Research book on Russia (Russian Culture and Society) - By Aaliya Gujral

3 | Research book 2015
Preface
his book provides complete information on the topic ”Russian culture and society” and maximum
efforts have been made to make this book more comprehensive and lucid to understand. This book
covers a variety of sub topics , to name a few Russian lifestyle , art and craft , film , literature, tradition-
al clothing , cuisine and dinning etiquettes. The objective of this book is to visually present accurate
information along with consistent terminology, quantitative and qualitative data. It aims to appreciate
the role of fashion, clothing, décor, visual identity, cultural identity, events and places in image per-
ception and understand perceived values of brands, businesses, personalities and places. To develop
orientation to the aspects that create, perpetuate and reinforce identity and image in socio-cultural,
socio- political and socio-economic transactions and to appreciate cultural difference of mannerisms,
gestures, behavior and body language. The purpose of this research was to aid our cultural under-
standing , and reflection of the same through a live table setup and self styling, for our chosen culture.
Attention to detail is key in this project in order gauge the finer aspects of the chosen culture. We are
hoping for your feedback for further development of our book and respective project.
T

Introduction
The largest country in this world, Russia has a glorious history along with an amazingly diversified cultural significance which
dated back in 16th-17th century. History of powerful Tsardom is enough to captivate any person of any corner of this world. The
royal archive includes the victorious story of their dynasty, traditional culture, dinning, and clothing and lots other things. Maybe
Tsardom is not there; time has left a deep layer on the history. But one can still find the ethnic significance through a contempo-
rary manner in Russian culture. The age old craft work, music, dance have still been practiced amongst Russians. At the same time
Russia is probably the most developed country in astronomical science. Russia is the first country to send the artificial satellite
to space. Neil Armstrong from Russia was the first human being to put his footstep on moon. Technological extravaganza mixed
with great brains has made Russia as a part of superpower. Even few years back also Russia was considered to be one of the most
powerful countries in this world.
Except the famous Russian vodka Russia has innumerous remarkable affairs carrying on its shoulder. We might be very con-
cerned about women empowerment in our country; but we might not know that Russian population has more females than that
of males. Russians are so hygienic that it’s a criminal offence to drive around in a dirty car in Russia. Russians are world famous
for their hospitality. So if someone will go to an authentic Russian restaurant the first thing he will experience the polite behavior
of the waiter. But before going to any Russian dinning one should get used to alcohol. Because alcohol is something similar to a
basic need for any Russians. They are so much used to alcohol that till 2013 beer was not considered to be an alcoholic beverage
in Russia. Each Russian consumes 18 litres alcohol per year, doubling what experts consider dangerous. For cream lover Russian
restaurant could be the best possible destination for eating out. Cream, butter and cheese, these three ingredients you’ll probably
find in every Russian preparation. The concept of chilled soup has been originated from Russia.
Like famous Russian ballet dancers skomorokhi is another group of an eclectic dance form. Basically Russian street dancers are
called skomorokhi. World famous Russian dance steps like squat, kick have been evolved through their dance forms. It’s said that
to protect themselves from chilly winter of Russia skomorokhi created these dance forms. Amazing cultural strength can be found
in Russian literature also. The unusual shape of Russian literary history has been the source of numerous controversies. The most
celebrated period of Russian literature was the 19th century, which produced, in a remarkably short period, some of the indisput-
able masterworks of world literature. It has often been noted that the overwhelming majority of Russian works of world signif-
icance were produced within the lifetime of one person, Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910). And obviously being a truly Russian people
can’t even survive without pushkin’s poetic aura and romance created by Mikhail Lermontov and Fyodor Tyutchev. Golden Age
of Russian Poetry is the name traditionally applied by Russian philologists to the first half of the 19th century. Russian literature,
especially of the Imperial and post-Revolutionary periods, has as its defining characteristics an intense concern with philosophical
problems, a constant self-consciousness about its relation to the cultures of the West, and a strong tendency toward formal innova-
tion and defiance of received generic norms.
Magnificent cultural diversity anybody can found in Russian art and craftwork. Especially in craft spectacular array would be
seen in terms of color story, technicality, ethnic attire and cultural significance. Each and every art form and craft has a core age
old background story behind it which makes those products more precious and iconic. Finest craftsmanship, intricate detailing
and distinctive application has made these artwork remained in a vivacious state. So now taking a journey to Russia should be very
exciting and thrilling. To experience the oldest antiquity with the essence of modern attire will give you a noteworthy pleasure.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Origin of Russia .....................................................................................................8
Chapter 2: Origin of Russians ...............................................................................................14
Chapter 3: Traditions and Rituals..........................................................................................36
Chapter 4: Superstitions..........................................................................................................44
Chapter 5: Folklore..................................................................................................................48
Chapter 6: Festivals..................................................................................................................56
Chapter 7: Russian Culture Origin........................................................................................64
Chapter 8: Music and Dance..................................................................................................66
Chapter 9: Art and Craft.........................................................................................................74
Chapter 10: Russian Literature.............................................................................................110
Chapter 11: Architecture.......................................................................................................113
Chapter 12: Food...................................................................................................................128
Chapter 13: Etiquettes...........................................................................................................138
Chapter 14: Traditional Clothing.........................................................................................144
Chapter 15: Make-up.............................................................................................................148
Chapter 16: Footwear............................................................................................................150
Chapter 17: Fashion Designers............................................................................................154
List of Illustrations.................................................................................................................158
Declaration.............................................................................................................................166
Acknowledgement.................................................................................................................168
References...............................................................................................................................170

The history of Russia begins with that of the Eastern Slavs
and the Finno-Ugric peoples. The state of Garðaríki (“the
realm of towns”), which was centered in Novgorod and
included the entire areas inhabited by Ilmen Slavs, Veps,
and Votes, was established by the Varangian chieftain
Rurik in 862 (the traditional beginning of Russian history).
Kievan Rus’, the first united East Slavic state, was founded
by Rurik’s successor Oleg of Novgorod in 882. The state
adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988,
beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures
that defined Russian culture for the next millennium.
Kievan Rus’ ultimately disintegrated as a state because of
the Mongol invasion of Rus’ in 1237–1240 and the death
of about half the population of Rus’. During that time, a
number of regional magnates, in particular Novgorod and
Pskov, fought to inherit the cultural and political legacy
of Kievan Rus’. After the 13th century, Moscow became
a cultural center. By the 18th century, the Tsardom of
Russia had become the huge Russian Empire, stretching
from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth eastward
to the Pacific Ocean. Expansion in the western direction
sharpened Russia’s awareness of its separation from much
of the rest of Europe and shattered the isolation in which
the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive
regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures
with a combination of halfhearted reform and repression.
Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861, but its abolition
was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants and
served to increase revolutionary pressures. Between the
abolition of serfdom and the beginning of World War I in
1914, the Stolypin reforms, the constitution of 1906, and
State Duma attempted to open and liberalize the economy
and politics of Russia but the tsars were still not willing to
relinquish autocratic rule or share their power. ORIGINOF RUSSIA
FIGURE 1: Lenin during the Russian Revolution, 1917
FIGURE 2: Russian Revolution in 1917
The Russian Revolution in 1917 was triggered by a combination
of economic breakdown, war-weariness, and discontent with the
autocratic system of government, and it first brought a coalition
of liberals and moderate socialists to power, but their failed
policies led to seizure of power by the Communist Bolsheviks
on 25 October. Between 1922 and 1991, the history of Russia
is essentially the history of the Soviet Union, was very different
from the Russian Empire before the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
The approach to the building of socialism, however, varied over
different periods in Soviet history, from the mixed economy
and diverse society and culture of the 1920s to the command
economy and repressions of the Joseph Stalin era to the “era of
stagnation” in the 1980s. From its first years, government in the
Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the Commu-
nists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves, beginning in March
1918. However, by the mid 1980s, with the weaknesses of its
economic and political structures becoming acute, Mikhail Gor-
bachev embarked on major reforms, which led to the fall of the
Soviet Union. The history of the Russian Federation officially
starts in January 1992. The Russian Federation was the legal
successor to the Soviet Union on the international stage. How-
ever, Russia has lost its superpower status after facing serious
challenges in its efforts to forge a new post-Soviet political and
economic system. Scrapping the socialist central planning and
state ownership of property of the Soviet era, Russia attempted
to build an economy based on market capitalism, often with
painful results. Since the new millennium, Vladimir Putin has
been its dominant leader.

TSARDOM OF RUSSIA
(1547–1721)
FIGURE 3: Tsardom of Russia

Time of Troubles
The death of Ivan’s childless son Feodor was
followed by a period of civil wars and foreign
intervention known as the “Time of Trou-
bles” (1606–13). Extremely cold summers
(1601–1603) wrecked crops, which led to the
Russian famine of 1601–1603 and increased
the social disorganization. Boris Godunov’s
(Борис Годунов) reign ended in chaos, civil
war combined with foreign intrusion, dev-
astation of many cities and depopulation
of the rural regions. The country rocked by
internal chaos also attracted several waves
of interventions by the Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth.
Ivan IV, the Terrible
Ivan IV The development of the Tsar’s auto-
cratic powers reached a peak during the reign
(1547–1584) of Ivan IV (“Ivan the Terrible”).
He strengthened the position of the monarch
to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly
subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or
executing many on the slightest provocation.
Nevertheless, Ivan is often seen as a farsight-
ed statesman who reformed Russia as he
promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik
of 1550), established the first Russian feudal
representative body (Zemsky Sobor), curbed
the influence of clergy, and introduced the
local self-management in rural regions.
Accession of the Romanovs and early rule
Election of 16-year old Mikhail Romanov,
the first Tsar of the Romanov dynasty
In February 1613, with the chaos ended and
the Poles expelled from Moscow, a national
assembly, composed of representatives from
fifty cities and even some peasants, elected
Michael Romanov, the young son of Patri-
arch Filaret, to the throne. The Romanov
dynasty ruled Russia until 1917.
FIGURE 4: Ivan 4
FIGURE 5: Time of Troubles
FIGURE 6: Election of 16-year old Mikhail
Romanov, the first Tsar of the Romanov
dynasty

SOVIET UNION(1917–91)
Creation of the Soviet Union
The history of Russia between 1922 and 1991 is essentially
the history of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or
Soviet Union. This ideologically based union, established
in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Commu-
nist Party, was roughly coterminous with Russia before the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. At that time, the new nation included
four constituent republics: the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian
SSR, the Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR. The
constitution, adopted in 1924, established a federal system of
government based on a succession of soviets set up in villages,
factories, and cities in larger regions. This pyramid of soviets
in each constituent republic culminated in the All-Union Con-
gress of Soviets. However, while it appeared that the congress
exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed
by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the
Politburo from Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union, just as
it had been under the tsars before Peter the Great.
FIGURE 7:
Soviet leaders 1917-
1991

