60: Figure 60: circulation master plan pg.50
61: Figure 61: Canopy cover is utilized to increase the friction in the water cycle. Mitigating sedi-
mentation and promoting biodiversity. pg.51
62: Figure 62: Habitat and Ecology Masterplan pg.52
63: Figure 63: Diagram of species inter-realtionships pg.53
64: Figure 64: Site Section pg.54
65: Figure 65: SYSTEMATIC RECILIENCY pg.55
66: Figure 66: beach nourishment diagram pg.57
67: Figure 67: Coastal erosion reduction diagram pg.57
68: Figure 68: Flood hazard reduction diagram pg.57
69: Figure 69: BELOW Section of Ocean Exposed Fringing Reef Infrastructure pg.58
70: Figure 72: ECO-Concrete Armor unit detail. pg.59
71: Figure 71: Diagram of the conceptualized typical plan view of artificial reef infrastructure pg.59
72: Figure 70: BELOW Section of Sub-title Patch Reef Infrastructure pg.59
73: Figure 73: Diagram of the species accommodated by the habitat stone pg.60
74: Figure 74: Renders of reef in-fill units based on data and information gather from eco-concrete
and scape w. pg.61
75: Figure 75: Photos of habitat being provided by reef infrastructure (source: http://www.google.
com/image/) pg.61
76: Figure 76: Section of the coastal ribbon / terraced ecologies strategy. pg.62
77: Figure 78: Section of the coastal ribbon / terraced ecologies strategy. pg.63
78: Figure 77: Typical sections of layered ecologies pg.63
79: Figure 79: Urban -Marine interaction pier and Sea-wall strategy for the waterfront promenade.
pg.64
80: Figure 80: Urban habitat providing DEPLOYABLE Sea-wall strategy for thicker sites allowing
for nature tidal dynamics to take place. pg.64
81: Figure 81: Urban habitat providing Sea-wall strategy for thinner sites. pg.65
82: Figure 82: Urban habitat providing Sea-wall strategy for thicker sites including terraced water
planting beds and below pavement cisterns. pg.65
83: Figure 83: Interior rendered perspective view of the wetland Eco-system oriented to highlight
the relationship to the urban environment. pg.66
84: Figure 84: Interior rendered perspective view of the Coral Explore where visitors are viscerally
connect with the marine environment. pg.66
85: Figure 85: Conceptual sketch of the generic concept and opportunities for pieces public infra-
structure through out the city. pg.66
86: Figure 86: Coral Explorer oblique perspective sketch pg.67
87: Figure 87: Coral Explorer section pg.67
88: Figure 88: ABOVE View of the water front promenade highlighting the urban context of the
proposal. pg.68
89: Figure 95: Render Eco-campus Sea Pool pg.69
90: Figure 89: View of the underwater sculpture gardens and opportunities of marine ecological
exploration. pg.69
91: Figure 92: Render of the Bogue Village fishery and demonstration facility. pg.69

4 The Irie Coast | Abstract
92: Figure 96: Render of the Eco-camp demonstration pier pg.69
93: Figure 90: Perspective view of the public playgrounds geared to evoke the youths marine curios-
ity conscious. pg.69
94: Figure 93: Perspective view of the public beaches and event space pg.69
95: Figure 97: Zipping to the Sea point on view render depicting the eperience of zipling to the
floating class room. pg.69
96: Figure 91: View of unique context of the Bogue Village sporting complex. pg.69
97: Figure 94: Perspective render of outdoor classroom pg.69
98: Figure 98: OPPOSITE ABOVE Render of the Humpback’s Bay Eco-Tourism Kayak launch.
pg.70
99: Figure 99: OPPOSITE BELOW Water level view of the underwater sculpture garden depicting
the public beach and the array of marine recreational opportunities. pg.70

Abstract |The Irie Coast 5
Abstract
The Irie Coast:
A Resilient Coastal Strategy for Montego Bay
Aaron C. Elswick
May 2015
The world’s largest natural resource and driver of almost every
natural process on the planet, the ocean, is in peril. Unsustainable
development responding to the rapid pace of urbanization presently
occurring throughout the globe is the single largest contributor to the
deprivation of the oceans. Therefore the global endangerment of the
marine environment is an urban issue because its solution depends
on the on the development of sustainability in cities.
The highest rates of economic and population growth in the Caribbean
is occurring in emerging coastal cities that already have inadequate
civic and environmental infrastructure. This destructive paradigm of
urban growth and the impacts of climate change have plagued the
area and its ecology. Using Jamaica’s Montego Bay as a case study,
the aim of the thesis is to depict how the anthropogenic and natural
processes facing emerging Caribbean coastal cities can be mitigated
with an ecologically resilient urban strategy.
As a functional buffer the proposed urban strategy integrates vital
infrastructure such as food production, water remediation, and
brings cultural significance to the urban context through an unique
and regional hybrid landscape providing access to the natural world.
The symbiotic The Blue Belts and Coastal Ribbon work together to
increase Montego Bay’s coastal resiliency to climate change, preserve
the cities existing program, context and contribute to the city’s
cultural identity of place.
Keywords: Coastal Resiliency, Blue Urbanism, Ecological Urbanism,
Coral Reefs, Caribbean

6 The Irie Coast | preface
If our planet were a sentence, the oceans would be the words and the
land, merely the punctuation. Without words, a sentence is impossible
and punctuation would have no functionality. Without oceans, life
on earth is impossible (Figure 4). Humans are impacting the health
of oceans, and the life within, at alarming rates. The life within,
specifically coral reefs, are essential to the health of the oceans. The
oceans are a critical operating process of planet earth. Oceans dictate
nearly every natural system on the planet. They control weather
patterns and storms, absorb carbon and mitigate climactic change.
Humans have radical impacts on the functionality of oceans, which
impact natural processes of earth. All decisions made on land translate
to decisions for the ocean whether intentional or not. The water cycle
assures that all human decisions impact the oceans because all water
returns there. Increased carbon emissions from urban life-styles have
grave impacts. Due to the oceans’ service as natural carbon sink, the
increased emissions have altered the overall chemistry of the ocean,
raising both the overall acidity and average temperature of the water.1
This anthropogenic increased rate of change is having a traumatic
effect on every ecosystem within every ocean on the planet.
Preface

preface |The Irie Coast 7
The most biologically rich and productive ecosystems on the planet
are the coral reefs of the oceans. Coral reefs are home to one fourth of
aquatic life and are considered to be the architects of the sea.2
As reefs
create homes for a plethora of life, they also serve as the foundation
of the food chain in marine environments.
Coral reefs are presently endangered. There has been global
deterioration of reefs for some time. This deterioration presents
numerous impacts that are experienced on land.
All damages to the oceans result in more devastation to the fragile
lives of coral reefs. The increased ocean temperatures and acidity
from human waste and carbon emissions impact the coral reefs.
At the most basic level, coral reefs are dying rapidly from humans’
wasteful decisions on land.
NOTES
1. Earle, Sylvia A. The World Is Blue: How Our Fate and the Ocean’s Are One. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2009.
2. Ibid.
Figure 3: Marine Eco-system Services
Provided to the City.
The diagram depicts the major ecosystem
services that the marine environment
provides to humanity and urban settings.
The provisioning and regulating services
depicted above are the largest sources
of climate mitigation, absorbing and
mitigating over 60% of the excess heat
and carbon emitted into the atmosphere
annually.

8 The Irie Coast | introduction
The populations of coastal communities in the Caribbean rely on coral
reefs in the marine environment for resources. Consequently, the
social, economic, and environmental livelihood of these communities
relies on proper management of the reefs. The livelihood of these
communities is in direct correlation with that of coastal cities in
the Caribbean. If present practices are not reversed, these cities will
sustain grave economic impacts.
The thesis depicts a projective ecologically resilient urban design
strategy for the city of Montego Bay, Jamaica that highlights the
importance of coral reefs and reverses the anthropogenic processes
endangering these already fragile ecosystems. By examining the
relationship between urban activities and coral reefs across the region,
threats to the marine environment and probable causes were identified.
The problem focuses specifically on mitigating the local pressures of
in-land based sources of contamination, sedimentation, and coastal
development. Through the design of an educational landscape, that
fosters a more responsible stewardship of the marine environment,
the threats to the ecosystem will decline and the sustainability of
the city is increased.
The larger objective of the thesis is to justify why urban designers
should and how they can begin to be more marine conscious in
regards to the design and planning of cities, particularly in coastal
settings. The project began with the inquiry of the potential role, or
roles, urban design could play in regards to saving the ocean.
The following chapters aim to re-interpret the scientific data and theory
of the topic through the point of view of the urban designer. Seeking
to give light to the comprehensive issue and the array of challenges,
solutions, and the great potential for urban areas to integrate ocean
health into their design and planning efforts. Justifying the argument
for a new form of blue urbanism that harness the powers of the city
on behalf of the marine environment.
In the chapter Oceans and Cities, the tremendous impact cities have
upon the health of the ocean is investigated. In Coral Reefs this
relationship is detailed more specifically through the lenses of the
Introduction

introduction |The Irie Coast 9
coral ecologies and coastal cities. After detailing the global situation
and relationship of urban centers and the marine environment the
text narrows in its focus and examines the greater Caribbean situation
in the self titled chapter.
From there the definition of the project area and regional inventory
and analysis of Montego Bay, Jamaican and the Saint James Watershed
begin. The significance of this chapter is the addition of the marine
context to the design process, detailing how the forgotten or less
tangible aspects of the marine environment can be accounted for
by mapping.
After defining the problem the proposal chapter begins. In this
chapter and the flowing the design decisions are detailed. Prototypical
strategies to motivate the will for change, build the capacity for
change, and improve the management practices in Caribbean coastal
zones are each addressed.
Figure 4: Hawaii Oceans and Beaches
Image Credit: Matthew Ruttan; (source:
http://dreamatico.com/ocean.html).

