Community Based Managment

1. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Sustainable tourism
• Aims to maintain a balance between protecting the
environment;
• Maintains cultural integrity and establishes social
justice;
• Promotes economic benefits;
• Meets the needs of the host population in terms of
improving living standards both in the short and long
term throughout the globe; and
• Maintains inter and intra-generational equity (Liu.,
2003) and viability of the destination for the
foreseeable future (Butler, 1993).
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2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• Define sustainable tourism and identify natural and
cultural tourism resources;
• Evaluate mass tourism, ecotourism and community
based tourism and their potential for sustainable
tourism development;
• Define pro-poor tourism (PPT) and explain some of
the benefits of PPT for poor marginalized
communities;
• Discuss the sustainable management of tourism
resources and potential sustainability tools.
C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S

3. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• Define sustainable tourism and identify natural and
cultural tourism resources;
• Evaluate mass tourism, ecotourism and community
based tourism and their potential for sustainable
tourism development;
• Define pro-poor tourism (PPT) and explain some of
the benefits of PPT for poor marginalized
communities;
• Discuss the sustainable management of tourism
resources and potential sustainability tools.
C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S

4. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Tourism resources
• Tourism consists of two main types of resources,
namely attractions and infrastructure or support
services.
• Attractions vary and can include natural, cultural
and built sites as well as special events and
festivals, or be associated with recreational
activities (Weaver and Lawton, 2014) (see Fig.
19.1).
• The tourism inventory also includes
accommodation, restaurants, transport and other
support services.
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5. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
An inventory of tourist attractions – Natural
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Category Site Event
Natural TOPOGRAPHY e.g.
mountains, canyons,
beaches, volcanoes,
caves, fossil sites
CLIMATE e.g.
temperature,
sunshine,
precipitation
HYDROLOGY e.g.
lakes, rivers,
waterfalls, hot
springs
WILDLIFE e.g.
mammals, birds,
insects, fish
LOCATION e.g.
centrality, extremity
Protected areas,
hiking trails
Scenic highways,
scenic lookouts,
landmarks, wildlife
parks
Volcanic eruptions
Tides
Animal migrations
(e.g. caribou, geese)
(Source: Weaver and Lawton, 2006, p.130).

6. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
An inventory of tourist attractions – Cultural
2
(Source: Weaver and Lawton, 2006, p.130).
Cultural PREHISTORICAL e.g. Aboriginal
sites
HISTORICAL e.g. battlefields,
old buildings, museums, ancient
monuments, graveyards, statues
CONTEMPORARY CULTURE
e.g. architecture, ethnic
neighbourhoods, modern
technology
ECONOMIC e.g. farms, mines,
factories
RECREATIONAL e.g. integrated
resorts, golf courses, ski hills,
theme parks, casinos
RETAIL e.g. mega-malls,
shopping districts
Battle re-enactments,
commemorations,
festivals, world fairs
Sporting events,
Olympics
Markets

7. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Sustainable tourism – difficult to define
2
• ‘To the tourist industry, it means that development is appropriate;
to the conservationist, it means that principles articulated a
century ago are once again in vogue; to the environmentalist, it
provides a justification for the preservation of significant
environments from development; and to the politician, it
provides an opportunity to use words rather than actions’ (Butler,
1999, p. 11).
• The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) defined sustainable
tourism development as meeting:
‘...the needs of present tourists and host regions while
protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. It is
envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a
way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while
maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes,
biological diversity and life support systems” (WTO, 2001, cited
in Liu, 2003, p.460).

8. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Sustainable tourism in developing countries
• Found in the form of ecotourism or community-
based tourism.
• Provides employment, income-generating
opportunities, and financing for community
projects, which help preserve social ties and
prevent out-migration from rural communities.
• Benefits may accrue to elite factions of the
community, with limited benefits to the poor.
• Where tourism entrepreneurs interested in
implementing initiatives that help alleviate poverty,
government support and commitment to welfare of
citizens essential success (Harrison, 2009).
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9. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Ecotourism and Community based tourism (CBT)
• In developing countries, e.g. Fiji, ecotourism and
community-based tourism developed as
complementary to more conventional mass tourism
products,
• Found in the form of activities, e.g. village visits,
cultural performances, and nature treks.
• Recently indigenous entrepreneurs and
communities have developed budget resorts and
village stays, catering for backpackers and
independent travellers (see case study).
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10. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Tools of sustainability (See Table 19.1)
• Consultation/
participation techniques
• Codes of conduct
(tourist, industry and
hosts)
• Sustainability indicators
• Footprinting
• Certification
• Sustainable livelihoods
framework
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1. Area protection
2. Industry regulation
3. Visitor management
techniques
4. Environmental impact
assessment (EIA)
5. Carrying capacity
calculations
(Source: Mowforth and Munt, 2016, pp. 114–115).

11. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Ecotourism defined
‘Ecotourism is a form of tourism that fosters learning
experiences and appreciation of the natural
environment, or some component thereof, within its
associated cultural context. It has the appearance (in
conjunction with best practice) of being
environmentally and socio-culturally sustainable,
preferably in a way that enhances the natural and
cultural resource base of the destination and
promotes the viability of the operation’ (Weaver, 2004,
p. 15).
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12. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Ecotourism has critics but …
• Has the ‘potential to aid in protecting endemic
species, and to provide alternative or supplementary
livelihoods and potentially alleviate poverty’ (Farrelly,
2009, p.2);
• Can empower local communities (Scheyvens, 2000;
Sofield, 2003).
• Can contribute to conservation and revival of
endangered cultures, but can also damage local
cultures, economies, and environments (de Kadt,
1979; Weaver, 1998); and
• With suitable planning and management, ecotourism
can be used as a tool to promote conservation and
sustainable development in poor, remote rural areas.
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13. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Community based tourism (CBT)
• CBT aims to improve the quality of life of the
community residents by:
• maximizing local economic benefits;
• conserving the national and built environment; and
• providing visitors a high quality, value for money
experience (Park and Yoon, 2009; Park et al., 2008).
• More sustainable forms of tourism have concentrated
on a community development approach (Goodwin
and Santilli, 2009).
• ‘Community’ refers to people who share a sense of
purpose and common goals (Joppe, 1996). These
may be geographical, or based on heritage and
cultural values.
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14. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
CBT defined…
‘Tourism development, which considers the needs and
interests of the popular majority, alongside the benefit of
economic growth. Community-based tourism
development would seek to promote the economic,
social, and cultural well-being of the popular majority. It
would also seek to strike a balanced and harmonious
approach to development that would stress
considerations such as the compatibility of various
forms of tourism with other components of the local
economy: the quality of development, both culturally and
environmentally; and the divergent needs, interests, and
potentials of the community and its inhabitants’
(Brohman, 1996, p.60).
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15. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Pro-poor tourism (PPT)
• PPT is an approach to tourism development, which
asserts:
‘…that greater benefits from tourism can be spread to
the poor by encouraging a wide range of players (community,
private sector, civil society, government) working at a range
of scales (local, national, regional) to spread the benefits of
tourism more widely and unlock livelihood opportunities for
the poor within tourism and connected sectors. This can lead
to improvements, for example, in policy, in labour practices of
hotels and resorts, and better linkages between related
sectors such as agriculture and fisheries’ (Scheyvens and
Russell, 2010, p.1).
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16. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Pro-poor tourism benefits (see Table 19.2)
3
Increase economic
benefits
Enhance non-financial
livelihood impacts
Enhance participation and
partnerships
 Increased local
employment, wages,
commitments to local
jobs, training of local
people.
 Expand local enterprise
opportunities – including
those that provide
services to tourism
operations, e.g. food
suppliers, and those that
sell to tourists, e.g.
handicraft makers,
guides, cultural
performers.
 Capacity building –
training
 Minimize environmental
impacts
 Monitor use of natural
resources
 Improve social and
cultural impacts
 Increase local access to
infrastructure and
services provided for
tourists, e.g. roads,
communications,
healthcare and transport
 Create more supportive
policies and planning
framework that enables
participation by the poor
 Increase participation of
the poor in government
and private sector
decision making
 Build pro-poor
partnerships with the
private sector
 Increase flow of
information and
communication between
stakeholders
(Source: Pro-poor Tourism Partnership, 2004, p.1).

17. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
PPT benefits in Fiji
• Different scales of tourism development in Fiji can greatly
contribute to three determinants of poverty alleviation as
identified by Zhao and Ritchie (2007) – opportunity,
empowerment and security.
• Opportunities can provide direct and indirect benefits to the
poor.
• Examples include: lease money; employment; contributions to
community development, e.g. housing, power, water; payment
of church tithes; traditional obligations and education.
• Untapped opportunities can increase tourism benefits and
expand backward linkages between tourism and local economy
and reduce heavy reliance on imported goods, especially
amongst large-scale properties, e.g. increase linkages to local
agriculture, farmers and fishermen (Scheyvens and Russell,
2012).
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18. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Tourism and the environment
• The environment (includes socioeconomic, cultural
and biophysical elements) is both a resource and a
constraint to tourism development (Pigram, 1992)
• Tourism development has brought about both positive
and negative impacts
• Relationship between tourism and the environment
can be better examined in terms of nature, scale and
pace of environmental manipulation
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19. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Alternative tourism
• Are some forms of tourism more suitable in certain
settings?
• Realization led to review of alternative tourism and
tourism typologies considered preferable to mass
tourism (Pearce, 1992)
• Alternative tourism involves approaches such as
ecotourism, community based tourism, agrotourism,
responsible tourism etc. considered more sustainable
and ethical (Mowforth and Munt, 2016).
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20. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Alternative tourism approaches to mass tourism
• Economic issues
• Socio-cultural factors
• Relationship to the environment
• Host community participation
• Development of ST strategies that provide more
equitable economic benefits to host destinations
• Ecotourism can be an approach that enables
economic development and environmental protection
whilst protecting wellbeing of local communities.
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21. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Policy and implementation
• Tendency to view tourism as a private sector industry which is
determined by market forces
• Recent attention paid to role of government and public sector if
tourism development is be sustainable and contribute to
poverty alleviation (Harrison, 2008; Scheyvens and Russell,
2012).
• Harrison (2008) argues: for poverty alleviation to be of any
significance it must be supported by state or governments.
• ‘…the impacts of any pro-poor tourism project, even if on a
large scale, are likely to be limited unless a state’s entire
tourism strategy is constructed around poverty alleviation’
(2008, p.71).
• Sustainable pro-poor policies need ‘strong institutions capable
of proactively intervening in market forces and redistributing
financial resources’ (Schilcher, 2007, p.71).
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22. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Summary
• Tourism destinations require sustainable management of
limited resources.
• Chapter discussed tourism resources and sustainability,
approaches to tourism and a number of specific examples
from the Fiji Islands.
• Chapter also examined concepts of sustainable tourism,
pro-poor tourism, and interdependency of tourism and
environment.
• There is a need to maintain a balance between
environmental protection, cultural integrity, social justice and
promotion of economic benefits that meet needs of host
populations.
• Different types of tourism can offer more potential
sustainable solutions using tools for sustainability that can
provide more sustainable resource management.
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23. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
Review questions
1. Conduct an inventory of tourism attractions and resources in your
state or country (see Fig. 19.1).
2. Explain the difference between sustainable tourism and pro-poor
tourism.
3. Outline, with examples, how different types of tourism might be more
sustainable than others.
4. Discuss the initiatives that could be implemented to make mass
tourism more sustainable.
5. Identify the different types of resource management initiatives that can
be used in the following: a National park, the development of a new
resort; a wildlife sanctuary and a heritage town.
6. Having read the case study on Wayalailai, locate two or three tourism
operators in your area. With regards to the management or use of
local resources, identify the extent to which they use/purchase local
resources, what benefits they offer the local community, and whether
they practise pro-poor initiatives (see Table 19.2). Finally, suggest how
you think they could better manage their resources.
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24. C A B I T O U R I S M T E X T S
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