World War II
Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, the war resulted in around 26–
27 millionSovietdeaths(estimatesvary)andhaddevastatedtheSovieteconomyinthestrug-
gle.Some1,710townsand70thousandsettlementsweredestroyed.Theoccupiedterritories
sufferedfromtheravagesofGermanoccupationanddeportationsofslavelaborinGermany.
Breakup of the Union
The tension between Soviet Union and Russian SFSR authorities
came to be personified in the bitter power struggle between Gor-
bachev and Boris Yeltsin. The Russian government took over most
of the Soviet Union government institutions on its territory. Because
of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most
gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the Sovi-
et Union before the late 1980s. The Soviet Union officially ended on
25 December 1991, and the Russian Federation (formerly the Russian
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) took power on 26 December.
Cold War
Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war
and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar recon-
struction and security. However, the conflict between Sovi-
et and U.S. national interests, known as the Cold War, came
to dominate the international stage in the postwar period.
General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev talks to President Rich-
ard Nixon on his visit to USA, the high-water mark of détente.
The Cold War emerged from a conflict between Stalin and
U.S. President Harry Truman over the future of Eastern Eu-
rope during the Potsdam Conference in the summer of 1945.
Russia had suffered three devastating Western onslaughts in the
previous 150 years during the Napoleonic Wars, the First World
War, and the Second World War, and Stalin’s goal was to establish
a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union.
FIGURE 8: The soldier waving the Russian flag in World War II
FIGURE 9: Cold War
FIGURE 10: Company of Heroes 2 uses a mechanic that allows
the player to deploy soldiers using ‘cheap’ conscripts, as opposed to
building them at your base.

During the pre-Christian era the vast territory that became Rus-
sia was sparsely inhabited by tribal peoples, many of whom
were described by ancient Greek and Roman writers. The
largely unknown north, a region of extensive forests, was in-
habited by tribes later known collectively as Slavs. These Slavs
were the ancestors of the modern Russian people. . Far more
important to the ancient Greeks and Romans were south-
ern peoples in Scythia, an indeterminate region that includ-
ed the greater part of southeastern Europe and Central Asia.
Portions of this region were occupied by a succession of horse-rid-
ing nomadic peoples, including, chronologically, the Cimmeri-
ans, Scythians, and Sarmatians. In these early times, Greek trad-
ers and colonists established many trading posts and settlements,
particularly along the north coast of the Black Sea and in Crimea.
Large stretches of open plain facilitated the immigration of out-
side peoples. Such migrations resulted in successive invasions, the
establishment of settlements, and the assimilation of people who
spoke different languages. Thus, in the early centuries of the Chris-
tian era, Germanic Goths displaced the Asian peoples of Scythia
and established an Ostrogothic (eastern Goth) kingdom on the
Black Sea. In the 4th century nomadic Huns invaded from Asia
and conquered the Ostrogoths. The Huns held the territory con-
stituting present-day Ukraine and most of present-day Moldova
until their defeat in Western Europe in the mid-5th century. Later
came the Mongolian Avars, followed by the nomadic Asian Mag-
yars, and then the Turkic Khazars, who remained influential until
about the mid-10th century. Meanwhile, during this long period
of successive invasions, the Slavic tribes in the area northeast of
the Carpathian Mountains had begun a series of migratory move-
ments. As these migrations took place, the western tribes in the
region eventually evolved as the Moravians, Poles, Czechs, and
Slovaks; the southern tribes as the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and
a Slavic people who were conquered by but soon assimilated the
Turkic Bulgars; and the eastern tribes as a people who later gave
rise to the modern Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. The
East Slavs became renowned traders. The systems of rivers and
waterways extending through the territory from the Valday Hills
facilitated the establishment of Slav trading posts, notably the cit-
ies of Kyiv (Kiev), which is the present-day cap-
ital of Ukraine, and Novgorod, directly north
of Kyiv. Along these waterways the Slavs trans-
ported goods between the Baltic and Black seas.
OKIGIN OF
RUSSIANS
Figure 11: Cossacks

•The native Russian national per-
sonification is Mother Motherland,
called Mother Russia at the West.
•State symbols of Russia include the Byz-
antine double-headed eagle, combined
with St. George of Moscow in the Rus-
sian coat of arms; these symbols date from
the time of the Grand Duchy of Moscow.
•The Russian flag appeared in the late Tsar-
dom of Russia period and became widely
used during the era of the Russian Empire.
•The current Russian national anthem shares
its music with the Soviet Anthem, though not
the lyrics (many Russians of older generations
don’tknowthenewlyricsandsingtheoldones).
•The Russian imperial motto “God is
with us” and the Soviet motto Prole-
tarians of all countries, unite! are now
obsolete and no new motto has been of-
ficially introduced to replace them. The
Hammer and sickle and the
full Soviet coat of arms are
still widely seen in Russian cities as a part
of old architectural decorations. Soviet
Red Stars are also encountered, often on
military equipment and war memorials.
The Soviet Red Banner is still honored,
especially the Banner of Victory of 1945.
•The Matryoshka doll is a recognizable sym-
bol of Russia, while the towers of Moscow
Kremlin and Saint Basil’s Cathedral in Mos-
cow are main Russia’s architectural symbols.
•Cheburashka is a mascot of Russian na-
tional Olympic team. Mary, Saint Nicholas,
Saint Andrew, Saint George, Saint Alexander
Nevsky, Saint Sergius of Radonezh, Saint
Seraphim of Sarov are Russia’s patron saints.
•Chamomile is a flower that Rus-
sians often associate with their Moth-
erland, while birch is a national tree.
•The Russian bear is an animal often asso-
ciated with Russia, though this image has
Western origins and Russians themselves
do not consider it as a special symbol.
FIGURE 12: Russian bear
FIGURE 13 FIGURE 14: Russian flag

Geography
Russia is the largest country in the world; its total area is 17,075,400 square kilometres
(6,592,800 sq. mi). It lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W.
Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of timber, petroleum,
natural gas, coal, ores and other mineral resources. There are 23 UNESCO World Heritage
Sites in Russia, 40 UNESCO biosphere reserves, 41 national parks and 101 nature reserves.
Major cities
The largest Russian cities with the population greater than 1 million are Moscow, Saint
Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Kazan, Omsk, Chely-
abinsk, Rostov-on-Don, Ufa and Volgograd.
Climate
In Russia there are only two distinct seasons—winter and summer—as spring and autumn
are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely
high. The coldest month is January (February on the coastline), the warmest usually is July.
Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south
to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia. The continental
interiors are the driest areas. The vast size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from
the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate. Mountains in the south
obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian Ocean, while the plain of the west and
north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences. Most of Northern Euro-
pean Russia and Siberia has a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner
regions of Northeast Siberia (where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record
low temperature of −71.2 °C or −96.2 °F), and more moderate elsewhere. The coastal part
of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea possesses a humid subtropical climate with mild and
wet winters. Winter is dry compared to summer in many regions of East Siberia and the Far
East, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons.
Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The region along the
Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some areas of southernmost Siberia, possess-
es a semi-arid climate.
FIGURE 15: Russian on World’s map
FIGURE 15

Popula'on

According
to
the
2010
Census
142,905,200.

The
popula<on
has
been
declining
since
it

peaked
at
148,689,000
in
1991.

146,270,033
(Oﬃcial
Es<mate
–
January
2015)

Growth
rate

0.19%
(2014
est.)

Birth
rate

13.3
births/1,000
popula<on
(2014)

Death
rate

13.1
deaths/1,000
popula<on
(2014)

Life
expectancy

•  Male

•  Female

71.6
years
(2014)

66.7
years

76.5
years

Fer<lity
rate
1.76
children
born/woman
(2014)

Infant
mortality
rate

7.4
deaths/1,000
live
births
(2014)

Net
migra<on
rate
1.69
migrant(s)/1,000
popula<on
(2014)

0-‐14
years
16.4%

15-‐64
years
70.5%

65
and
over
13.1%
(2013)

Total

0.86
male(s)/female
(2009)

At
birth
1.06
male(s)/female

Under
15
1.06
male(s)/female
(male

11,980,138/female

11,344,818)

15-‐64
years
0.925
male(s)/female
(male

48,166,470/female

52,088,967)

65
and
over
0.44
male(s)/female
(male

5,783,983/female
13,105,896)

Demographics of Russia
Age Structure
Sex Ratio

FIGURE 16: Russian 100 Ruble note depicting Catherine the Great

Economy
The currency of Russia is called the ruble or rou-
ble. One ruble is divided into 100 kopecks. 1
U.S. dollar equals approximately 30 rubles.
Russia has a high-income mixed economy with state own-
ership in strategic areas of the economy. Market reforms in
the 1990s privatized much of Russian industry and agricul-
ture, with notable exceptions in the energy and defense-re-
lated sectors. Russia is unusual among the major economies
in the way that it relies on energy revenues to drive growth.
The country has an abundance of natural resources, includ-
ing oil, natural gas and precious metals, which make up a
major share of Russia’s exports. As of 2012 the oil-and-gas
sector accounted for 16% of the GDP, 52% of federal budget
revenues and over 70% of total exports. Russia has a large
and sophisticated arms industry, capable of designing and
manufacturing high-tech military equipment, including
a fifth-generation fighter jet. The value of Russian arms ex-
ports totalled $15.7 billion in 2013—which makes its posi-
tion second only to the US in terms of arms industry. Top
military exports from Russia include combat aircraft, air
defence systems, ships and submarines. The Russian econ-
omy is the sixth largest in the world by PPP. Between 2000
and 2012 Russia’s energy exports fuelled a rapid growth
in living standards, with real disposable income rising by
160%. In dollar-denominated terms this amounted to a
more than sevenfold increase in disposable incomes since
2000. However, these gains have been distributed unevenly,
as the 110 wealthiest individuals were found to own 35%
of all financial assets held by Russian households. Since
2008 Forbes has repeatedly named Moscow the “billionaire
capital of the world”. Poor governance means that Russia also
has the second-largest volume of illicit money outflows, hav-
ing lost over $880 billion between 2002 and 2011 in this way.
The Russian economy went into recession from early
2014 - mainly as a result of the2014 Russian military in-
tervention in Ukraine and the subsequent capital flight.
However, based on final estimates, 2014 GDP growth re-
mained positive at 0.6%. By the eve of World War I, Rus-
sia had undergone rapid industrial development, much
of it fueled by foreign investment and the import of tech-
nology from Western Europe. Key industries included
textiles, metal-working, and chemical and oil production.
At the same time, many people lived in appallin ly
backward conditions, especially in the countryside.
Prokudin-Gorskii documented the economic life of the em-
pire in all its variety. He photographed farmers cultivating
fields and the production of grain in the temperate regions of
EuropeanRussia;theharvestingofcotton,tea,andothercrops
in the warmer regions of the south; artisans in small shops;
and large new factories equipped with the newest Russian
and imported machines. Economic conditions in these same
areas drastically worsened during World War I, contributing
to the growth of revolutionary movements and ultimately
the overthrow of the tsar and the destruction of the empire.