10 The Irie Coast | ocean and cities
This chapter will provide a background for the larger discussion of
this thesis and a baseline for the specific context within this thesis.
The first chapter will showcase the connection between oceans and
cities by examining threats to each and the consequences of those
threats on both the cities and the oceans. Further, this chapter
will explain the often forgotten dependency that cities have on the
oceans. Finally, this chapter will present the danger our oceans face
by examining their present state.
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND
The oceans cover over 70% of the earth’s surface and form the planet’s
largest life zone; oceans are the defining aspect to life on this planet.3
The view of Earth from space to the left depicts just how blue the
planet truly is. However, our planet’s population would describe earth
as urban. In reality, those two descriptors do not exist independently
from one another. Instead, the water that makes up our earth is the
primary reason our population can flourish as an urban environment.
The eco-system services that the ocean provides has formed a
foundation for some of the largest cities on the planet. Oceanographer
Sylvia Earle says, “Our environmental health and indeed, our race
survival, our system of food production, energy, transportation,
temperature regulation, oxygen production, carbon sequestion and
more depend on the earth’s waters.” 98% of earth’s water is located
in the oceans at any given time and through the earth’s hydrological
process, all of the water will periodically be part of the oceans.
This process evaporates water from the ocean, which is returned
to the planet’s surface through precipitation. The precipitation will
eventually return to the oceans through this cycle or the transportation
of other waterways.4
Life as we know it is supported by our oceans, as they provide
oxygen, control weather, cycle nutrients, mitigate climate change
and drive other aspects of planetary chemistry (Figure 6). Moreover,
oceans greatly impact the socioeconomic functionality in cities. The
oceans carry 90% of the world’s trade, provide over 300 million jobs
Oceans
and Cities
Figure 5: The Earth From Space, the Blue
Marble. (source: http://cdn9.staztic.com/
app/a/1170/1170182/earth-from-space-
live-wallpape-1-2-s-307x512.jpg)

ocean and cities |The Irie Coast 11
worldwide and serve as the primary source of protein for over 2.6
billion people. Oceans are home to an estimated 80% of the world’s
natural resources.5
Earth’s urban lifestyle is particularly dependent
on energy production from under sea oil deposits. Tim Worth,
a respected economist, notes, “The economy is a wholly owned
subsidiary of the environment. With every drop of water you drink,
every breath you take, you are connected to the sea no matter where
you live.”6
Figure 6: Oceans: Benefits and threats to
living organisms diagram, by Small-Island
Developing-States. (source: http://www.
scidev.net/filemanager/root/site_assets/
global/oceans_infographic_no_layer.jpg)

OCEAN URBAN CONNECTION
Over half of earth’s population lives in cities. These cities’ connection
to the oceans can no longer be ignored. Humans are having a severe
impact on the health of the marine environment in direct and
indirect ways. As the population is becoming increasingly more
urban, the demand and pressure for natural resources is impacting
the environment as a whole, especially the marine environment.
Waste and consumption increase as more people move to cities. 75%
of the world’s resources are allocated to cities and in turn, the cities
produce 75% of the world’s pollution.7
The scientific community has agreed that humans are inducing
climate change. Through examining the ecological footprint of cities,
it is apparent that the more developed urban areas are producing so
much pollution that the earth cannot sustain. The severity of pressure
on earth’s biocapacity is well documented. In 2007 alone, the world’s
population used 150% of that capacity. Developed nations were the
leading consumers.8
This is an indirect threat to the oceans brought
on by earth’s urban fabric.
Earth’s cities are designed to enable the use of automobiles, which
dramatically increases the output of carbon. Regardless of earth’s
carbon output over the last 30 years, oceans have been documented to
absorb over 30% of the carbon in the atmosphere.9
The excess carbon
in Earth’s atmosphere is leading to ocean acidification. Societies’
transition to primarily urban functionality is requiring the ocean
to absorb more carbon and ultimately alter the pH levels of the
water.10
More acidic water is leading to devastating impacts on the
marine environment. Climate change is also leading to increased
temperature of the oceans and rising sea levels, causing devastation
to marine habitats and ecosystems.
Figure 7: Example of the direct impact
of drilling ocean sprawl (source: http://
static.guim.co.uk/sys-images/Guardian/
Pix/pictures/2010/6/14/1276519147734/
Deepwater-Horizon-oil-spi-001.jpg)
Figure 8: Dreging example of Ocean
Sprawl, by OceanProtal; (source: http://
www.lievensecso.com/image/picture/
LIEVENSECSO09595_960x600.jpg).

Cities further impact the oceans through the incessant demands
for more resources. The population has reached a demand greater
than earth’s land can provide the population now looks to the ocean
for more resources. Timothy Beatley refers to this indirect impact
as ocean sprawl, which he defines as being: “incursions of modern
urban life into the marine realm that impact the integrity of ocean
ecosystems as they provide goods and services to humans.” Some of
the examples of ocean sprawl Timothy Beatley list are busy shipping
lanes, development of wind farms, drilling rigs and industrial fishing
boats.11
Traditionally maps have ended where the coast meets the ocean.
Although the population has continued to develop beyond land,
there has been negligence in documenting the presence of humans
offshore. The development of features in the ocean to enable urban
areas has had great impact. The New England Aquarium linked
offshore drilling and resource extraction operations to the population
decrease and endangerment of the right whale.12
The team investigated
the inland watershed and ocean impacts in urban centers all along
the east coast of America.
Through McHargian over lay methodology, the team assessed in-
land watershed impacts and ocean impacts. The watershed impact
analysis included overlays of population density, toxic chemicals
released, and agricultural percentage of land cover in the area. The
ocean impact analysis included overlays of the level of dredging and
dumping, and the intensity of shipping and fishing occurring.13
(Figure 9)depicts the findings of this investigation and the red areas
depict the presence of earth’s population and locates the severity of
impact it is having upon the ocean.
Figure 9: The Urban Whale, by The
New England Aquarium (source: https://
placesjournal.org/assets/legacy/media/
images/beatley-blue-urbanism-10.jpg).
Figure 10: Map of the world cargo shipping
lanes depicting the extreme presence of man
through the seas, by Harold James;(source:
http://www.princeton.edu/piirs/research-
communities/global-systemic-risk/shipping_
green.png).

Urban lifestyle decisions are also having indirect impacts on the
ocean. The use of plastic products has led to devastating amounts
of pollution throughout the ocean (Figure 11 and Figure 12). The
increasing demands of urbanites for fish has resulted in overfishing,
which has exploited over 50% of global marine fish stocks.14
Inland
watershed pollution is also impacting ocean life.
Indirect impacts cities have on oceans have led to more direct impacts.
Events like the BP oil spill have occurred due to increased demands
for resources and the utilization of the ocean as a provider. It is
estimated that 80% of marine pollution is inherited from cities.15
Pollution has led to increased levels of mercury and other toxic metals
in food extracted from the ocean. Six percent was found in tuna.16
Pollution has also led to eutrophication, a process that has depleted
the level of oxygen in the water and resulted in the formation of
dead zones.17
Figure 13, a map showcasing the world’s dead zones,
articulates that dead zones primarily occur in close proximity to cities.
Figure 13: RIGHT Aquatic Dead Zones and
Urban Centers, by NASA Earth Observatory
(source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Dead_zone_(ecology)#/media/File:Aquatic_
Dead_Zones.jpg)
Red circles show the location and size of
many dead zones. Black dots show dead
zones of unknown size. The size and
number of marine dead zones—areas
where the deep water is so low in dissolved
oxygen that sea creatures can’t survive—
have grown explosively in the past half-
century.
Figure 11: ABOVE TOP The Great Pacific
Garbage Patch From Space, by NASA
(source: https://mscbcmnsep.files.wordpress.
com/2014/11/pacific-garbage-patch-from-
space.jpg).
Figure 12: ABOVE BOTTOM The Great
Pacific Garbage Patch Up Close , by The
Kaylie Diary (source: https://thekayliediary.
wordpress.com/2014/11/11/the-great-
pacific-garbage-patch/)

PRESENT STATE OF OCEANS
Cities have a greater impact on the aquatic environment closer to
the coast. The intimacy of the relationship between cities and the
ocean is most impactful in coastal cities. In consequence, 50% of
coastal marine environments have been destroyed over the past 50
years.18
These habitats are crucial to coastal cities because of the
coastal protection the habitats provide. The ocean also relies on
these habitats in a number of ways, but primarily for the cycling of
nutrients. Coastal habitats are home to the key components of the
entire aquatic environment. The habitats provide breeding areas for
the largest predators in the ocean and are home to one fourth of all
life on this planet, from the largest to the smallest of the marine food
chain.19
Without these habitats, the entire regulatory system of the
oceans could completely collapse.
Coral reefs and coastal ecologies are essential to the health of our
cities and our oceans. In the past 50 years, cities have destroyed 50%
of coral reefs and today threaten over 70% of the remaining reefs.20
Notes
4. Ibid.
5. Schmitt, Raymond W. “The ocean component of the global water cycle.” Reviews of Geophysics 33, no. S2 (1995): 1395-1409.
6. Peterson, Charles H., and Jane Lubchenco. “Marine ecosystem services.” Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence
on Natural Ecosystems. Edited by GC Daily. Island Press (Washington, DC) (1997): 177-194.
7. “Threats.” NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program. Accessed November 19, 2014. http://coralreef.noaa.gov/.
8. The Blue Planet. Distributed by BBC Worldwide Americas ;, 2007. DVD.
9. Drivers of change 2006. London: Arup, 2005.
10. Beatley, Timothy. Blue urbanism: exploring connections between cities and oceans. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2014.
11. Ibid.
12. Kraus, Scott D., and Rosalind Rolland, eds. The urban whale: North Atlantic
right whales at the crossroads. Harvard University Press, 2007.
13. Bryant, D. G. Reefs at Risk: A Map-based Indicator of Threats to the World’s Coral
Reefs. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 1998.
15. Kraus, Scott D., and Rosalind Rolland, eds. The urban whale: North Atlantic
right whales at the crossroads. Harvard University Press, 2007.
16. Drivers of change 2006. London: Arup, 2005.
17. Grimm, Nancy B., Stanley H. Faeth, Nancy E. Golubiewski, Charles L. Redman, Jianguo Wu, Xuemei Bai,
and John M. Briggs. “Global change and the ecology of cities.” science 319, no. 5864 (2008): 756-760
19. Ibid
Figure 14: Examples of urban lifestyles
impacting the marine environment top to
bottom: plastic pollution, shark finning
operation, and the automobile (source:
http://www.google.com/image)