Agriculture
The total area of cultivated land in Russia was estimat-
ed as 1,237,294 km2 in 2005, the fourth largest in the world.
From 1999 to 2009, Russia’s agriculture demonstrated steady
growth and the country turned from a grain importer to the
third largest grain exporter after EU and the United States. The
production of meat has grown from 6,813,000 tonnes in
1999 to 9,331,000 tonnes in 2008, and continues to grow.
This restoration of agriculture was supported by credit poli-
cy of the government, helping both individual farmers and large
privatized corporate farms, that once were Soviet kolkhoz-
es and still own the significant share of agricultural land. While
large farms concentrate mainly on the production of grain
and husbandry products, small private household plots produce
most of the country’s yield of potatoes, vegetables and fruits.
With access to three of the world’s oceans—the Atlantic, Arc-
tic, and Pacific—Russian fishing fleets are a major contribu-
tor to the world’s fish supply. The total capture of fish was at
3,191,068 tons in 2005. Both exports and imports of fish and
sea products grew significantly in the recent years, reach-
ing correspondingly $2,415 and $2,036 millions in 2008.
Sprawling from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean, Rus-
sia has more than a fifth of the world’s forests, which
makes it the largest forest country in the world. The con-
siderable potential of Russian forests is underutilized.
Energy
In recent years, Russia has frequently been described in the
media as an energy superpower. The country has the world’s
largest natural gas reserves, the 8th largest oil reserves, and
the second largest coal reserves. Russia is the world’s lead-
ing natural gas exporter and second largest natural gas produc-
er, while also the largest oil exporter and the largest oil producer.
Russia is the 3rd largest electricity producer in the world and the 5th
largest renewable energy producer, the latter because of the well-de-
veloped hydroelectricity production in the country. Large cascades
of hydropower plants are built in European Russia along big rivers
like Volga. The Asian part of Russia also features a number of major
hydropower stations, however the gigantic hydroelectric potential
of Siberia and the Russian Far East largely remains unexploited.
Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear pow-
er and to construct the world’s first nuclear power plant.
The sector is rapidly developing, with an aim of increasing the
total share of nuclear energy from current 16.9% to 23% by
2020. The Russian government plans to allocate 127 billion ru-
bles ($5.42 billion) to a federal program dedicated to the next
generation of nuclear energy technology. About 1 trillion ru-
bles ($42.7 billion) is to be allocated from the federal bud-
get to nuclear power and industry development before 2015.
FIGURE 17: Agriculture sector
FIGURE 18: Power plants

Transport
Railway transport in Russia is mostly under the control of the
state-run Russian Railways monopoly. The company accounts for
over 3.6% of Russia’s GDP and handles 39% of the total freight
traffic (including pipelines) and more than 42% of passenger traf-
fic. The total length of common-used railway tracks exceeds
85,500 km (53,127 mi), second only to the United States. Over
44,000 km (27,340 mi) of tracks are electrified, which is the larg-
est number in the world, and additionally there are more than
30,000 km (18,641 mi) of industrial non-common carrier lines.
Space Exploration
Russian achievements in the field of space technology and space
exploration are traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father
of theoretical astronautics. His works had inspired leading Sovi-
et rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko,
and many others who contributed to the success of the Sovi-
et space program on early stages of the Space Race and beyond.
In 1957 the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, was
launched; in 1961 the first human trip into space was successful-
ly made by Yury Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space
exploration records ensued, including the first spacewalk per-
formed by Alexey Leonov, Luna 9 was the first spacecraft to land
on the Moon, Venera 7 was the first to land on another planet (Ve-
nus),Mars 3 then the first to land on Mars, the first space explora-
tion rover Lunokhod 1 and the first space station Salyut 1 and Mir.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, some govern-
ment-funded space exploration programs, including the Bu-
ran space shuttle program, were cancelled or delayed, while
participation of the Russian space industry in commer-
cial activities and international cooperation intensified.
NowadaysRussiaisthelargestsatellitelauncher. AftertheU.S. Space
Shuttle program ended in 2011, Soyuz rockets became the only pro-
vider of transport for astronauts at the International Space Station.
FIGURE 19
FIGURE 20: Space explorations

Russia is a multi-national state with over 185 ethnic groups
designated as nationalities, population of these groups varying
enormously, from millions in the case of e.g. Russians and Tatars to
under 10,000 in the case of Samis and Kets. Among the 85 subjects
which constitute Russia, there are 21 national republics (meant
to be home to a specific ethnic minority), 5 autonomous okrugs
(usually with substantial or predominant ethnic minority) and an
autonomous oblast.
• As of the 2010 census, 80.90% of the population that disclosed
their ethnicity (111,016,896 people) is ethnically Russian.
• According to the 2010 Census in Russia lived 142,856,536
people. It is important to note that 5,629,429 people (3.94%)
did not declare any ethnic origin, compared to about 1 mil-
lion in the 2002 Census.
• Most smaller groups live compactly in their respective regions
and can be categorized by language group. The ethnic divi-
sions used here are those of the official census, and may in
some respects be controversial.
Although the constitution of Russia recognizes Russian as the
official language, the individual republics may declare one or more
official languages. Most of subjects have at least two — Russian
and the language of the “eponymous” nationality. There is a lively
minority language scene in most subjects of the country, with
more than 1,350 newspapers and magazines, 300 TV channels and
250 radio stations in over 50 minority languages. Moreover, new
legislation allows usage of minority languages in federal radio and
TV broadcasting.
Largest ethnic group apart from Russians:
• Ukrainians – They are an East Slavic ethnic group native to
Ukraine, which is by total population the sixth-largest nation
in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term
‘Ukrainians’ to all its citizens. Also among historical names
of the people of Ukraine Rusyns (Ruthenians), Cossacks, etc.
can be found. According to some dictionary definitions, a de-
scriptive name for the “inhabitants of Ukraine” is Ukrainian
or Ukrainian people. Belarusians and Russians are considered
the closest relatives of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are either
considered another closely related group, or an ethnic sub-
group of Ukrainians.
• Tatars – They were one of the five major tribal confederations
in the Mongolian plateau in the 12th century. The name “Ta-
tar” was first recorded on the Kul Tigin monument as Otuz
Tatar Bodun CE. 732. After the establishment of the Mongol
Empire, the Tatars were subjugated by the Mongol Empire
under Genghis Khan. Under the leadership of his grandson
Batu Khan, they moved westwards, driving with them many
of the Turkic peoples toward the plains of Russia. The “Tatar”
clan still exists among the Mongols and Hazaras
• Kazakhs - The Kazakhs are a Turkic people of the northern
parts of Central Asia and are largely from Kazakhstan, but
also found in parts of Uzbekistan, China, Russia and Mongo-
lia.
• Buryats - The Buryats, numbering approximately 500,000, are
the largest indigenous group in Siberia, mainly concentrated
in their homeland, the Buryat Republic, a federal subject of
Russia. They are the major northern subgroup of Mongols.
Ethnic groups
in Russia

• The 1897 census indicated: Ruling class 0.5%; Upper class 12.0%;
Commercial class 1.5%; Working class 4.0%; Peasants 82.0%.
• Over 80% of the population were peasants, and they were mainly illiter-
ate. The ruling elite both feared and despised them, and denied them free expres-
sion. Russia was officially divided into estates, but it is now thought that a rig-
id caste system did not exist and some mobility between the estates was possible.
• The most significant fact about Russia’s social structure is that ideol-
ogy no longer determines social status. During the Soviet era, member-
ship in the CPSU was the surest path to career advancement and wealth.
• Political decisions rather than market forces determined social status. De-
spite Marxist-Leninist notions of a classless society, the Soviet Union had a power-
ful ruling class, the nomenklatura , which consisted of party officials and key per-
sonnel in the government and other important sectors such as heavy industry.
• This class enjoyed privileges such as roomy apartments, country dachas, and access to special
stores, schools, medical facilities, and recreational sites. The social status and income of mem-
bers of the nomenklatura increased as they were promoted to higher positions in the party.
The social structure of the Soviet Union was characterized by self-perpetuation and lim-
ited mobility. Access to higher education, a prerequisite to political and social advancement,
was steadily constrained in the postwar decades. Moreover, the sluggish economy of that
period reduced opportunities for social mobility, thus accentuating differences among so-
cial groups and further widening the gap between the nomenklatura and the rest of society.
Postcommunist society also is characterized by a wide disparity in wealth and priv-
ilege. Although there is no rigid class structure, social stratification based on wealth
is evident and growing. The nomenklatura as it existed in Soviet times disappeared
with the demise of the CPSU, but many of its members used their continuing connec-
tions with industry and finance to enrich themselves in the emerging capitalist system.
Figure 22: The nomenklatura was an
elite class of citizens in the former Soviet
Union (and other Soviet Bloc countries)
who held somewhat powerful positions in
almost all government activity.
Caste System
FIGURE 21: Nomenklatura