16 The Irie Coast | coral reefs
Much like the first chapter, chapter two is laying a foundation of
information that will carry through the entirety of this thesis. This
chapter presents an in depth look at coral reefs. It is important to
have a clear of understanding of what a reef is and the types of reefs
throughout the oceans. After setting up an understanding, this
chapter presents an examination of cities’ relationship with coral
reefs. This relationship is analyzed to identify threats to the reefs
and the consequences of those. Finally, this chapter concludes with
a report on the present state of the oceans’ reefs.
CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUNDS
Coral reefs are colonies of individual corals, which are colonies of up
to hundreds of thousands of polyps. This means that each individual
coral is composed of hundreds of thousands of individual animals.
Multiple species of coral exist. However, the stony species under the
order of Scleractinia are the species that leaves behind their external
Figure 15: Amazing Coral Reefs, by Most
Beautiful Things, (source: http://www.
mostbeautifulthings.net/wp-content/
uploads/2014/04/amazing-coral-reefs-12.
jpg)
Coral Reefs

coral reefs |The Irie Coast 17
skeleton of limestone, which ultimately forms coral reefs.21
Reef building corals share a symbiotic relationship with zooxantheliae,
a specific type of algae. This algae resides in the corals’ tissue and is
protected by the coral. Through photosynthesis, the algae produces
oxygen, helps in waste removal and produces food for the coral. The
byproduct of this relationship is calcium carbonate, the limestone
exoskeleton that builds reefs. This byproduct is critical to carbon
regulation in the ocean. Without coral reefs, the amount of carbon
dioxide in the ocean would dramatically increase and impact all life
on earth.22
Figure 16 depicts the seven Caribbean species of coral out
of the twenty-two total now being protected under the Endangered
Species Act.
The foundations of the marine food web are provided by the
exoskeletons of coral reefs. These natural secretions provide habitat
for an incredible diversity of fish, algae, soft coral, sponges and
invertebrates (Figure 15). The smallest of aquatic herbivores to the
largest predators in the oceans depend on coral reefs for food and
protection. All marine life is directly or indirectly connected to
and dependent on coral reefs for habitat, food or protection. Each
organism involved in this complex system plays an important role
through water filtration, species control or algae consumption.23
Supporting such an array of plant and animal life, coral reefs are able
to maintain a balanced relationship among competitive organisms
for limited resources.
Coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine
eco-system.24
Some scientists have estimated that there is potentially
one to eight million species of organisms living in and around
reefs. If true, that makes these ecosystems the most diverse on the
planet. Biodiversity is beneficial for a number of reasons. In one
way, biodiversity assures that in a catastrophic event that wipes out
many species, some life will continue.25
These biodiverse ecosystems
also provide services that include nursery habitat for edible species
of fish and cleaning sanctuaries for the largest of marine mammals.
Multifunctional integration within an ecosystem, and its associated
Figure 16: Images of recently declared
endangered caribbean coral species top to
bottom- Acropora cervicornis (Staghorn),
Acropora palmata (Elkhorn), Mycetophyllia
ferox, Dendrogyra cylindrus, Orbicella
annularis, Orbicella faveolata, Orbicella
franksi, by ARKive (source: http://www.
arkive.org/invertebrates-marine/)

biological process, assures
coverage of essential roles in that ecosystem. The ocean is regulated
through the reef’s ability to accommodate such diverse complimentary
functionalities. For example, whales and many other large marine
species travel to reefs to essentially go to the dentist (Figure 17). At
various times throughout the year the largest fish in the world, the
whale shark (Figure 18), begin to line up at the edges of coral reefs.
One by one these whales systematically pass through the assembly
line of dental hygiene services being provided by the various species
inhibiting the reef.
Fish that traditionally would be bait for these large mammals provide
cleaning services to the whales. This mutually beneficial relationship
provides hygienic benefits to whales and provides the small “cleaner”
fish with food. Without this cleaning, whales could not survive.26
This
is merely one example of the seemingly endless mutually sustainable
relationships occurring in coral reefs.
Figure 17: LEFT Lunch with a Whale Shark
by Matthew Potenski (source: http://www.
oceanconservancy.org/ecards-wallpaper/
smartphone-images/phonebg11.jpg)
Figure 18: RIGHT The largest fish in the
sea by NatGeo (source: http://media-
cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/c7/22/f3/
c722f32334787bbb298048137cfb1f41.jpg)

CORAL REEF-URBAN CONNECTION
Cities that neighbor coral reefs attract millions of people to this
colorful environment. In fact, the colorful environment often defines
these places (Figure 19). Historically, these places have relied upon
the reefs for food and in a number of places reefs have played integral
roles throughout local culture.
Since cities near reefs often attract tourists, the tourism plays an
active role with the reefs in place making within these cities.Travelers
come to partake in recreational activities that often incorporate the
reefs and the marine life reefs attract.27
In these cities, dive boats are
plentiful to take tourists on scuba adventures. Diving trips are often
followed by dinner at local restaurants that feature menu items found
offshore by local fishers. After feasting on the local catch, tourists
retreat to their hotels to prepare for another day at sea perhaps fishing
or partaking in another recreational activity.
This cycle of tourists shapes these cities socially by creating a place
for escape. The reefs attract tourists and keep them coming back.
Travelers come for the chance to dive into the ocean and experience
aquatic life, which proves so different from their own. Some consider
coastal cities and their attractions to be an escape from the day to day.
The place-making of these cities as tourist attractions creates cities
where the economy is often fueled by tourism. This social impact
of reefs translates directly into economic benefit for the cities they
neighbor.
Reef related tourism benefits at least 96 countries and territories in
the world. In 23 of the 96 places, reef tourism provides more than
15% of gross domestic product.28
Although 15% seems low, this
doesn’t account for any income outside of ecotourism related to the
reefs. For example, hotels, restaurants and tourist entertainment are
excluded from this figure. Thus, these positive externalities greatly
increase the impact reefs have on the economies of these cities.
The other most notable role that coral reefs play in the economy
of cities occurs in the fishing industry. Globally, one billion people
depend on coral reefs for aquatic protein.29
Living coral reefs have been
Figure 19: ABOVE Welcome To Key Largo
Dive Capital Of The World Roadsign Florida
Keys Usa, by Joe Fox; (source: http://images.
fineartamerica.com/images-medium-
large-5/welcome-to-key-largo-dive-capital-
of-the-world-roadsign-florida-keys-usa-joe-
fox.jpg)

estimated to be worth 172 billion dollars annually.30
This statistic is
dependent on coral reefs’ ability to provide essential services (food)
to humans.
Local and (out to sea) fishing operations directly and indirectly
depend upon coral reefs. Traditionally local fisheries have fished for
lobsters, stone crabs, snapper and grouper. Those species rely directly
upon the reef for spawning and habitat. Deep-sea fishing operations
traditionally have fished for tuna, mahi mahi and other pelagic
species, which indirectly depend upon coral reefs for the fish they
eat, which live in the reef.31
Further, the deep-sea fishing operations
look to reefs for bait before going out to sea.
The most notable environmental service coral reefs provide is coastal
protection. Reefs play a crucial role in protecting shorelines from wave
surges and storms. Commonly, these reefs are referred to as barrier
reefs. A barrier reef is a reef that is separated from the shore by an
area of deep water. Yet, barrier reefs run parallel to the shoreline.32
Barrier reefs absorb and break the power of hurricanes, typhoons,
tsunamis and other storms. Furthermore, these reefs slow down
the movement of water approaching the shore during storms and
also the regular tides. This attributes to a decrease in the amount of
erosion occurring on the coastline.33
This helps protect cities from
natural disaster and helps maintain property value. Coral reefs are
a natural defense system and reduce the necessary costs for creation
and upkeep of man-made coastal barriers.
Figure 20: Acropora Coral Life Cycle, by
NOAA (source: http://sero.nmfs.noaa.gov/
protected_resources/coral/elkhorn_coral/
images/acropora_life_cycle.jpg).
Figure 21: The Formation and Typologies
of Coral Reefs (source: http://sky.scnu.edu.
cn/life/class/ecology/image/3/3-13.jpg)

Coral reefs further service the environment and cities through
carbon mitigation. The algae that lives in the tissue of coral reefs
operates the same as inland vegetation. The photosynthetic process
of absorbing carbon and producing oxygen that occurs in these
organisms underwater mirrors that of plants on shore.34
This is an
essential process to the formation of coral reefs and carbon levels in
the ocean.
As discussed in chapter one, the oceans have excess carbon due to
pollution from cities. The work of these coral reefs creates a regulatory
and balancing process for the carbon levels in the oceans. Although
these corals are capable of carbon absorption, they are incredibly
vulnerable to the consequential change in oceanic chemistry due
to the increased carbon levels. Recent studies show that corals are
evolving faster to accommodate for these increased levels of carbon.35
This evolutionary phenomenon is resulting in corals developing
immunities to naturally occurring diseases.
A number of investigations have surrounded this recent discovery.
These investigations examine naturally occurring remedies for
disease causing agents. Already investigations have proved coral
reef organisms’ use in treatments for diseases like cancer and HIV.
A large percentage of medical advancements have been discovered
in rainforests, inland centers for biodiversity.36
Therefore, it’s not
implausible for the future of medical advancements to stem from
coral reef investigations.
PRESENT ENDANGERMENT OF REEFS
For thousands of years, corals have been able to adapt to
natural changes in the environment. Presently, humans are changing
their environment at rates more rapid than corals can adapt. This
impact of cities on the oceans is occurring on the global and local
scale. The global threat of climate change is combining with local
threats.
Rising sea temperatures is resulting in widespread coral
bleaching. This process causes corals to lose their symbiotic algae,
Figure 22: Images of the local
pressures effecting coral reefs, top to
bottom overfishing, in-land sourced
sedimentation and watershed pollution,
coastal development, and marine-based
contamination, by NOAA (source: http://
www.bing.com/image)