Russian Children on a Hillside
Childrensitonthesideofahillnearachurch
and bell-tower in the countryside near
WhiteLake,inthenorthofEuropeanRussia.
The Emir of Bukhara
The Emir of Bukhara, Alim Khan (1880-
1944), poses solemnly for his portrait, taken
in 1911 shortly after his accession. As rul-
er of an autonomous city-state in Islamic
Central Asia, the Emir presided over the
internal affairs of his emirate as absolute
monarch, although since the mid-1800s
Bukhara had been a vassal state of the Rus-
sian Empire. With the establishment of So-
viet power in Bukhara in 1920, the Emir
fled to Afghanistan where he died in 1944.
Profile of a Nomad
In this portrait, Prokudin-Gorksii cap-
tures the traditional dress, jewelry, and
hairstyle of an Uzbek woman standing on
a richly decorated carpet at the entrance
to a yurt, a portable tent used for housing
by the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.
After conquering Turkestan in the mid
1800s, the Russian government exerted
strong pressure on the nomadic peoples
to adopt a sedentary lifestyle and settle
permanently in villages, towns, and cities.
Nomadic Kazakhs on the Steppe
Many Central Asiatic peoples, for example
the Kirghiz, Kazakhs, and Uzbeks, lived
nomadic lives on the steppes, valleys, and
deserts, migrating seasonally from one
place to another as opportunities for ob-
taining food, water, and shelter changed.
Shown here is a young Kazakh family in
colorful traditional dress moving across
the Golodnaia (or “Hungry”) steppe in
present-day Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.
FIGURE 23: The Emir of Bukhara, Alim Khan
(1880-1944)
FIGURE 24: Nomadic Kazakhs FIGURE 25: This is portrait, Prokudin-Gork-
sii captures the traditional dress, jewelry, and
hairstyle of an Uzbek woman
Study of a Dagestani Man
Dagestan, meaning “land of mountains”
in the Turkic languages, contains a pop-
ulation consisting of many nationalities,
including Avars, Lezgi, Noghay, Kumuck,
and Tabasarans. Pictured here is a Sunni
Muslim man of undetermined national-
ity wearing traditional dress and head-
gear, with a sheathed dagger at his side.
Russian Settlers in the Borderlands
Ethnic Russian settlers to the Mugan Steppe
region, south of the Caucasus Mountains
and west of the Caspian Sea, established
a small settlement named Grafovka. The
region is immediately north of the bor-
der with Persia. Settlement of Russians in
non-European parts of the empire, and par-
ticularly in border regions, was encouraged
by official government policy and accounts
for much of the Russian migration to Sibe-
ria, the Far East, and the Caucasus regions.
FIGURE 26

Prisoners in a Zindan with Guard
Five inmates stare out from a zindan, a traditional Cen-
tral Asian prison--in essence a pit in the earth with a low
structure built on top. The guard, with Russian rifle and
bayonet, is attired in Russian-style uniform and boots.
Portrait of a Dagestani Couple
A couple in traditional dress poses for a portrait in the
mountainous interior region of Gunib on the north
slope of the Caucasus Mountains in what is to-
day the Dagestan Republic of the Russian Federation.

• Religion in Russia is diverse, with a 1997
law naming Christianity, Islam, Buddhism,
and Judaism as important in Russian history.
•OrthodoxChristianityisRussia’straditional
and largest religion, deemed a part of Russia’s
“historical heritage” in a law passed in 1997.
• Russian Orthodoxy is the dominant reli-
gion in Russia. About 95% of the registered
Orthodox parishes belong to the Russian
Orthodox Church while there are a num-
ber of smaller Orthodox Churches. How-
ever, the vast majority of Orthodox believ-
ers do not attend church on a regular basis.
Russian Orthodoxy
• The ancestors of many of today’s Rus-
sians adopted Orthodox Christianity in
the 10th century. The Church claimed
a membership of 80 million in 2005.
• According to a 2007 poll by the Russian
Public Opinion Research Center, 63%
ofrespondents considered themselves
Russian Orthodox. In a 2011 survey by
the Levada In a 2011 survey by the Le-
vada Center, the number of people
self-identifying as Russian Orthodox
has been on a steady increase from
31% in 1991, to 50% in 2001, and to
nearly 70% in 2011.
• As of a 2012 sociological survey on re-
ligious adherence, 58,800,000 people or
41% of the total population of Russia ad-
here to the Russian Orthodox Church. It
is the religion of 21% to 40% of the pop-
ulation in most of the federal subjects of
Russia, 41% to 60% in a group of them
mostly in Western Russia (including Ya-
malia and Perm Krai), and over 60% only
in Kursk Oblast (69%), Voronezh Oblast
(62%), Lipetsk Oblast (71%), Tambov
Oblast (78%), Penza Oblast (63%), Uly-
anovsk Oblast (61%), Mordovia (69%)
and Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (69%).
FIGURE 27: Russian church

Islam
Islam is the second largest religion in Russia after Russian Orthodoxy. It is the traditional
or predominant religion amongst some Caucasian ethnicities (notably the Chechens, the In-
gush and the Adyghe), and amongst some Turkic peoples (notably the Tatars, the Bashkirs).
Altogether,MuslimsinRussiaare9,400,000or6.5%ofthetotalpopulationasof2012(however,
ARENAsurveydidn’tincludedetaileddataforthetraditionallyIslamicstatesofChecheniaandIn-
gushetia).Notwithstanding,variousdifferencessplittheMuslimpopulationindifferentgroups.
According to the survey, most of the Muslims (precisely 6,700,000 or 4.6% of the to-
tal population) are “unaffiliated” to any Islamic schools and branches or Islamic or-
ganization, this is mainly because it is not essential for Muslims to be affiliated with any
specific sect or organization. Those who are unaffiliated are mostly Sunni Muslims.
These unaffiliated Muslims constitute significant percentages of over 10% in Kab-
ardino-Balkaria (49%), Bashkortostan (38%), Karachay-Cherkessia (34%), Tatarstan
(31%), Yamalia (13%), Orenburg Oblast (11%), Adygea (11%) and Astrakhan Oblast
(11%). Most of the regions of Siberia have an unaffiliated Muslim population of 1% to 2%.
Sunni Islam is the religion of 2,400,000 of the Muslims, or 1.6% of the total population of
Russia. Shia Islam is a minority of 300,000 people (0.2% of the total population of Russia).
Paganism and Tengrism
Neopaganism and Tengrism counted together as “traditional religions of the ances-
tors” are represented by 1.700.000 followers or 1.2% of the total population of Russia,
thus constitute the third-largest religious group after Christianity and Islam. Tengrism
is a term defining the traditional ethnic and shamanic religions of the Turkic and Tur-
co-Mongol peoples, and modern movements reviving them started amidst the Turkic
and Turco-Mongol nations within Russia. Neopaganism in Russia is primarily repre-
sented by the revival of the ethnic religions of the Russians (Slavic), the Ossetians (Scyth-
ian), but also by those of some Caucasian and Finno-Ugric ethnic minorities of Russia.
Rodism (also called “Rodnovery” or the Slavic native faith) alone reckons at 44%
(~ 750,000) of the total number of the followers of the “traditional religions of the
forefathers”. All these ethnic religions are defended under the 1997 law on reli-
gion, which pronounces that protection has to be accorded to “ancient Pagan cults,
which have been preserved or are being revived in the Komi Republic, Mari-El, Ud-
murtia, Chuvashia, Chukotka and several other subjects of the Russian Federation”.
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church is the religion of
140,000 Russian citizens, thus about 0.1%
of the total. It is concentrated in Western
Russia with numbers ranging between 0.1%
and 0.7% in most of the federal subjects.
Other Christians
Other Orthodox Churches, including the
Ukrainian Orthodox churches, the Geor-
gian Orthodox Church, the Armenian
Apostolic Church, etcetera, comprise 1.5%
(2,100,000) of the total population of Rus-
sia. They are practiced by the ethnic mi-
norities of Ukrainian Russians, Georgian
Russians and Armenian Russians. These
churches comprise over 4% of the pop-
ulation in Tyumen Oblast (9%), Irkutsk
Oblast (6%), the Jewish Autonomous
Oblast (6%), Chelyabinsk Oblast (5%), As-
trakhan Oblast (4%) and Chuvashia (4%).
Protestantism in various denominations,
both historical and Evangelical or Pen-
tecostal, is the religion of 0.2% (300,000)
of the peoples of Russia. Their number
is 1% or over only in Tuva (1.8%), Ud-
murtia (1.4%) and Altay (1%). Russia is
considered by some observers to expe-
rience a Protestant revival in the future.
FIGURE 28: Catholic church
FIGURE 29: Other christians
FIGURE 30: Islamic followers

Buddhism
Buddhism is practiced by 700,000 peo-
ple in Russia, or 0.5% of the total federal
population. Other recent estimates
place the number as high at 2 million,
or about 1.4% of the population, when
counting Buddhism and combined
syncretic practices. It is present al-
most exclusively in its Vajrayana (Tibet-
an) schools. It is the traditional religion
amongst some Turkic and Mongolic
ethnicities in Russia (Kalmyks, Buryats
and Tuvans). It is the religion of the
62% of the total population of Tuva,
38% of Kalmykia and 20% of Buryatia.
Hinduism
Hinduism in Russia is practiced by
140,000 people according to the 2012
survey. It constitutes 2% of the popu-
lation of Altay, 0.5% in Samara Oblast,
0.4% in Khakassia, Kalmykia, Bryansk
Oblast, Kamchatka, Kurgan Oblast, Tyu-
men Oblast, Chelyabinsk Oblast, 0.3% in
Sverdlovsk Oblast, 0.2% to 0.3% in Yama-
lia, Krasnodar Krai, Sakhalin Oblast, and
0.1% to 0.2% in other federal subjects.
Judaism
There are 140,000 practicing Jews
in Russia as of 2012, with a larg-
er ethnic Jewish population (205,000).
They are mostly concentrated
in Kamchatka Krai (0.4%),
Saint Petersburg (0.4%), Kursk Oblast
(0.4%), Khabarovsk Krai (0.3%), Stavropol
Krai (0.3%), Buryatia (0.2%), the Jewish
Autonomous Oblast (0.2%), Kalmykia
(0.2%) and Kabardino-Balkaria (0.2%).
Taoism
Taoism has been transmitted into Russia af-
ter the fall of the Soviet Union particularly
through the work of Master Alex Anatole, a
Russian himself and Taoist priest, founder
of the Center of Traditional Taoist Studies,
active in Moscow since 2002. Other branch-
es active in Russia are Wuliu Taoism and
Zhendao Taoism. Since September 2007
there is an officially functioning school of
the Wuliu branch in Saint Petersburg, and
there are chapters in other cities. Zhend-
ao Taoism has been introduced to Russia
by the Ukrainian Master Vitaly Lyschina.