Figure 23: Reefs at Risk in the Present, 2030,
and 2050 by The World Resource Institute.
(source: World Resources Institute. Reefs at
Risk Revisited Data DVD. 2011.)
Map A (top) shows reefs classified by
present integrated threats from local
activities (i.e., coastal development,
overfishing/destructive fishing, marine-
based pollution, and/or watershed-based
pollution). Maps B and C show reefs
classified by integrated local threats
combined with projections of thermal
stress and ocean acidification for 2030
and 2050, respectively. Reefs are assigned
their threat category from the integrated
local threat index as a starting point.
Threat is raised one level if reefs are at high
threat from either thermal stress or ocean
acidification, or if they are at medium
threat for both. If reefs are at high threat
for both thermal stress and acidification,
the threat classification is increased by
two levels. The analysis assumed no
increase in future local pressure on reefs,
and no reduction in local threats due to
improvements in management.
which provides their vivid color and thus exposes the white exoskeleton.
Rising levels of carbon emissions is leading to ocean acidification.
These global threats, in combination with local pressures, are resulting
in the degradation of coral ecosystems. One-third of the coral reefs
worldwide are considered damaged beyond repair. The remaining
two-thirds are seriously threatened. This can be seen in Figure 23.37
The most immediate global threats occur in combination with the
local threats of overfishing, coastal development, sedimentation,
inland sourced pollution and marine based threats (Figure 22).
This combination of threats creates a slippery slope when working
towards reef preservation.
Recent studies have shown that over 50% of the global fisheries have
been completely exploited.38
Exploitation is disrupting the ecological
balance within coral communities. This has altered the food chain and
has had cascading effects beyond the overfished species. Evidence of
overfishing is made apparent by the decreasing size of target species.

Fishers have traditionally kept larger fish for larger profit. “The largest
individuals of these species have the greatest reproductive output.
By removing them from the population, the ability for the stock to
replenish itself is reduced”.39
Seeking the largest catch has made the spawning areas for these
species primary targets. This remains a huge threat of overfishing. The
incident of fishers targeting spawning aggregations rapidly depletes
the population because the majority of the local population is there.
Consequently, it is possible for an entire species to be overfished in
a matter of days. No species provides more evidence of this threat
than the yellow fin tuna. In the past 50 years, the population has
decreased to 10%.40
Over exploitation of larger reef fish leads to fishing down. Fishing
down occurs when the larger, more heavily fished species, like grouper
and snapper, become so scarce that less valuable fish become targets.41
In Bermuda alone, the percentage of herbaceous reef species, like
the parrot fish depicted in Figure 24, increased from less than 1% of
the catch in the 1960s to 31% in the 1990s.42
This is an example of
how the disruption of the food chain cascades impact throughout the
food chain. With the decrease of herbaceous fish comes an increase
in algae. If the excess algae is not contained, it can cover coral reefs
and lower the resilience of the reefs. Overfishing is an indirect impact
urban lifestyles has on the marine environment.
In the past 50 years, the number of people living near the coast has
steadily increased to today where now 40% of the total population
is living in these areas. This has led to the extinction of over 50%
of the world’s wetlands.43
With coral reefs being close to the coast,
increasing coastal populations have had a devastating impact on the
reefs. Development of these coastal sanctuaries requires extensive
construction for parks, roads and other urban features necessary to
support residential and tourist populations. Associated development
strategies like dredging and land reclamation have directly damaged
coral reefs.
Figure 24: Common Herbaceous Parrot
Fish, by Ken-ichi Uede (source: http://cdn2.
arkive.org/media/C6/C6AD8F37-4A71-4F9F-
8987-B9C642F1949F/Presentation.Large/
Common-parrotfish-side-profile.jpg

Indirectly, coastal development has threatened coral reefs through the
removal of coastal habitats and increasing site runoff. The absence of
mangroves and coastal habitats that naturally filter the sedimentation
of this runoff has increased the amount of sedimentation in coral
seas. This impacts the coral reefs because as water becomes murkier,
less light is able to reach the corals’ symbiotic algae.44
Reefs are threatened by sedimentation from inland sourced pollution
similarly to coastal development. The oceans are downstream from
everywhere and numerous coral reefs are located at the mouths of
rivers. This results in serious threats to the reef from inland sourced
pollution.
This pollution is generally associated with agricultural practices.
Runoff from fertilizers, pesticides and livestock manure is introducing
significant sources of nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus,
to coastal waterways.45
This leads to eutrophication, which can
cause algae blooms, changes in community structure and decreased
biological diversity. In extreme cases, eutrophication results in dead
zones because of the oxygen depletion and high levels of nutrients
in the water. Looking at a map of the world’s dead zones and largest
cities, it is easy to see the correlation.
Marine based threats to coral reefs commonly correlate directly with
the direct threats cities place on the oceans. Activities giving rise to
this pollution include oil discharge and spills, sewage discharge, balasit
and billage discharge and dumping of garbage and other human waste
from ships.46
Direct physical damage is also occurring as a result of
ship anchoring and groundings. Reckless anchoring can account for
up to 200m of damage even in calm seas.47
Coral reefs are a central
locale for visitors and anchoring. Even the smallest anchors, over
time, account for a significant portion of damage.
The actual amount of oil accidentally released into the ocean from
spills is relatively low compared to the amount of oil that enters the
waters via billage water disposal and routine maintenance of oil rigs
and pipelines.48
The discharge of billage and ballast water for these
ships affects coral reefs by releasing toxic mixtures of oil, nutrients,

invasive species and other pollutants. Although the oceans’ tides
disperse this pollution throughout space over time, the majority of
the pollutants spend much time in coastal waters. Oil damages coral
reproductive tissues, harms the algae, inhibits juvenile recruitment
and reduces resilience of reefs to other stressors.49
Ultimately, the combination of local and global threats to the coral
reefs, serve as a major contributor to the extinction of the reefs. The
loss of reefs will have impacts on the world at a local and global scale.
NOTES
21. Burke, Lauretta Marie, and Jonathan Maidens. Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean.
Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute, 2004.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Kushner, Benjamin, Peter Edwards, Lauretta Burke, and Emily Cooper. Coastal Capital:
Jamaica. Washington, DC: World Resources Institue, 2011. 369-380.
26. Ibid
27. Ibid.
28. Grimm, Nancy B., Stanley H. Faeth, Nancy E. Golubiewski, Charles L. Redman, Jianguo Wu, Xuemei Bai,
and John M. Briggs. “Global change and the ecology of cities.” science 319, no. 5864 (2008): 756-760.
29. Nagelkerken, I., et al. “Dependence of Caribbean reef fishes on mangroves and seagrass beds as nursery habitats: a comparison
of fish faunas between bays with and without mangroves/seagrass beds.” Marine Ecology Progress Series214 (2001): 225-235.
30. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid
34. Mumby, Peter J., Alan Hastings, and Helen J. Edwards. “Thresholds and the resilience
of Caribbean coral reefs.” Nature 450.7166 (2007): 98-101.
35. “The World Fact Book.” Central Intelligence Agency. Accessed November 19, 2014. https://
www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html.
36. Ibid.
37. Ibid.
39. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Methodology Development Project (RiVAMP) Linking
Ecosystems to Risk and Vulnerability Reduction : The Case of Jamaica : Results of the Pilot
Assessment. Narobi: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2010.
40. Ibid
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Kushner, Benjamin, Peter Edwards, Lauretta Burke, and Emily Cooper. Coastal Capital:
Jamaica. Washington, DC: World Resources Institue, 2011. 369-380.
45. Ibid.
46. Mumby, Peter J., Alan Hastings, and Helen J. Edwards. “Thresholds and the resilience
of Caribbean coral reefs.” Nature 450.7166 (2007): 98-101.
47. Ibid
48. Ibid

26 The Irie Coast | Regional Analysis
The greater Caribbean region is located at the intersection of the
Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. This
region is home to the coral reefs of Florida, the Bahamas, the northern
coast of South America and those of the Caribbean Sea (Figure 25).
These reefs include approximately 10% of the world’s coral reefs, span
38 countries, support over 43 million people, provide more than 3
billion US dollars annually from tourism, fisheries and other services.
Although these number are impressive, the truth is that only one s
of the original coral cover remains today.1
These naturally resilient
ecosystems are diminishing and if not recovered may become extinct
in the coming decades.
As previously discussed, corals thrive in the tropics, the thin belt
encircling the globe. With the entirety of the Caribbean region
located in the tropics, the region’s geographic location creates an ideal
habitat for corals to thrive. The year round ideal water temperatures
of 73-84 degrees F, coupled with the relatively clear and shallow
water, are factors that further contribute to the establishment of
coral reefs in this region.2
These ideal conditions for reefs lay the groundwork for some of the
most catastrophic events known to mankind. In fact, the reefs and
islands of the Caribbean have been forged out of the most catastrophic
forces of nature. The warm water temperatures converge with low-
The Greater
Caribbean
Situation
Figure 25: Reefs at Risk in the Atlantic
Caribbean, by The World Resource Institute.
(source: World Resources Institute. Reefs at
Risk Revisited Data DVD. 2011.)
More than 75 percent of the coral reefs
in the Atlantic region are at risk from
local threats (i.e., coastal development,
overfishing/destructive fishing, marine-
based pollution, and/or watershed-based
pollution), with over 30 percent in the
high and very high threat categories. The
least-threatened reefs are almost entirely
in areas remote from large land areas,
such as the Bahamas, the southern Gulf of
Mexico, and the oceanic reefs of Honduras
and Nicaragua. The insular Caribbean is
particularly threatened: from Jamaica
through to the Lesser Antilles, more than
90 percent of all reefs are threatened, with
nearly 70 percent classified as high or very
high threat.