Russian traditions, superstitions and beliefs include su-
perstitions and customs of Russians. Many of them are now
inseparable parts of every day life, or simply common social
etiquette, though they often have their origins in superstition.
The awareness of them, and their perceived importance, de-
pends on various factors including region and age. Some are
extremely common and practiced by the vast majority of the
population, while some are extremely obscure. Many tradi-
tions feature fathers not participating in the birth of the child.
Rituals and Practices
• Many animistic elements, rites, and feasts associ-
ated with the agricultural calendar have persisted.
• Christian practices such as the curative appli-
cation of “holy water” from a church are struc-
tured along the lines of pre-Christian customs.
• Icons depicting the Virgin Mary and the saints are
widely venerated, and the faithful light candles, pray,
bow, and sometimes weep before these sacred images.
• The peasant hut of the last century always centered on the
“red corner” where the family’s icon hung, and many ur-
ban apartments have a table or shelf set aside for an icon.
Death and the Afterlife.
• Proper care for and remembrance of the dead are consid-
ered very important. Around the time of death, it is cru-
cial to do certain things to prevent the dead from staying or
returning: mirrors are covered with black cloth, the body
is laid out in ways that facilitate the ushering out of the spir-
it, and mourners accompany the deceased from home to
church and from church to cemetery. In the church or hall
where the body is displayed, mourners circle the open coffin
counterclockwise and may kiss or lay flowers on the body.
• After burial, mourners return to the family’s home, where cer-
tain foods are served with vodka and the deceased is remem-
bered with stories and anecdotes. Food and vodka may be set
at his or her place for nurturance of the soul. The soul remains
on earth for forty days, at which time the family holds a sec-
ond gathering to bid farewell as the soul departs for heaven.
The anniversary of a death is memorialized every year; some
people travel great distances to visit their loved ones’ graves.
• There are many interpretations of death in Russian folk
tradition. It can be reversible, and it sometimes resides
outside of the body. It is also closely related to sleep. It is
believed that when one sleeps one can traverse the “oth-
er world” and come back alive. There are two kinds of
deaths. A person who dies in his or her old age surrounded
by family died a “good” death, a death that was “their own.”
• They depart when God says they should. A person who dies
a “bad” death, or a death “not their own,” died too soon be-
fore the time God assigned them. These persons might have
been murdered, committed suicide, died of illness, or in war.
Because of the nature of these deaths the earth cannot ac-
cept them until their time comes which means they do not
receive a proper burial and are sometimes not buried at all
but covered with rocks or sticks. Russians associate “good”
deaths with bringing good harvests while attributing storms,
droughts and other forms of destruction to “bad” deaths.
3
TRADITIONS AND
RITUALS

FIGURE 31: Holy water
FIGURE 33: Russian Orthodox and Catholic
priest pray in the grotto in the Church of the
Nativity
FIGURE 32: The burning candle

FIGURE 34: A bear attacking Rus-
sian hunter. Modeled in 1865

• Custom to arrange fighting of a man with a bear was known
in medieval Russia as a “bear fun”. Such funs were represent-
ed on frescos of the Kiev-Sofia cathedral (1037). In old manu-
script by Daniil Zatochnik the author, listing different sorts of
funs wrote about fighting with wild animals. The plot of a fight-
ing of person and bear is met on medieval Russian coins and seals.
• Two variants of duels of an armed man with a bear prac-
ticed. In first of them a single combat was absolute, in oth-
er - a fighter if he was threatened with obvious danger, was in-
sured by other hunters with pitchforks. In single combat of the
unarmed man with a bear used with specially trained animals.
• In Middle Ages in Russia bear fights was rather popular and became a
steady tradition. Fights with bears were arranged in villages and towns,
in small and big cities on market squares, at fairs and national holidays.
• Bear fights when a man armed with a cold steel struggled with
a wild bear were held as a show and fun down to the first de-
cades of XIX century. Single combat of an armed person with a
wild animal as a kind of mass show was stopped in Õ1Õ century.
• Alongside with bear fight down to the end of 1920-s
there was in many places a hunt for bear with very primi-
tive weapon that was called rogatina - a wood pitchfork. Be-
ing business rather dangerous, such bear hunt was accompanied
various superstitions, legends and histories. That is why
there were so many volunteers who wanted to fight with
bear for fun or for a certain compensation. It is neces-
sary to take into account that for east Slavs a bear was one
of the main characters in a number of tales about animals.
Bear fight
Russian

OLD
WEDDINGCEREMONY
FIGURE 37: Anna Pavlova
wearing a kokoshnik, 1911
FIGURE 36
FIGURE 35
FIGURE 38

• Shortly before a tenth- to fifteenth-century wedding, it was
common to arrange a ritual bath. The charmed bath water was
carefully saved and given to the husband to drink after the wed-
ding. Then there was a maidens’ party. The wreath (kokoshnik)
was removed from from the bride and her hair was braided for
the last time. At the beginning of the wedding was the tradi-
tional bitter lamentations for the bride’s maiden life in the pa-
rental home and her ill-will towards the groom and his family.
• On the wedding day were several rites: transferring the bride
to the groom, the hair winding (okruchivanie), the church
wedding (venchanie), the reception of the young bride in the
husband’s house, and the wedding bed (podklet). The first rite
began with preparations in the middle chamber, an area sit-
uated between the chambers of the bride and groom. The
bride entered first, with a round loaf and money symboliz-
ing wishes for the future family’s wealth and prosperity car-
ried before her. Then the bride was transferred to the groom.
• The second rite had the matchmakers or the wife of the pre-
fect braid the bride’s hair into two tresses, a symbol of wed-
lock, after which a kika or povoinik with bridal veil was
placed. Then producing rituals were completed, consisting
of placing several items on and around the couple, such as
hops for happiness, fur coats for a rich life, straw mattress-
es with the seams unsewn for easy birth, and other items.
• Then the party went to church for the third rite. The groom
and bride each received a single burning candle and ex-
changed rings. After the ring exchange, the priest placed
wreaths on their heads, blessed them, and prayed very loud-
ly to the east. Then there was the church blessing of the mar-
riage and a wish to have many children and grandchildren.
• The fourth rite was the reception of the bride into the hus-
band’s home and nuptial chamber. Then there is the well
known custom of removing the husband’s shoes after the
wedding. Receiving the bride into the husband’s home in-
cluded giving gifts to the new couple, and to the bride from
the groom. Many gifts were symbolic, especially needles and
whips. The last rite, after the wedding feast, concluded the
day with the young couple being led to the nuptial chamber.
• Various methods were entailed to drive unclean spirits away
from the wedding. The first one involved terrifying the un-
clean one by firing a gun at the time of the blessing of the
bride and groom. When the wedding party starts for the al-
tar, nails are driven into the wall, pins and needles are thrust
into the bride’s dress, or the best man cracks his whip. The
second method was to lead the spirits astray by not calling
the bride and groom by name for a long period of time, or to
change the young people’s clothes. Sometimes another girl
would be arrayed in the bride’s attire as a pretended bride.
• The third method was to conceal the couple from the spir-
its. This was accomplished by covering the head of the bride
with a large kerchief from betrothal until the wedding, clos-
ing doors and windows at various moments during the wed-
ding ceremony, or surrounding the procession with out-
riders. Another method was to abstain from food, sex,
touching things, or unlucky days for betrothal and marriage.
• In addition to the producing ceremonies for the couple, there
were other ceremonies that secured the fertility among the
cattle. The bed for the newly married couple was often made
in the cattle shed, or the first sexual act of the woman would
exert a magical influence on the fertility of the cattle. Yet oth-
er ceremonies secured fertility, wealth, and happiness for all
those who took part in the wedding festivities: the sprinkling
with water in which the bride washed herself, and so on. Cer-
emonies that secured the bond between the couple included
the mingling of wine from the couple’s glasses, their sharing of
food and drink, the representation of a pair of doves on the wed-
ding loaf, or the tying together of the bride and groom with a
handkerchief. Three other groups of ceremonies associated with
weddings include the bride’s separation from the cult of the spir-
its of her own home, uniting the bride to the cult of the spir-
its of her husband’s family, and the ceremonies of propitiation.

FIGURE 39
FIGURE 40: Smoking is national sport

There are certain peculiarities that only Russians have and
it’s useful to know them. Russians believe in the crudes and
the Cosmos. It’s either utopia or bare knuckles, raw materi-
als or highly sophisticated systems. Those who gave them-
selves up to the middle class dreams are the lost generation.
• If you’re invited for a meal, expect that the hosts will feed you
until you feel completely full and not capable of moving. If you
think that’s dangerous for your health, or you’re on a diet, we
advise you to emulate satiety, otherwise you will end up badly.
• They value generosity. They can give you the last
piece of bread they have if they believe you reaL-
ly need it. And they expect the same in return.
• Russians are a volatile mix – Western conscious and Asian
subconscious – you see, for hundreds of years Russia has been
mixed, populations have been moved thousands of kilome-
ters around, so they influenced each other to the extent that
it does not even make sense. Still, in all that mess they find a
unique sense of aesthetics, which is unified by their strength,
heritage and belief in the supernatural powers of Cosmos.
•Russians are not politically correct, they take plea-
sure in voicing their opinions out loud and will
not use fancy words to conceal their real feelings.
• When you are invited to the party bring some-
thing with you - beer is usually accepted with pleasure.
•Ifyouinvitedagirlorawomansomewherebepreparedtopayfor
hereverywhere.Ifyouinvitedaman,he’llpayforhimself,andthere’s
a good chance he’ll payfor you as well without telling you about it.
• Men should be strong and assertive and women should
be smart and beautiful. That’s just one of our stereotypes.
• Smoking is a national sport, but many peo-
ple understand it’s not good for health and will al-
ways agree to turn off their cigarette if it bothers you.
• Russians express what they feel, but they’re not extrovert. Rus-
sians shout in public and kiss in public. It’s acceptable to show
affection in public (look at how many kissing couples there are
on the long escalators in Moscow metro!) but extrovert behavior
may be resisted. You won’t see a lot of people sitting in public
places with their legs stretched or crossed (in an American way)
and Russians do not gesticulate much when they are talking.
Customs and Traditions
Russian

Customs that are more often regarded as superstition
Traditional beliefs about forest and house spirits and metaphys-
ical healing practices still exist among urbanized intellectuals
and the working classes, especially among rural populations.
A number of behavioral prohibitions stem from old beliefs: whis-
tling indoors summons ill fortune and evil spirits are attract-
ed by bragging or calling attention to good fortune or health.
• Telling people they have a lovely child may cause discomfort and
necessitate warding off the evil eye.
• Mothers typically do not show their baby to anyone except the
father, the midwife and other close relatives for forty days after
the baby is born.
• Before leaving for a long journey, travelers and all those who are
seeing them off, must sit for a moment in silence before leaving
the house. It is often conveniently written off as a time to sit and
think of anything one may have forgotten.
• After someone has left the house on a long journey, their room
and/or their things should not be cleaned up until they have
arrived, or at least a day has passed if they are guests in a house.
• Breaking a mirror is considered bad luck in Russia, as is looking
at one’s reflection in a broken mirror, but the effect is also more
severe than 7 years of bad luck (as in American culture).
On examination day, it is bad luck to make your bed, wear any-
thing new, or cut your fingernails.
• It is bad luck to use physical hand gestures to demonstrate
something negative using oneself or someone else as the object.
For example, when describing a scar you saw on someone’s face
you should not gesture on your own face or someone else’s. If
you must, you can demonstrate in mid-air. If one does it without
realizing, it can be countered by making a hand motion towards
the body part used and then an abrupt motion away (as if to pick
up the bad energy and throw it away) or by wiping the area with
your hand and then blowing on your hand (as if to wipe off the
bad energy and then blow it away).
• If one person accidentally steps on another person’s foot, it is
common for the person who was stepped on to lightly step on the
foot of the person who stepped first. It is said that they thus avoid
a future conflict.
• Birthday parties should be celebrated on or after
one’s birthday, not before. So when one’s birthday
falls during the week, it’s best to celebrate the fol-
lowing weekend. And never give someone birthday
wishes before their birthday.
• Knocking on wood is practiced in Russia as in
other countries. However Russians tend to add a
symbolic three spits over one’s left shoulder (or sim-
ply with the head turned to the left), and Russians will
often knock three times as well. Traditionally one
was spitting on the devil (who is always on the left).
• Talking about future success, especially boasting
about it, is considered bad luck. It is considered
better to be silent until the success has been achieved
or to even sound pessimistic.
• Returning home for forgotten things is a bad omen.
It is better to leave it behind, but if returning is nec-
essary, one should look in the mirror before leaving
the house again. Otherwise the journey will be bad.
• Many Russians consider giving gifts of sharp ob-
jects, like knives or scissors, to be taboo. This taboo
may be avoided by the donor taking a symbolic pay-
ment, for example one Russian ruble, in exchange as
if it is a trade, not a gift.
• Birds that land on a windowsill should be chased
away. If they tap on the window, or fly into it (open
or closed) it is considered a very bad omen (often of
death).
• If a chicken crows at you three times before noon,
the death of a close family member can be expected
within a fortnight. The chicken should be killed, but
not eaten, as consuming it will bring about further
misfortune.
• Things bought for a newborn baby (such as clothes,
toys, furniture, etc.) should only be purchased after
the baby is born. This is usually done in a big hurry.
SUPERSTITION
Figure 41

• Russia has a rich tradition of folk tales that derive from
a number of Slavic myths and traditions, according to de
Rossi.
• Tales can be divided into three groups by their sub-
ject-matter: fairytales with traces of mythology, tales
about animals, who speak and act like people, and tales of
manners.
Tales about Animals
• Among the central characters of Russian fairytales there
is Fox, Wolf, Bear, Hare, She-Goat and He-Goat, Bull,
Horse, Dog, Raven, and Rooster. Most frequent personag-
es of animal tales are Fox and Wolf.
• Just like the epos of Western Europe, Russian folktales
present Fox as a sneaky, crafty and treacherous creature
that using its slyness gains the upper hand over stronger
animals, such as Wolf and Bear. Wolf is characteristic for
different human features: as a rule he is angry, greedy,
voracious, and stupid; Fox has a special pleasure in playing
tricks on him and every time Wolf is easily duped again
and again. Far less definite is the image of Bear, yet one of
his most peculiar features is slow-wittedness.
• Fairytales with traces of mythology Fairytales of mytho-
logical character are those which use fanciful and magical
images to depict the struggle of the light and the dark, the
good and the evil, or the opposite powers of nature.
• The fading of nature in autumn and winter is symbolized by
the image of a beauty’s kidnapping by some monsters or dragons
or in the image of her being bewitched, frozen, turned to stone
or hypnotized to sleep. Mists and clouds covering the Sun and
hampering its beneficial impact on the earthly beauty nature
are personified by the image of Serpent; while cold and frost are
symbolized by the wicked Koschei the Deathless (who usually
holds the beauty captive), and winter making all the nature stiff
is personified by Baba-Yaga, an old hag with boney legs (that is
“Kostyanya Noga” in Russian).
• The heroes in these fairy tales are in quest of the stolen beau-
ties; they are destined to save and return them, or else to bring
them back to life, if they are in dead sleep, or stiff, or the like,
i.e. to revive nature. The task is achieved with the help of special
wonderful artifacts or creatures, like golden apples, a horse with
a golden mane, a deer with golden antlers, a fiery bird, sev-
en-league boots, the flying carpet, the waters of Death and Life
that can bring the dead back to life, and so on.
• The major representatives of the dark powers are usually
Baba-Yaga and Koshchei the Deathless.
• Baba-Yaga appears in Russian tales in two ways: she is whether
a horrifying and wicked witch and a man-eater, or a supportive
and just wisewoman that helps the hero in his quest (especially if
it is a chance for her to spite Koschei). She lives alone deep in the
forest; her hut can move on its large chicken legs – it likes ro-
tating in front of guests and will not stop unless the hero knows
the proper incantation to make it turn its front to him and its
back to the woods. Or else, Baba-Yaga lives in a tower-chamber
surrounded with a vile fence made of human bones and skulls,
the miserable remains of her victims.
FOLKLORE
FIGURE 42: Russiam Fairy Tales
FIGURE 43: Russiam Fairy Tales

FIGURE 44: Kostyanya Noga FIGURE 45 FIGURE 46: Baba Yaga FIGURE 47

FIGURE 48: Koshchei FIGURE 49: Stroke bird
FIGURE 50: Snakes

• Koshchei the Deathless is an abominable sorcerer who kid-
naps and imprisons the beauty hoping she would yield to his
wicked will. However, we have a hero who must save the beauty,
and in every tale he happens to learn (sometimes with the beau-
ty’s help) about where to find the death of the Deathless! Far-
away in the sea there is a secret island, in the island an oak is
growing, under the oak a trunk is buried, in the trunk a hare is
hidden, in the hare there is a duck, in the duck there is an egg,
and in that egg is the death of the deathless villain Koshchei.
• The most interesting plots developed in mythological tales in-
clude fighting the Serpent, magic transformation of people, pursuit
of hard tasks, like saving beauties, magic artifacts, building a palace
in a night, etc. Usually the heroes get help from women, whether
from wife, or mother, or girlfriend who turns to have secretly some
supernatural powers. She calms down the hero with the words: “The
morn is wiser than the evening: go to bed, everything will be done”.
• Another tale tells of the Fire Bird, an enchanted creature with
fiery plumage that is very difficult to catch, therefore its capture
or that of one of its feathers is often the challenge facing the hero.
•BoththeBabaYagaandtheFireBirdcaneitherbegoodorbad,ter-
rifying or benevolent, and they can bestow favorable or hostile en-
chantments,deRossisaid.Aboveall,theymustneverbeantagonized!
Legends about the Creation of People, Animals and Plants
• Speaking generally, all that came out of man or made from the
human body was considered a blessing and very good. On the oth-
er hand, all that was made by Satan was considered bad and evil.
• The most popular myth about man’s creation is that man was
made of clay and soil. God made Eve of roses, but Adam didn’t
want such a wife. Then God decided to make Eve out of a piece of
Adam. She was made of Adam’s rib, taken from the left side (the side
where the heart is) so that the wife would be loyal to her husband.
• The first human houses were built by Satan, but they
were without windows. God cut windows to let light in.
• Animals and plants are also creations of God and Satan. Go
d made useful animals, Satan - harmful and ugly animals, but
both Satan and God created these animals together - a divi-
sion of work perhaps? God made a dog and Satan gave him hair.
• Satan was thought to have evolved from a horse, while the bear and
the mole were both formed from the human body. Ravens, hawks,
eagles and magpies are evildoers, thieves and cheaters. Pigeons,
swallows, nightingales, larks and storks are holy, kind, and gentle.
• The stork was one of the most respected birds and also
evolved from man’s body. A stork which lands down on the
roof of the house is believed to bring happiness to the family.
• Snakes/reptiles and other such creepy crawlies are a brood
of evil spirits. The most dangerous among them is the snake,
which keeps special knowledge and secrets and can find mag-
ical herbs. Frogs and toads on the other hand were created
from the human body and considered very special. It was for-
bidden to kill them because close relatives may die as a result.
• Plants are mentioned in many myths. An aspen is referred to as a
cursed tree; Judas even hanged himself on an aspen. A stake must
be driven in the graves of witches and wizards so that their evil
spirits will not be able to harm people. A linden, which is a tradi-
tional ritual, can take away a curse from a witch or another person.

Tales of manners
• Tales of manners reflect the features of the people’s
customs, morals and ways of life. They can be divided into
two parts: earlier tales bear traces of mythological or ancient
outlook, and later tales reveal Christian influence. The
tales of manner can tell about personified Truth and
Lie, about relatives, such as husband and wife, step-daughter and
step-mother, the younger brother and the older brothers, and so on.
Legends about World Creation
• Many Russian fairy-tales repeatedly refer to the ancient Slavic
myth about three underground levels of kingdoms - the highest level
of gold, the middle – silk and the lowest level – copper. In each tale a
hero meets Tsarevna, who gives him an egg. Then he rolls up each of
the above-mentioned underground kingdoms in an egg. Returning
from under the earth the hero throws the eggs on the ground and
these kingdoms emerge and form the world as we know it today.
• Another ancient myth is known as the primitive “Cha-
os Division” into water and earth. It was done by God and
his assistant Satan. According to one legend, mountains,
swamps and canyons were Satan’s doing. Having made the
world, God used two fish as a support system for the earth.
World Creation
• Stones were the symbol of the world’s mountains, its basis and
support. Stones were created under water and • held in great es-
teem. The water around these stones was considered curative.
Ancient Russians believed that stones had been alive and grow-
ing until God cursed them because of their sins, which ceased
their growth. Often in myths people become stones, usually be-
cause of their sins. Rivers, lakes and springs were dug by birds.
• The World, according to believers of these ancient myths, is flat,
like a plate. At the end it meets with the sky in the shape of a vaulted
ceiling. The sky is hard and God is thought to live in it. In most myths
there are several firmaments - 3, 7 or 11. There are different levels of
sky, the highest being gold, which is where God sits on his throne.
• The Sun is the Heavenly Father, holy and righteous. Every day
it goes around the world and then rests on the other side of the
world. Solar eclipses are made by demons who want to eat the Sun.
• The Moon is the younger brother of the sun.
It lights the world when the sun is asleep.
• Stars are connected with people: there are as many stars
on the sky as people in the world. When a child is born
a new star appears, and when a man dies his star falls.
• Clouds are carried in the sky by Elias the prophet in his chariot.
Rainbows are alive and drink water from rivers or lakes in addi-
tion to swallowing fish and frogs. Then rainbows pour water into
the rain from its other end with all the swallowed creatures. The
seven colors of the rainbow are a symbol of the seven heavens.
• Wind is a man with thick lips. Some
myths say that the wind is angel breath.
• Frost is a kin of the sun and wind. It’s an angry old man with a red
nose, in fur and ice shoes (Santa Claus became kind much later).
Week days were divided by the different sexes - male (Monday, Tues-
day and Thursday) and female (Wednesday and Friday). Mondays in
myths are a grey-haired old woman, who stands at the gates of Eden.
She meets the souls of dead people and asks them about their sins.