Regional Analysis |The Irie Coast 27
pressure weather systems in the summer and fall. This convergence
commonly results in tropical waves or depressions that gather strength
and force as they follow trade winds west. Their power peaks in the
Caribbean basin. If these storms gain enough momentum, they
become powerful hurricanes.
These storms impact coral reefs just as they do inland cities.
Historically, these storms have damaged and even wiped out entire
coral reef ecosystems. This constant threat of being destroyed has
forced species to evolve at faster rates. This increased rate of evolution
has increased the region’s biodiversity, which ensures survival of an
ecosystem in the event of a disaster.3
This evolutionary discourse occurring in the area is not unique to
the marine environment. Inland species of the region are evolving
at equitable rates. This historical phenomenon is well documented.
The concept of evolution as a whole was even discovered by Charles
Darwin in the Galapagos Islands. Although these islands are in the
Pacific Ocean, they are widely considered to be part of the Caribbean
region.4
This region’s native species have long been evolving to survive
in this highly competitive environment. This evolution has resulted
in numerous variations of species found nowhere else in the world.
CARIBBEAN CORAL REEFS
3 to 4 million years ago, Panama protruded out of the sea and
effectively separated the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea.5
At
this point, the region began developing its own unique coral reef
biota. Today, these reefs are home to over 65 species of hard coral
and over 800 different reef associated fish species. These ecosystems
also host an array of other invertebrates, mammals and aquatic life.
Many of these species are considered to be endemic. Well over 90%
of fish, corals, crustaceans and other groups are found nowhere else
in the world.6
The center of marine biodiversity of the region is in the west
central Caribbean Sea. This is in the neighborhood of the Jamaica-

Belize Barrier Reef (Figure 26
). In general, reef biodiversity decreases as
the distance from this center increases. This is evident as there are
40-50 species of coral identified around the Bahamas as opposed to
the 62 identified in Jamaica.7
The majority of the reefs in the Caribbean can be viewed as
extensions of the shoreline. These reefs are often located within 100
yards from land and are classified as fringe reefs.8
The region is also
home to each of the other types of coral reefs outlined in chapter
two. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef is the second largest barrier reef
system in the world. Three out of the four true coral atolls occurring
in the western hemisphere occur in the Caribbean region.
CARIBBEAN PEOPLE AND CARIBBEAN CITIES
The oceans are the natural systems that have formed the foundation
of traditional and modern Caribbean lifestyles. The wildlife of the
Caribbean mirrors the evolution and adaptations of the first people to
inhabit the Caribbean. The original islanders came to the isles aboard
canoes from South America approximately 4,000 years ago. These
original settlers came to these lands in pursuit of hunting grounds.
However, the Caribbean Islands have no indigenous large mammals.
Figure 26: Belize Barrier Reef (source:
http://ambergriscaye.com/images/slides/
barrierreef3.jpg)

Accustomed to life in the vast rainforest in South America, where
large mammals were in abundance, the first islanders were forced
to look to the sea for food. This dates the regions connection and
dependency upon the sea to the area’s original settlers.
This dependency has required massive amounts of fishing throughout
history. As the population of the region increased, so did the demand
for food. This increased demand served as a pressure on aquatic
populations. Today, as these cities are ever growing, that pressure
is becoming more intense. Ultimately, the demand outweighs the
supply and most of the Caribbean region has been overfished. This
overfishing has radical impacts on local reefs (Figure 27). Overfishing
has threatened more than 70% of reefs in the Caribbean.
Theincreasedpopulationnotonlyrequiredmorefood,butalsorequired
increased urban development along the coast to accommodate the
increasing number of people. Although the region has a long history
of urban development through colonialism, most of the original
cities were abandoned. However, the most recent development has
occurred more rapidly than ever before. An estimated one-third of
Caribbean coral reefs are threatened by coastal development.
The estimated number of people living within 10 miles of the
Caribbean coast grew from 36 million in 1990 to 41 million in 2000.
Over 36% of the Caribbean coral reefs are located within 2km of
inhibited land. Thus, sewage discharge is a common problem. Other
sources of diminishing water quality due to coastal development are
storm water runoff and industrial pollution.
In recent years, tourism in the Caribbean has been on the rise.
Coral reefs are the main attraction to the Caribbean. This increase
in tourism is incredibly significant to the regional economy. Well-
planned tourism opportunities can have minimal impacts. However,
unplanned and poorly regulated tourism is detrimental to coral reefs
and unfortunately the most common in this region. The impacts of
the tourism industry on coral reefs are direct and indirect.
A direct impact the industry has on the health of coral reefs is the
Figure 27: Reef loss in Jamaica, by Enpundit
(source: http://ambergriscaye.com/images/
slides/barrierreef3.jpg)
Due to increasing levels of carbon dioxide
in seawater and overfishing, the very
design of the ocean is changing.

damage to the reef caused by boat anchor and diver interactions. An
indirect impact is the result of resort development and operation. For
example, when untreated sewage is discharged into the ocean. The
development of tourism infrastructure like the constructions of ports,
airports and hotels, has an impact on coral reefs. These disturbances
have similarities to those caused by general coastal development.
Tourism creates a unique disturbance because it frequently impacts
undeveloped areas.
Tourism has created a demand for development along the coast. As
tourism gradually took control of coastal areas, agricultural practices
expanded inward. This inward expansion of agriculture created
increased sedimentation that has gravely impacted coral reefs.
As land is converted to agriculture, soil erosion and sedimentation
delivery to coastal waterways has increased. This is a key stressor
for coastal ecosystems that are highly dependent upon light.
Photosynthesis is hindered as sedimentation results in murkier
waters. Furthermore, runoff from agricultural waste, like manure,
accumulation of toxic pesticides and fertilizers, serves as a major
pollutant to coastal waterways. A study of over 3,000 watersheds
across the region identified 20% of coral reefs to be highly threatened
and 15% moderately threatened by sedimentation from across the
region.
Human activity and development on land poses major threats to
the neighboring ecosystems. Marine based threats also exist for
the region. In the Caribbean region, activities giving rise to this
pollution include, but are not limited to: oil discharge and spills,
sewage, ballast and billage discharge, dumping of human waste from
ships and damage from ship groundings and anchors. 77% of all
ship type waste in this region is accredited to cruise ships, 20% to
cargo ships and the remaining 3% to private vessels. Research has
identified that approximately 15% of the regions reefs are threatened
by marine based pollution.
The most significant takeaway is that all of these previously discussed

local threats do not work alone in the degradation of the marine
environment. Instead, these local threats intensify the damage when
inherently coupled with the global threats to aquatic life outlined
in the previous chapters. This creates a major destructive force that
is rapidly increasing the deterioration and damage of aquatic life in
this region. All the while, the region’s dependency on the depleting
aquatic life is not changing. Without coral reefs, these areas would
face severe economic losses. Ultimately, this region will eventually
fail to sustain itself and could destroy an entire ecosystem if no
progressive actions are taken.
NOTES
1. Burke, Lauretta Marie, and Jonathan Maidens. Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean. Washington, D.C.: World Resources
Institute, 2004.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid.
5. Kushner, Benjamin, Peter Edwards, Lauretta Burke, and Emily Cooper. Coastal Capital: Jamaica. Washington, DC: World
Resources Institue, 2011. 369-380.
6. Ibid
7. Ibid.
8. Grimm, Nancy B., Stanley H. Faeth, Nancy E. Golubiewski, Charles L. Redman, Jianguo Wu, Xuemei Bai, and John M.
Briggs.“Global change and the ecology of cities.”science 319, no. 5864 (2008): 756-760.
9. Nagelkerken, I., et al.“Dependence of Caribbean reef fishes on mangroves and seagrass beds as nursery habitats:
a comparison of fish faunas between bays with and without mangroves/seagrass beds.”Marine Ecology Progress
Series214 (2001): 225-235.
10. Ibid.
11. Beatley, Timothy. Blue urbanism: exploring connections between cities and oceans. Washington, DC: Island Press,
2014.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid
14. Mumby, Peter J., Alan Hastings, and Helen J. Edwards.“Thresholds and the resilience of Caribbean coral reefs.”Nature
450.7166 (2007): 98-101.
15. “The World Fact Book.”Central Intelligence Agency. Accessed November 19, 2014. https://www.cia.gov/library/publi-
cations/the-world-factbook/geos/jm.html.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
19. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment Methodology Development Project (RiVAMP) Linking Ecosystems to Risk and
Vulnerability Reduction : The Case of Jamaica : Results of the Pilot Assessment. Narobi: United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), 2010.
20. Ibid
21. Beatley, Timothy. Blue urbanism: exploring connections between cities and oceans. Washington, DC: Island Press,
2014.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
24. Kushner, Benjamin, Peter Edwards, Lauretta Burke, and Emily Cooper. Coastal Capital: Jamaica. Washington, DC: World
Resources Institue, 2011. 369-380.
25. Ibid.
26. Mumby, Peter J., Alan Hastings, and Helen J. Edwards.“Thresholds and the resilience of Caribbean coral reefs.”Nature
450.7166 (2007): 98-101.
27. Ibid
28. Ibid

Figure 28: Montgo Bay Beach (source
google.com/image)
This project will investigate Montego Bay, Jamaica and its environs
through an inventory of data and McHargian analysis methodology.
In the inventory stage data will be gathered from an array of sources,
a watershed shed analysis, and site visit, to subsequently be formatted
into a consistent mapped format. This format will entail the darkest
gradations of tones representing areas with the greatest value, and
the lightest tones associated with the least significant value.
The focus of study will be Jamaica and the present state of the reefs
there. This community relies on reefs in very specific ways. Jamaica
is huge for tourism that depends on the ocean. The majority of the
food in Jamaica comes from the ocean. Finally, the local reefs protect
Jamaica’s coasts.
Montego Bay is one of the Caribbean’s leading tourist destinations
and, largely as a result of this, has one of the most threatened near-
shore coral reef ecosystems in the region. Natural and anthropogenic
forces over many years have combined to inflict a deadly blow.
Water pollution, in the form of nutrient enrichment from municipal
raw sewage discharges, household waste, associated leaching, and
sedimentation, has been especially devastating to the near-shore coral
reef ecosystem. Oil pollution and runoff of agricultural fertilizers and
pesticides continually add to the problems. Once luxuriant near-shore
coral reefs are now smothered by macrophytic algae and struggling
for survival. In Montego Bay, significant changes in land use and
hydrology have been occurring for the past 500 years.
INVENTORY
AND
ANALYSIS

Figure 29: Site specific examples of local
pressures and percentage of coral reefs
impacted, by NOAA (source: http://www.
bing.com/image)
top to bottom: common practice of
blast fishing, stormwater back up and
watershed pollution, typical resort
coastal development, and marine-based
contamination-invasive lion fish,
Several events in the coastal ecosystem most likely had the largest
impacts on marine communities:
+ The development of the Freeport and Seawind Island resort area
by the filling in of mangrove forests and islands in 1967 and the
reclamation of the entire waterfront area in the 1970s;
+ The change in drainage patterns and nutrient loading of coastal
rivers and estuaries associated with a growing human population
and inadequate infrastructure;
+ The bulkheading of coastlines, loss of coastal vegetation, and changes
in the quality of storm-water runoff; and,
+ Natural impacts such as Hurricane Allen in 1980, Hurricane Gilbert
in 1988 and the sea urchin Diadema antillarum die-off in 1983-84.

Figure 30: Inventory analysis of Montego
Bay’s Urban Context (Data Source: Knowles,
J. The Nature Conservancy. 2015.)
MUNICIPALITIES
• schools
• libraries
• municipal buildings
• courthouses
• medical centers
ECONOMIC
PRODUCERS
• agricultural land
• commercial land
• markets
• industrial land
• hotels
PUBLIC UTILITIES
• electricity
• wastewater treatment
• solid waste facilities
• potable water infa.
EMERGENCY
SERVICES
• existing roads
• airports
• bridges,
• emergency shelters
• police
• fire stations
• community centers

STROM SURGE
Hurricane Sandy, 2012
$608.6mil
SEA-LEVEL RISE
Road Infrastructure
exposed to a rise in mean
sea level
$6.6billion
LANDSLIDE
$6.6mil
WIND
$88.3mil
PLUVIAL
INUNDATION
Flood in 2010
$381.9mil
SEISMIC
$6.6mil
Figure 31: Montego Bay’s EconomicRisk
and Social Vulnerability to Climate Change
(data source: “Urban Development and
Climate Change: Current and Historic Urban
Footprint, Urban Growth Scenarios and
Basic Studies on Climate Change Mitigation
and Adaptation” #12-031.)
OPPOSITE LEFT TO RIGHT
Figure 32: Emergency Services
Figure 33: Utilities
Figure 34: Municipalities
Figure 35: Economic Producers (source:
“Urban Development and Climate Change:
Current and Historic Urban Footprint, Urban
Growth Scenarios and Basic Studies on
Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation”
#12-031.)

Figure 36: Utilities
Figure 38: Economic Producers
Figure 39: MunicipalitiesPULLUVIAL INUDATION | 50 YR RETURN PERIOD
Bay’s Urban Context (Data Source: Knowles,

Figure 41: Municipalities
Figure 43: Economic Producers
Figure 44: Utilities (source: “Urban
Development and Climate Change: Current
and Historic Urban Footprint, Urban Growth
Scenarios and Basic Studies on Climate
Change Mitigation and Adaptation” #12-
031.)
STORM SURGE RISK | 50 YR RETURN PERIOD
Resorts along the coast are located in high cost, high exposure areas,
creating high risk along the coast. People living in low-lying areas
further inland are prone to flooding, whenever heavy rainfall occurs,
the rainwater settles on the land and is unable to runoff, thus cause
flooding. Individuals living in floodplains are susceptible to flooding
whenever the river floods its banks.

Bay’s Marine Context (Data Source: Knowles,

Bay’s Shoreline Protection being provided by
coral reefsContext (Data Source: Knowles, J.
The Nature Conservancy. 2015.)
Using available data reefs were ranked by
thier shorline protection abilities based
upon thier health, promity to the coast,
depth occuring, and various other metrics.
The map also depicts the present funneling
condition for flooding created by the
dedging of the port. Having soft bottoms
behind reefs damatically decreased thier
ability to protect the coast.

Figure 47: TOP Land-use inventory (Data
Source: Knowles, J. The Nature Conservancy.
2015.)
Figure 48: BOTTOM Population density by
watershed analysis (Data Source: Knowles, J.
Figure 49: TOP MIDDLE urban and
agriculture land-use intensity analysis (Data
Source: Knowles, J. The Nature Conservancy.
2015.)
Figure 50: MIDDLE BOTTOM Edge condition
inventory (Data Source: Knowles, J. The
Nature Conservancy. 2015.)

Figure 51: TOP Analysis of soil erosion
rates (Data Source: Knowles, J. The Nature
Conservancy. 2015.)
Figure 52: BOTTOM critical habitiats
analysis analysis (Data Source: Knowles, J.

Figure 53: Inventory of Coastal dynamics
Figure 54: Section cut location map

1000

Figure 55: Illustrative Master Plan
As a functional buffer the proposed urban
strategy integrates vital infrastructure such
as food production, water remediation, and
brings cultural significance to the urban
context through an unique and regional
hybrid landscape providing access to the
natural world.
The 800 acre master plan (Figure 55)aims to reduce Montego Bay’s
risk of climate change related hazards by implementing a symbiotic
layered system of green and blue infrastructure. The Blue Belts and
Coastal Ribbon work together to increase Montego Bay’s coastal
resiliency to climate change, preserve the cities existing program,
context and contribute to the city’s cultural identity of place.
Along with the protective aspects of the infrastructure, Montego Bay
further benefits through the introduction of an intricate network of
public spaces that serve as new cultural hubs of activity. The design
seeks to further connect humans to nature by providing a variety
of opportunities for humans to engage with Montego Bay’s unique
ecologies. The design functions ecologically as a connection, linking
the estuary to the rainforest.
The design program targets the five predominate user groups of
the city: single day tourist, over-night tourist, locals, youth and
elderly and adjacent neighborhoods. The program focuses more
specifically on inactions between humans and nature, empowering
future generations by providing local schools with opportunities
to take the classroom outside. However, the educational aspects of
the design do not segregate and are designed to attract, engage, and
educate locals and tourist of all ages who depend upon the marine
environment. Demonstrative facilities throughout the Coastal Ribbon
introduce alternative closed loop systems of food production and
ultimately increase the city’s marine stewardship.
Proposal

Bogue Rd
Bogue Rd
< LU
CC
EA
BogueRd
Barn
eet Rd
Alice Eld
erm
ire Dr
Barnett River
Montego Bay River
South Gully
North Gully
M
onte
go
BayRiv
er
Barn
ett
Riv
er
Alice Eldermire Dr
How
ardCookeHwy
Alice Eldermire Dr
HowardCookeHwy
TheQueensDr
SunsetBlvd
DOWNTOWN MONTEGO BAY
CANTERBURY
WESTGATE
THE LAGOONS
WARRET PARK
NEW MARKET
RED HILLS
MIRANDA HILL
BOGUEVILLAGE
BOGUE HEIGHTS
READING
Airp
ort>
CATHERINE HALL
TORBAY
MONTEGO BAY
OILTERMINAL
MONTEGO BAY
INDUSTRIAL
ZONE
Bogue Spring River
Retirement River
JamaicaRailway
JamaicaRailway
JamaicaRailway
55
55
1
11
11
11
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
11
11

REGIONAL STRATEGY
The strategy lays framework to grow beyond the proposed site
bounderies. Suggesting the city develope a continious the proposal has
potential and is recommended to go beyond proposed site boundaries.
PRESERVE • coral farm
• ecological
• coral
detour
• artificial
reef in-fill
• coral farm
• ecological
restoration
CONNECT
ADAPT

Figure 56: ABOVE Plan view of the Regional
approach ato the coast.
Figure 57: Diagram of impementation
strategy.

THREE LITTLE
BIRDS PARK
THESEASCAPE
GATEWAY
BOGUE VILLAGE
LAGOON
THE CORAL
DETOUR
THE HUMBACK’S BAY
THE
CORAL
STRIP
Figure 58: A continuous green and blue
network
Irie Coast proposal for Montego Bay is a
ecological “connector”; linking the estuary
to the rain forest and urban areas to the
marine environment.