6FESTIVALS
Russian traditions are one component of Russian culture that attract visitors to Europe's largest country. Most travel-
ers may be familiar with common Christmas and Easter traditions, but Russians don't pay homage to their pagan and
Christian ancestors' way of doing things only twice a year. The Russian annual traditions calendar is full of exciting, and
sometimes strange, customs, from bathing in ice water at Epiphany to Ded Moroz's appearance on New Year's Eve.

Russia’s New Year
The majority of Russians celebrate New Year’s Day with the rest of the world on January 1st.
But an older New Year’s Day tradition sees the start of the year as January 14th. Russia’s New
Year celebrations include the lighting of the New Year’s tree and a visit from Ded Moroz, the
Russian Santa.
The New Year in Russia cannot be visualized without the magic crowd puller Ded Moroz or
Father Frost who is the Russian Santa Claus. He is accompanied by his fairy granddaughter,
companion and helpmate Snegurochka or Snow Maiden. They come to greet kids with the
New Year and give them long-awaited gifts. Children wait for them as they bring New Year
presents and keep them under the New Year’s Tree. Children sin songs to make Father Frost
happy.
• On the 31st of December people have a sumptuous dinner with a glass of bubbling
champagne. Another tradition is to listen to the New Year Speech by the President of
Russia on New Year’s Day. Usually the President pronounces his speech on the Red Square
in Moscow at 23:55 hrs. Then when Kuranty the Kremlin clock strikes 0:00 Russians take
their glasses full of champagne, make a wish and clang their glasses at the TV-set screen
as if they were clanging them with the President! And then the fireworks begin. People go
outside, congratulate every passer-by, light Bengal lights and sing. Typically the celebra-
tions go on till wee hours of the day.
• On the 3rd of January you might think that the celebration is finally over, but that
is not to be the case! On the 7th of January Russians celebrate the birth of the Christ
Rozhdestvo (Orthodox Christmas). Actually, the religious ceremony starts in the church
at 23:00 on the 6th of January. The next day is devoted to a family celebration. It is the
day when the whole family gets together. All the relatives get together in the house of the
eldest family member. The traditional dish for the feast is kutiya – sweet rice porridge with
raisins cooked by a special recipe. Some of the more Religious type visit the Church and
light candles there.
• Now, you might probably sigh with relief assuming that the holidays are definitely over,
but not so fast. On the 13th-14th of January Russians celebratethe most amazing holiday
of the year – Stariy Noviy God or the Old New Year.
FIGURE 52: Russians cele-
brating new year

mas trees (Yelka), flowers and colored lights.
• Christmas dinner includes a variety of differ-
ent meats - goose and suckling pig are favourites.
• Babushka is a traditional Christmas fig-
ure who distributes presents to children.
• Hay is spread on floors and ta-
bles to encourage horse feed to grow.
• The role of Father Christmas was played by
Dedushka Moroz (Grandfather Christmas).
• December 6th marks the Feast Day of St.
Nicholas of Myra; a Turkish bishop who be-
came the patron saint of Moscow and Santa to
the world. Due to the suppression of religion
during the Soviet regime, St. Nicholas was re-
placed by Ded Moroz or Grandfather Frost, the
Russian Spirit of Winter who brought gifts on
New Year’s. He is accompanied by Snyegurochka,
the Snow maiden, who helps distribute the gifts.
• The Christmas tree or Yolka is yet anoth-
er tradition banned during the Soviet era. To
keep the custom alive, people decorated New
Year’s trees, instead. Since ornaments were ei-
ther very costly or unavailable, family trees
were trimmed with homemade decorations and
fruit. Yolka comes from the word which refers
to a fir tree. The custom of decorating Christ-
mas trees was introduced to Russia by Peter the
Great, after he visited Europe during the 1700’s.
• Christmas in Russia occurs in January. Eclipsed
by New Year’s celebrations, Russian Christmas
is somewhat less important than it is in oth-
er Eastern European nations. Christmas is a time
for visiting family, attending church services,
and enjoying a Christmas feast. The festive and
merry days of Christmas are called yule-tide in
Russia. There is no any other holiday celebrat-
ed in compliance with so many specific tradi-
tions, ceremonies, etc.One of the ceremonies is
called Kolyadki. The ceremony includes wish-
ing of wealth and happiness for everybody.
• During the ceremony a snow-lady is made with
a carrot nose, eyes of prunes and teeth of green
beans. Lady Kolyada comes to the holiday to con-
gratulate people and enjoy merry games and fun.
• Lady Kolyada is accompanied by some people
bearing stars. They sing and dance in a ring on the
snow with fired torches and push the festive Wheel.
• It is Orthodoxal Russian custom - to serve Christ-
mas cakes, to sing songs but the tradition is mixed
with pagan traditions of ancient Rus (Russia) - sim-
ilar to “trick or treat” when people visit their neigh-
bours in disguises, dance, sing and ask for presents.
Many superstitious traditions took place in the
time: witchcraft or fortune telling... Girls tried
to foresee their future husbands, fates and so on.
• On Christmas Day, hymns and carols are
sung. People gather in churches and the
churches are decorated with the usual Christ
FIGURE 53: Christmas

Ivan Kupalo
In Russia the holiday of St. John the Baptist is called Ivan Kupa-
lo.Everything in the holiday relates to water. In the past boys
and girls used to swim in rivers till late at night, they burned
fires and, taking each-others hands, jumped over the fires.
If after the jump they still held their hands together, it con-
sidered to be a good sign saying that the wedding is close.
Sviatki, Russian Christmastide
Sviatki, or Svyatki, falls between January 7th (Orthodox Christmas)
and January 19th (Epiphany). Christmastide is a time for remem-
bering old traditions, like fortune telling and carolling. The most de-
vout end this religious period by taking a dip in the icy water of a riv-
er or stream, said to be bestowed with magical powers on Epiphany
Russian Winter Festival
Winter in Russia is long and hard, but Russians know how
to inject fun into even sub-zero weather. It begins in De-
cember and continues into January. The winter festival isn’t
limited to Moscow; cities across Russia alleviate the dark-
ness of winter by hosting winter-festival-related events.
Revolution Day
Revolution Day takes place on November 7 and 8. It marks the
day in 1917 when the masses of people revolted against the au-
tocratic rule of the czars.Revolution Day is celebrated with huge
parades and displays of young persons performing mass gymnas-
tics. Similar celebrations take place on the anniversary of Lenin’s
birthday. The revolutionary leader is a national hero in Russia,
and on both these holidays large pictures of him are carried in
the processions and are displayed in homes and public buildings.
Maslenitsa
Maslenitsa (Pancake week) is the only purely Russian Holiday that
dates back to the pagan times. It is dedicated to parting with win-
ter and welcoming of spring. The essential element of this festival
is Bliny a pancake. It is a symbol of the sun. It is as round, gold
and warm as the sun. Bliby is served hot with either butter, or sour
cream, or caviar, or mushrooms, or sturgeon - to any exquisite taste.
Besides, every hostess has her own recipe how to cook it. Actual-
ly, Russian pancakes are more like French crepes – they are thin,
unlike American thick pancakes. Maslenitsa also includes mas-
querades, snowball fights, sledding, riding on swings and plenty
of sleigh rides. Each day of Maslenitsa has its traditional activity.
The mascot of the celebration is usually a brightly dressed straw
effigy of Lady Maslenitsa, formerly known as Kostroma. As the
culmination of the celebration, on Sunday evening, Lady Maslen-
itsa is stripped of her finery and put to the flames of a bonfire.
Womens day
In Russia this is a day that is solely devoted to Women. It is held on
March 8. Men and boys give women presents or give them flowers.
There are prepared presents for women or delivered concerts every-
where. As a rule women can go home early this day. Presents are all
around this day. Maybe it is a free ticket for the cinema or theatre,
sometimes it is a lottery. There are parties in every home and in ev-
ery office etc. Everybody likes the day. It’s an official holiday. On this
day men give women gifts, usually flowers. Men are supposed to
do all the housework, this is pretty nice - at least once a year wom-
en can have some rest and forget about dishes, cooking, kids, take
a magazine and relax on the coach. Women’s Day was established
after the Second International Conference of Socialist Women in
Copenhagen in 1910, women receive gifts and usually do not have
to work. This Day is similar to Mother’s Day but is for all women.
FIGURE 54: Ivan Kupalo
FIGURE 55: Maslenitsa kustodiev

Easter
Predominately Orthodox, Russians celebrate Easter accord-
ing to the Eastern calendar. The Easter church service be-
gins the night before. Candles serve to light the church un-
til dawn breaks, and bells announce the arrival of Easter.
Russians call it “Paskha” which comes from the Jewish “Pasqua”
and means passing with the Christ to other life, deliverance
from death. Easter is meant as a sacred week of Resurrection of
Christ during which, the Holy gates in churches remain open
meaning that now Resurrection of Christ opened heaven for all.
Easter eve is the time for cooking some special dishes. Folks bake
rich Easter cakes called “Kulichi”, make Easter cottage cheese
cakes called “Paska” and paint eggs. Usually eggs are painted on
Saturday, and then brought to the church to consecrate. During
the paschal week people feast with a rich meal of meat, eggs and
other items that were not allowed during 40 days Great Lent.
This custom comes from olden times. When Maria Magdalene
came to emperor Tiberius, she brought him a red egg with salu-
tation “Christ has arisen”. Red is the color of blood on the cross
that Christ shed for atonement of sins of the world. However,
nowadays the eggs are not necessarily red, they are multi-colored!
Easter is usually celebrated in March – May.
Note: that the next Paskha celebration will take place
on the 10th April 2010. Make sure you are there!
Victory Day
The main reason for the celebration of Victory Day or May Day
or Labor Day was to remember the people who died in the war
of WWII. On the day of May 9th, flowers are laid on their graves
and veterans that are still alive go out on the streets wearing their
medals and orders.Russia mainly fought a war to defend itself,
which is called a “patriotic war”. In Russia almost all the families
have at least one person who took part in the war. The other old
citizens who did not fight during the war had to work in factories
to make guns and preparations, which wasn’t easier than fighting.
They too are honored on Victory Day. To celebrate Victory Day
the President of Russia sends congratulatory letters to all the veter-
ans. There are parades, feasts, presents and flowers to give thanks to
those people who fought for the defence of Russia. In all the cities
there are meetings in which a leader or the mayor of the city gives
speeches about the achievement of people in the war and the vet-
erans tell about their adventures in the war. The food consists of
traditional Russian food like pirozki, which is dough, filled with
meat or mashed potato, pelmeni and cakes and pies for desert.
FIGURE 56: Easter eggs
FIGURE 57: The lavish spectacle of Russia’s annual Victory Day
parade made history this year - on the 65th anniversary of victory over
the Nazis in World War II.