DOWNTOWN
MONTEGO BAY
CANTERBURY
WESTGATE
WARRET PARK
NEW MARKET
RED HILLS
MIRANDA HILL
BOGUEVILLAGE
BOGUE HEIGHTS
READING
CATHERINE HALL
TORBAY
CATHERINE HALL
MONTEGO BAY FREEZONE
MONTEGO BAY
OILTERMINAL
INDUSTRIAL
ZONE
WATER SPORTS •
FISHING PIER • • RESORT
RESORT • • RESORT
• RESORT
RESORT •
RESORT •
• RESORT
SEA TURTLE NESTING BEACH •
EXISTING PUBLIC PARK •
MARGARITAVILLE •
AQUA SOL THEME-PARK •
EXISTING REEF INFRASTRUCTURE • • RESORT
• RESORT
• TOURIST DESTINATION
• DINNING
• DINNING
• DINNING
• SHOPPING
• DINNING
DINNING •
• DINNING
SHOPPING •
• RESORT
• SHOPPING
• SHOPPING
• HOSTPITAL
PUBLIC BEACH •
WATER SPORTS •
PUBLIC PARK •
EXISTING REEF INFRASTRUCTURE •
• RESORT
• GO CARTS
PUBLIC BEACH •
EVENT SPACE •
DUMP UP BEACH •
• DREDGED FUNNEL •
• HARBOUR STREET CRAFT MARKET
TAX OFFICE •
GOVERNMENT BUILDING •
MONTEGO BAY MPA’S OFFICE •
COMMERCIAL CRUISE PORT •
SOCIAL MARINA •
DOCK SIDE DINNING •
BOAT LAUNCH •
BOAT LAUNCH •
SHIPPING LANE •
SHIPPING LANE •
• LIBRARY
SAM SHARPE SQUARE •
HIP STRIP •
• POLICE STATION
• TRANSIT CENTRE
• MONTEGO BAY TRAIN STATION
• ROSE HALL GREAT HOUSE
JARRET PARK •
ST. JAMES •
HIGH SCHOOL
• FIRE STATION
MANGROVES •
WETLANDS •
WETLANDS •
SOUTH GULLY RIVER DELTA •
FISHING PIER •
RIVER BAY FISHING VILLAGE •
SPORT FIELDS •
MANGROVES •
MONTEGO BAY RIVER DELTA •
• BARNETT RIVER DELTA
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION •
• CORINALDI AVENUE
PRIMARY SCHOOL
CATHERIN HALL PRIMARY SCHOOL •
• RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION
• GROCERY
• EVENT SPACE
PLANNED HARBOUR DEVELOPMENT •
EXISTING REEF PASS •
EXISTING REEF PASS •
• LOOK OUT
LOOK OUT •
LOOK OUT •
• TOURIST ATTRATION
• MONTEGO
BAY
INDUSTRIAL
PORT
• OVER WINTER BIRD NESTING SITE
• WATER FOWL NESTING AND ROOSTING
PLANNED RESORT DEVELOPMENT •
PLANNED RESORT DEVELOPMENT •
• OUTDOOR AMPHITHEATRE
BOB MARLEY CENTRE•
MANGROVES •
CARIBBEAN INSTITUTE •
OF TECHNOLOGY
MANGROVES •
MANGROVES •
YACHT CLUB •
• MEGA MART
• POLICE STATION
• MARGARITAVILLE
•MONTEGO BAY COMMUNITY COLLEGE
• DEMO VACANT LOT
• DEMO VACANT LOT
• CATHERINE HALL SPORTS COMPLEX
• MARINE ESTUARY •
MARINE CAY •
MARINE CAY •
RESORT •
CRUISE PORT •
PORT AUTHORITY •
CRUISE SHORE EXCURSIONS JAMAICA •
PLANNED PRIVATE COMMUNITY •
• FREE PORT SHOPPING FACILITY
RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •
DIVING ATTRACTION •
RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •
RESORT •
EXISTING PATCH REEF •
THE LAGOONS PRIVATE COMMUNITY •
OVER WINTER BIRD NESTING SITE •
WATER FOWL NESTING AND ROOSTING •
MANGROVE FOREST •
FORESTED WETLAND •
• BOGUE VILLAGE CITY CENTRE
• LOCAL RETAIL DESTINATION
TOURIST RETAIL COMPLEX
• BOGUE VILLAGE
CEMETERY
• HERBERT MORRIS HIGH SCHOOL
LOCAL RETAIL •
FAIRVIEW SHOPPING CENTRE•
• TOURIST RETAIL
BOGUE VILLAGE W.T.P •
BOGUE VILLAGE W.T.F •
MARINE CAY •
MARINE CAY •
SEA TURTLE NESTING BEACH •SEA GRASS BED •
SEA GRASS BED •
S.A.V AND PATCH REEFS •
TIDAL FLATS •
SALT MARSH •
WETLANDS •
WETLANDS •
WETLANDS •
WETLANDS •
ROCKY BULKHEAD SHORE •
ROCKY BULKHEAD SHORE •
EXISTING OPEN SPACE •
EXISTING BERM •
• MANGROVE FOREST
• FORESTED WETLAND
• MANGROVE FOREST
MANGROVE FOREST •
RIVER DELTA •
MARITIME FOREST/ CANOPY •
• MARITIME FOREST/ CANOPY
• MARITIME FOREST/ CANOPY
RED STRIPE BREWERY •
TOURIST DESTINATION •
SHOPPING •
MVP STEAK HOUSE •
GOVERNMENT BUILDING •
RESORT •
• TAXI STAND
• DINNING
• DINNING
• DINNING
• DINNING
• SHOPPING
• TOURIST ATTRACTION
Figure 59: Program Diagram
This diagram identifies the existing and
proposed program of the coast and
proposed opportunities. All of Montego
Bay’s existing diversity of culturally rich
programing has been refreshed and
preserved.

Figure 60: circulation master plan
A variety of paths and trails allow for
extensive pedestrian movement and
access to all areas of the park.

Figure 61: Canopy cover is utilized to
increase the friction in the water cycle.
Mitigating sedimentation and promoting
biodiversity.

Figure 62: Habitat and Ecology Masterplan
Irie Coast is a ecological ‘connector’;
linking the estuary to the rain forest and
urban areas to the marine environment

SPECIES INTER-RELATIONSHIPS
Each plant and animal species is dependent on a wide array of other
species for survival. The Figure 63 illustrates this concept with an
example of inter-related species typical to the Montego Bay native
habitat. Interspecies relationships are critical for the establishment of
healthy and robust ecosystems. The Irie Coast design will considered
through out the coast, coordinating with the seawall design for key
relationships with marine and inter-tidal habitat. The prinicple
is also utilized to promote reef and wetland habitat restoration
simultaniously.
Figure 63: Diagram of species inter-
realtionships
MARINE ZONE INTERTIDAL ZONE RIPARIAN ZONE UPLAND ZONE
foragers
tree nuts
slopes
tree
roots
osprey
pelican
sea gullSAV
POLLINATION
CORAL REEF
PROPIGATION
marine fishCORAL REEF
invertebrates
juvenile
waterfowl
jewfish+ snapper
WETLAND
REFORESTATION
MARITIME FOREST
EXPANSION
MAGROVE FOREST
PROPIGATION
PREYSON
M
ARINE FISH
>
NESTS IN THE TREE CANOPY >
STABALIZESGR
OUND
>
HIDESINTHEVEGITATION>
FEEDSONMARINEHABITAT
>

TRANSECT TYPOLOGIES
The transect depicts how Montego Bay can implement a layered
system of symbiotic green and blue infrastructures to stave off climate
change. The design is projective and therefore ever evolving and ever
changing its form. Areas of interest have been defined and highlighted
in transect and perspective renderings to further describe the sense
of places that is being created and programmatic opportunities of
engagement for various users.
These replicapcable innovations can can help guide other Caribbean
coastal cities towards a more sustainable future as well.
Figure 64: Site Section
The section depicts the summation of
layered strategy of coastal defense.
DUNES AND BERMS
CONSTRUCTED REEFS
TIDAL FLATS
DREDGE WETLANDS
FRICTION FORESTS
ABSORPTIVE EDGES
HABITAT BREAKWATERS
MITIGATE
RESTOREADAPT
Habitat
lobster reef
High ground
development
Storm water
storage
Floodable
first floor
Urban Berm
Tidal pool
Dredge wetland

PARTNER
ENHANCEt Breakwater
Borrow pit filling
Constructed reef
Figure 65: SYSTEMATIC RECILIENCY
The diagram depicts the sttrategy of
coastal defense
DIFFUSE- Ecological Infrastructure for risk reduction
DEFEND- Programmed hard and soft infrastrtuctre for coastal
defense
DELAY- Urban infrastructure to slow rainwater runoff]
DETAIN- a circuit of interconnected green infrastructur to store
and direct excess water
DISCHARGE
OCEANEXPOSED
FRINDGINGREEFS
DIFFUSE
SUBTIDALFRINDGING
ANDPATCHREEFS
WETLAND
RESTORATION
SEAWALLTYPOLOGIES
DEFENDDEPLOYABLEFLOODWALLSROCKYSHORE
BULKHEADS
MARITIMEFOREST
RESTORATION
DELAY
COASTALRIBBON/
TERRACEDECOLOGIES
DETAIN
ENGINEERED
WETLANDS
DISCHARGE
BIO-SWALES
BIOLOGICAL
DETENTIONBASINS
DEEPOCEANOUTFALL
WATERSHEDSLIPSE
CISTERNS
OVERFLOW
PUMPINGSTATION

THE BLUE BELTS
The diffusing reefs were designed and located based upon the research
obtained from John Knowles at the Jamaican Nature Conservancy
and generalized theories. Moving forward with the project more
accurate data should be obtained and environmental modeling should
be preformed to maximize the strategies efficiency.
The location of the proposed interventions was guided by three
principle functions the preform. Environmental inventory and
analysis identified where conditions were defined to be ideal. The
strategies only diffuse the treats of climate change by reducing wave
hight and velocity, they do not keep water out.
This new partnership allows for nature to be on the front line of
coastal defense. Absorbing the brute of the force and self regenerating
it’s self. This will dramatically reduce the continually capital the city
devotes to infrastructure with time. With the initial investments in
reef restoration and creation cost on average thousands of dollars less
than traditional means of mitigation.