Russian culture, associated with the country of Russia, has a long
historyandcanclaimalongtraditionofdividendinmanyaspectsof
the arts, especially when it comes to literature and philosophy, clas-
sicalmusicandballet,architectureandpainting,cinemaandanima-
tion, all of which has had considerable influence all over the world.
After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Russia remained the
largest Orthodox nation in the world and claimed succession
to the Byzantine legacy in the form of the Third Rome idea.
“Rus” may derive from the name of a tribe that gained
political ascendancy in Kiev and other Slavic towns
and lent its name to the language, culture, and state.
Nowadays, Russian cultural heritage is ranked seventh in the Na-
tion Brands Index, based on interviews of some 20,000 people
mainly from Western countries and the Far East. Due to the rela-
tively late involvement of Russia in modern globalization and in-
ternational tourism, many aspects of Russian culture, like Russian
jokes and the Soviet Art, remain largely unknown to foreigners.
ORIGIN
RUSSIAN CULTURE

8MUSIC
DANCE&

Early History of Russian Music
In the period of Muscovy, two major genres formed Russian music: the sacred mu-
sic of the Orthodox Church and secular music used for entertainment. The sacred music
draws its tradition from the Byzantine Empire, with key elements being used in Rus-
sian Orthodox bell ringing, as well as choral singing. Neumes were developed for mu-
sical notation, and as a result several examples of medieval sacred music have survived
to this day, among them two stichera composed by Tsar Ivan IV in the 16th century.
Secular music included the use of musical instruments such as fip-
ple flutes and string instruments, and was usually played on holidays ini-
tially by skomorokhs — jesters and minstrels who entertained the nobility.
The most complicated genre as to music is lyrical song and its highest type -
drawling song - supposed to have formed in the 16th - 17th cc in Moscow Rus-
sia. It is associated with the appearance of the famous folk multivoiced sing-
ing of polyphonic or heterophonic types with participation of solo voices.
Nadezhda Plevitskaya (1884–1940)
The founder of performing genre of the Russian folk song was Nadezhda Plevits-
kaya. Audience in full theatre and conservatoire halls thanked her with wild stand-
ing applause. She was surrounded by hosts of admirers and ocean of flowers. She was
the one who gathered, adapted and sang about 800 folk songs. Her repertoire includ-
ed a broad palette of ritual, Cossacks’, village and town folk songs. Among Plevitska-
ya’s close friends and creative companions there were Sobinov, Shalyapin, Rachmani-
noff, Stanislavsky, Kachalov, Konenkov, and others. After 1920 she lived in emigration.
Figure 58: Flute-A parabolic (bowl-
shaped) head joint attached to a cylin-
drical body with open-standing keys and
finger pads to cover large finger holes.
Music
FIGURE 59: Nadezhda Plevitskaya (1884–1940)

Lidia Ruslanova (1900 - 1973)
The Queen of Russian Folklore - the title undoubtedly suits no one
but Lidia Ruslanova, who revived old folk songs with her immense
inner power and her marvelous vocal. It is in her performance
that most folk songs are remembered by the audience of today. A
strong, straightforward and stately woman, she was the symbol of
Motherland for her compatriots, when her voice encouraged sol-
diers during the Great patriotic war and later, when she withstood
the pressures of Soviet authorities and terrors of Stalinist reprisals.
Music in 17th & 18th century
Russia was a late starter in developing a native tradition of clas-
sical music due to the proscription by the Orthodox Church
against secular music. Beginning in the reign of Ivan IV, the
Imperial Court invited Western composers and musicians
to fill this void. A craze for Italian opera at Court during
the reigns of Empresses Elisabeth and Catherine also helped
spread interest in Western music among the aristocracy.
20th century Soviet Music
After the Russian Revolution, Russian music changed dramati-
cally. The early 1920s were the era of avant-garde experiments,
inspired by the “revolutionary spirit” of the era. New trends in
music (like music based on synthetic chords) were proposed by en-
thusiastic clubs such as Association for Contemporary Music. Ar-
seny Avraamov pioneered the graphical sound, and Leon There-
min invented thereminvox, one of the early electronic instruments.
The music patriarchs of the era
Prokofiev, Shostakovich, Aram Khachaturian and Alex-
ander Alexandrov, the latter is best known for compos-
ing the Anthem of the Soviet Union and the song The Sa-
cred War. The Union of Soviet Composers was established in
1932 and became the major regulatory body for Soviet music.
Jazz was introduced to Soviet audiences by Valentin Parnakh in the 1920s. Sing-
er Leonid Uteosov and film score composer Isaak Dunayevsky helped its popu-
larity, especially with the popular comedy movie Jolly Fellows that featured a jazz
soundtrack. Eddie Rosner, Oleg Lundstrem and others contributed to soviet jazz music.
FIGURE 60: Lidia Ruslanova FIGURE 61: Pyotr Leshchenko FIGURE 62: Mikhail Glinka FIGURE 63
The focus on European music made Russian composers to write in Western style if
they wanted their compositions to be performed. Their success at this was variable due
to a lack of familiarity with European rules of composition. Some composers were able
to travel abroad for training, usually to Italy, and learned to compose vocal and instru-
mental works in the Italian Classical tradition popular in the day. These include eth-
nic Ukrainian composers Dmitri Bortniansky, Maksim Berezovsky and Artem Vedel. The
first great Russian composer to exploit native Russian music traditions into the realm of
secular music was Mikhail Glinka (1804–1857), who composed the early Russian lan-
guage operas Ivan Susanin and Ruslan and Lyudmila. Glinka was the first to find such a
profound and powerful expression for the Russian character in music. He holds a prom-
inent place in history as the founder of Russian classical music and national opera. In
the late 19th to early 20th centuries, the so-called “romance songs” became very pop-
ular. The greatest and most popular singers of the “romances” usually sang in operas at
the same time. The most popular was Fyodor Shalyapin. Singers usually composed music
and wrote the lyrics, as did Alexander Vertinsky, Konstantin Sokolsky, Pyotr Leshchenko.
Fyodor Shalyapin (1873-1938)
Shalyapin Fyodor Ivanovich is a well-
known Russian opera singer-bass. Shalyap-
in was both a great singer and a drama ac-
tor. His voice of unique flexibility, timbre,
richness and beauty enabled him to ex-
press freely any shades of emotions. In his
opera parts Shalyapin managed to convey
the whole range of feelings - from heartfelt
tenderness to tragic pathos and smashing
sarcasm Shalyapin was a tremendous suc-
cess with his performances in Europe and on
stage of the New York Metropolitan Opera.
Among the notable people of Soviet elec-
tronic music were Vyacheslav Mesch-
erin, creator of Electronic Instruments
Orchestra, and ambient composer Eduard
Artemiev, best known for his scores to Tar-
kovsky’s science fiction films. The 1960s and
1970s saw the beginning of modern Rus-
sian pop and rock music. It started with the
wave of VIA’s (vocal-instrumental ensemble),
a specific sort of music bands performing
radio-friendly pop, rock and folk, composed
by members of the Union of Composers
and approved by censorship. This wave be-
gun with Pojuschie Gitary and Pesnyary;
popular VIA bands also includ-
ed Tcvety, Zemlyane and Verasy. That
period of music also saw individual pop
stars such as Iosif Kobzon, Sofia Rotaru, Alla
Pugacheva, Valery Leontiev, Yuri Antonov.
Many of them remain popular to this day.
They were the mainstream of Soviet music
media, headliners of festivals such as Song
of the Year, Sopot, and Golden Orpheus.
Music publishing and promotion in So-
viet Union was a state monopoly. To earn
money and fame from their tal-
ent, Soviet musicians had to as-
sign to state-owned label Melodiya.

FIGURE 66: Philipp
Kirkorov
FIGURE 65
FIGURE 64
FIGURE 67

Rock music came to Soviet Union in the late 1960s with Beatle-
mania, and many rock bands arose during the late 1970s: Mash-
ina Vremeni, Aquarium, Autograph. Unlike the VIAs, these
bands were not allowed to publish their music and remained
in underground. The “golden age” of Russian rock is widely
considered to have been the 1980s. Censorship mitigated, rock
clubs opened in Leningrad and Moscow, and soon rock be-
came mainstream Popular bands of that time include Kino, Ali-
sa, Aria, DDT, Nautilus Pompilius, and Grazhdanskaya Oboro-
na. New wave and post punk were the trend in 80s Russian rock.
21st Century Music
Russian pop music is well developed, and enjoys mainstream
success via pop music media such as MTV Russia, Muz TV and
various radio stations. Right after the fall of the Iron Wall artists,
like Christian Ray, took an active political stance, supporting
the first president Boris Yeltsin. A number of pop artists have
broken through in recent years. The Russian duet t.A.T.u. is the
most successful Russian pop band of its time. They have reached
number one in many countries around the world, with several of
their singles and albums. Other popular artists include the Euro-
vision 2008 winner Dima Bilan, as well as Valery Meladze, VIA
Gra, Nyusha, Vintage, Philipp Kirkorov, Vitas and Alsou.
Russian production companies, such as Holly-
wood World, have collaborated with western music
stars, creating a new, more globalized space for music.
ElectronicmusicinmodernRussiaisunderdevelopedincompari-
sontoothergenres.Thisislargelyduetoalackofpromotion. There
aresomeindependentundergroundactsperforming IDM, down-
tempo, house, trance and dark psytrance (including tracker
music scene), and broadcasting their work via internet radio.

Research book on Russia (Russian Culture and Society) - By Aaliya Gujral

Research book on Russia (Russian Culture and Society) - By Aaliya Gujral

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