WAVES
EVERYDAY FLOOD EVENT FLOOD EVENT + BREAKWATER
FLOOD HAZARD REDUCTION
BEACH NOURISHMENT
SHORELINE EROSION
ZONE REDUCED OR
STABILIZED
COASTAL EROSION REDUCTION
SHORELINE PRIOR TO BW INSTALLATION
V ZONE
COASTAL A
ZONE
A ZONE
A ZONE
REDUCTION OF V ZONE
AND COASTAL A ZONES
REDUCTION OF
A ZONE EXTENT
TOMBOLO SALIENT CREST NO IMPACT
WAVES
BEACH NOURISHMENT
2014 SHORELINE
1928 SHORELINE
SHORELINE EROSION
ZONE REDUCED OR
STABILIZED
HISTORIC SHORELINE LOSS PROJECTED SHORELINE LOSS
WITH NO INTERVENTION
SHORELINE STABILIZATION
WITH INTERVENTION
V ZONE
COASTAL A
ZONE
A ZONE
A ZONE
REDUCTION OF V ZONE
AND COASTAL A ZONES
REDUCTION OF
A ZONE EXTENT
FUTURE
EROSION ZONE
WAVES
WAVES
BEACH NOURISHMENT
WAVES
BEACH NOURISHMENT
2014 SHORELINE
1928 SHORELINE
SHORELINE EROSION
ZONE REDUCED OR
STABILIZED
HISTORIC SHORELINE LOSS PROJECTED SHORELINE LOSS
WITH NO INTERVENTION
SHORELINE STABILIZATION
WITH INTERVENTION
V ZONE
COASTAL A
ZONE
A ZONE
A ZONE
REDUCTION OF V ZONE
AND COASTAL A ZONES
REDUCTION OF
A ZONE EXTENT
FUTURE
EROSION ZONE
WAVES
WAVES
Figure 66: beach nourishment diagram
Figure 67: Coastal erosion reduction
diagram
Figure 68: Flood hazard reduction diagram

Figure 69: BELOW Section of Ocean
Exposed Fringing Reef Infrastructure
OCEAN EXPOSED FRINGING REEFS
The ocean exposed fringing reefs are designed to function as breakwater
infrastructure and to mimic the natural conditions local reefs thrive
in. The reefs protect the shoreline by reducing erosion and coastal
community’s risk of climate change by decreasing wave energy by an
average of 97%. Artificially re-establishing the reef crest (breakwater),
or shallowest part of the reef where the waves break first, dissipates
86% of wave energy on its own.
The infrastructure also shapes the coral detour; a revolutionary
proposed non-linear commercial shipping channel. This intervention
is founded on the thought that we do not allow shipping industries
to put highways through historic districts for convenience, so why do
we allow them to do as they please out to sea? Montego Bay’s present
shipping channel is a major dredging operation that has resulted in
the removal of historic reef infrastructure and created a funnel for
storm surges to impact the city.
The Coral Detour ensures the protection of the marine infrastructure
by detailing where ships are allowed to anchor and approach the
shore. The new approach narrows and kinks the existing approach
around re-established ocean exposed fringing reefs to allow the entire
coast to benefit from reef protection. The Coral Detour has been
located on the historic reef footprint and in locations were present
conditions were identified as advantageous.
97%
Avg. Total
Wave Energy Reduction
84%
Avg Total
Wave Height
Reduction
Mean sea level + SLR
Surge water level
Mean sea level
WAVE ACTION1/2 MILE
OFFSHORE REEF
BREAKWATERS WITH ENHANCED EDGES
Coral Reef RestorationTidal flats Econcrete breakwaterArmor rockFilter rock
Geotube core with dredge fill/ sandRock toe/ scour apron
Econcrete to support marine
biological assemblages such
as oysters, mussels, sponges
and tube worms
Quarry stone substrate
Embedded constructed tidepools

Surge water level
Mean sea level
ACTION
OFFSHORE REEF
Surge water level
Mean sea level
WAVE ACTION
1/2 MILE TO SHORELINE
ECONCRETE UNITS
Coral Reef restoration Fishing grounds
ncrete breakwater
and
marine
s such
onges
Recycled SIMS glass
Additional habitat
Rock toe/ scour apronSubtidal constructed reefECONcrete armor units ECONcrete armor units
SUB TIDAL PATCH REEFS
The sub tidal patch reefs are designed to mimic natural conditions
and create a dynamic that encourages shoreline stabilization. This
enables the Blue Belts to avoid further damaging existing critical
habitats because the natural coastal dynamics can continue occur.
Which enables the reefs to serve a restorative function as well.
The coral farm is proposed grouping of path reefs where scientist can
begin the initial propitiate the infrastructure being prosed. Further
research and investigation into more resilient species of coral occurs
here as well. The sub tidal patch reefs of the design work also as the
scaffolding of the worlds first underwater contemporary coral art park.
Figure 70: BELOW Section of Sub-title Patch
Reef Infrastructure
Surge water level
Mean sea level
WAVE ACTION1/2 MILE
OFFSHORE REEF
BREAKWATERS WITH ENHANCED EDGES
Coral Reef Restoration
Coral Reef restoration
Tidal flats Econcrete breakwaterArmor rockFilter rock
Geotube core with dredge fill/ sandRock toe/ scour apron
Econcrete to support marine
biological assemblages such
as oysters, mussels, sponges
and tube worms
Quarry stone substrate
Embedded constructed tidepools
Figure 71: Diagram of the conceptualized
typical plan view of artificial reef
infrastructure
Figure 72: ECO-Concrete Armor unit detail.
SHORE REEF
Surge water level
Mean sea level
WAVE ACTION
ECONCRETE UNITS
Coral Reef restoration Fishing grounds
Recycled SIMS glass
Additional habitat
Rock toe/ scour apronSubtidal constructed reefECONcrete armor units ECONcrete armor units

ATLANTIC STURGEON
BOTTOM FEEDERS. SPAWN IN
HUDSON, SPEND MOST OF LIFE IN
OCEAN
LOBSTER
BLUEFISH
BUTTERFISH
SCUP
BLACK SEA BASS
TAUTOG
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CM
Econcrete blocks
Econcrete blocks
Habitat stone
Constructed tide pool
Filter layer
WAVE ACTION
+11’ NAVD88
NAVD88
NAVD88
MLLW
MEAN LOW LOW WATER LEVEL
WAVE ACTION
16’ CR
ATLANTIC STURGEON
OCEAN
LOBSTER
BLUEFISH
BUTTERFISH
SCUP
BLACK SEA BASS
TAUTOG
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CM
Econcrete blocks
Econcrete blocks
Habitat stone
Filter layer
WAVE ACTION
+11’ NAVD88
NAVD88
NAVD88
MLLW
WAVE ACTION
16’ CREST
ATLANTIC STURGEON
OCEAN
LOBSTER
BLUEFISH
BUTTERFISH
SCUP
BLACK SEA BASS
TAUTOG
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CM
Econcrete blocks
Econcrete blocks
Habitat stone
Filter layer
WAVE ACTION
+11’ NAVD88
NAVD88
NAVD88
MLLW
WAVE ACTION
16’ CREST
ATLANTIC STURGEON
OCEAN
LOBSTER
BLUEFISH
BUTTERFISH
SCUP
BLACK SEA BASS
TAUTOG
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 CM
Econcrete blocks
Econcrete blocks
Habitat stone
Filter layer
WAVE ACTION
+11’ NAVD88
NAVD88
NAVD88
MLLW
WAVE ACTION
Co
16’ CREST
A
BLUE BELT MATERIALITY
ECOncrete® addresses the need for reducing the ecological footprint
of coastal and marine infrastructure by enhancing ecosystem services
and elevating biodiversity in urbanized shorelines. The Infill units
themselves have been designed to accommodate the various habitat
occurring at various elevations (Figure 74). The fill of the infrastructure
is also sized to provide habitat for local species of interest from day
one pre-reef establishment(Figure 73). It is recommened also that
the material be utilized public art as well (Figure 75).
Figure 73: Diagram of the species
accommodated by the habitat stone

Tidal Planter Crustation
Infill Unit
Reef
Propagation
Fish Hub
Figure 74: Renders of reef in-fill units based
on data and information gather from eco-
concrete and scape w.
Figure 75: Photos of habitat being provided
by reef infrastructure (source: http://www.
google.com/image/)

Friction forest
Wetland restoration
Thin dredge sediment
application
Restored SAV beds Dredge hole filling
New wetland dredge building
Intracoastal waterway
Recreational small channel
Small dredge technology
WETLAND RESTORATION
Coastal wetlands can absorb surge waters and reduce wave impacts
within coastal communities. Severely reduced from their historic
footprint, these valuable ecologies are threatened by coastal
development, erosion, and sea level rise inundation. Sediment
replacement and nourishment strategies are to monitored and
continually adapted over time to maintain and expand the protective
ecological infrastructure. Dredge material accumulated over time
and from the development of the Coral Detour is proposed to in-
fill the foundation of wetlands being created and nourishment of
existing wetlands.
Figure 76: Section of the coastal ribbon /
terraced ecologies strategy.

Surge water level
Mean sea level
redge hole filling
Inhabitable habitat ledges
Constructed abrasion tables
Living shorelines Reef restoration and oyster gardening
DUNES AND BERMS
CONSTRUCTED REEFS
TIDAL FLATS
DREDGE WETLANDS
FRICTION FORESTS
ABSORPTIVE EDGES
HABITAT BREAKWATERS
COASTAL RIBBON / TERRACED ECOLOGIES
Rocky bulkhead shores are a common strategy of coastal defense
throughout the Caribbean, in Montego Bay the majority of the
region’s seawall and bulkhead infrastructures are ecologically
damaging, limiting to human and marine ecological interaction,
and/or were destroyed or structurally impaired within the last three
years of tropical storms. The coastal ribbon is a absorptive terraced
edge and designed to mimic the native coastal ecologies of the area.
The predominate ecologies of the coastal ribbon include but are
not limited to the following: lagoons, mangrove forests, marine
cays, barrier islands, dunes, forested wetlands, saltwater marshes,
maritime forests, terraced edges, ocean exposed fringing reefs, and
sub tidal patch reefs.Figure 78: Section of the coastal ribbon /
terraced ecologies strategy.
Figure 77: Typical sections of layered
ecologies

In the urban context even small-expansions of the typical vertical
bulkhead rocky shores can provide opportunities to diversify and
increase the amount and accuracy of the city’s urban ecology/ These
absorptive edges have been proven to biologically grow structural
strength with time. Along with safeguarding the coast the systematic
layering of ecologies further provides Montego Bay with an array
of real visceral experiences and opportunities to engage with the
marine environment.
Figure 79: Urban -Marine interaction pier
and Sea-wall strategy for the waterfront
promenade.
Figure 80: Urban habitat providing
DEPLOYABLE Sea-wall strategy for thicker
sites allowing for nature tidal dynamics to
take place.

Figure 81: Urban habitat providing Sea-
wall strategy for thinner sites.
Figure 82: Urban habitat providing Sea-
wall strategy for thicker sites including
terraced water planting beds and below
pavement cisterns.

Montego Bay's Resilient Coastal Strategy

Montego Bay's Resilient Coastal Strategy

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