5. SIZE AND SHAPE
smaller body mass → greater force
applied per unit of body area
less fat, less connective tissue, and
closer proximity of multiple organs
high frequency of multiple injuries
seen
head is proportionately larger
higher frequency of blunt brain injuries
6. SKELETON
incompletely calcified, contains
multiple active growth centers, and is
more pliable
internal organ damage is often noted
without overlying bony fracture
rib fractures in children are
uncommon, but pulmonary contusion
is not
7. SKELETON
skull or rib fractures
massive amount of energy
underlying organ injuries, such as traumatic
brain injury and pulmonary contusion, should
be suspected
8. SURFACE AREA
The ratio of a child’s body surface
area to body volume is highest at
birth and diminishes as the child
matures.
thermal energy loss is a significant
stress factor
13. ANATOMY
passive flexion of the cervical spine
caused by the large occiput
plane of the midface be maintained
parallel to the spine board in a
neutral position
Placement of a 1-inch-thick layer of
padding beneath the infant’s (<1
year of age) or toddler’s (1-3 years of
age) entire torso
16. ANATOMY
soft tissues in an infant’s oropharynx
relatively large
visualization of the larynx difficult
A child’s larynx is funnel-shaped,
allowing secretions to accumulate in
the retropharyngeal area.
The larynx and vocal cords are more
cephalad and anterior in the neck.
17. ANATOMY
The vocal cords are frequently more
difficult to visualize when the child’s
head is in the normal, supine,
anatomical position during intubation
than when it is in the neutral position
required for optimal cervical spine
protection.
ETT: depth (cm) = 3 x size
18. MANAGEMENT
Oral Airway
practice of inserting the airway
backward and rotating it 180 degrees
is not recommended
trauma with resultant hemorrhage into soft
tissue structures of the oropharynx
20. MANAGEMENT
Orotracheal Intubation
Nasotracheal intubation should not
be performed
blind passage around a relatively acute angle
in the nasopharynx toward the
anterosuperiorly located glottis, making
intubation by this route difficult
25. BREATHING AND VENTILATION
excessive volume or pressure during
assisted ventilation substantially
increases the potential for iatrogenic
barotrauma
fragile nature of the immature
tracheobronchial tree and alveoli
pediatric bag-mask: <30 kg
28. RECOGNITION OF CIRCULATORY
COMPROMISE
A child’s increased physiologic
reserve allows for maintenance of
systolic blood pressure in the normal
range, even in the presence of shock.
35. DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT AND
CIRCULATING BLOOD VOLUME
EBW = (2 x age) + 10
Shock: bolus of 20 mL/kg
36. VENOUS ACCESS
percutaneous access x 2 attempts
bone marrow needle (18G in infants, 15G in
young children)
femoral venous line
venous cutdown
38. THERMOREGULATION
The high ratio of body surface area to
body mass in children increases heat
exchange with the environment
Increased metabolic rates, thin skin,
and the lack of substantial
subcutaneous tissue
overhead heat lamps, heaters, or
thermal blankets may be necessary
40. Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
Children receiving CPR for >15
minutes prior to arrival in an ED or
with fixed pupils on arrival uniformly
predict nonsurvival.
continued CPR of long duration,
prolonged resuscitative efforts are
typically not beneficial
46. DIAGNOSTIC ADJUNCTS
Focused Assessment Sonography in
Trauma
I/C operative management
not by the amount of intraperitoneal blood
by hemodynamic abnormality and its
response to treatment
47. DIAGNOSTIC ADJUNCTS
Diagnostic Peritoneal Lavage
10 mL/kg (up to 1000 mL)
Only the surgeon who will care for
the child should perform the DPL
because DPL may interfere with subsequent
abdominal examinations or imaging upon
which the decision to operate may in part be
based
48. NONOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT
CT/FAST that is positive for blood
alone does not mandate a laparotomy
in a child who is hemodynamically
normal or who stabilizes rapidly with
fluid resuscitation
51. ASSESSMENT
infant who is not in a coma but who
has bulging fontanelles or suture
diastases should be treated as having
a more severe injury
52. ASSESSMENT
Vomiting and even amnesia do not
necessarily imply increased
intracranial pressure
persistent vomiting or vomiting that
becomes more frequent is a concern
and mandates CT of the head
Impact seizures (seizures that occur
shortly after brain injury) are more
common in children and are usually
self-limited.
56. ANATOMIC DIFFERENCES
Interspinous ligaments and joint
capsules are more flexible.
Vertebral bodies are wedged
anteriorly and tend to slide forward
with flexion.
The facet joints are flat.
The child has a relatively large head
compared with the neck.
57. ANATOMIC DIFFERENCES
the angular momentum is greater,
and the fulcrum exists higher in the
cervical spine, which accounts for
more injuries at the level of the
occiput-C3
58. RADIOLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS
Pseudosubluxation of the cervical
vertebrae
To correct this radiographic anomaly,
place the child’s head in a neutral
position by placing a 1-inch-thick
layer of padding beneath the entire
body from shoulders to hips, but not
the head, and repeat the x-ray.
True subluxation will not disappear
with this maneuver and mandates
further evaluation.
61. BLOOD LOSS
Blood loss associated with long-bone
and pelvic fractures is proportionately
less in children than in adults.
Blood loss related to an isolated closed
femur fracture that is treated
appropriately is associated with an
average fall in hematocrit of 4
percentage points, which is not enough
to cause shock.
Hemodynamic instability in the presence
of an isolated femur fracture should
prompt evaluation for other sources of
blood loss
62. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE
IMMATURE SKELETON
The immature, pliable nature of
bones in children may lead to a so-
called greenstick fracture.
The torus, or “buckle,” fracture, seen
in small children, involves angulation
due to cortical impaction with a
radiolucent fracture line.
64. a history and careful evaluation of
the child in whom maltreatment is
suspected is critically important to
prevent eventual death, especially in
children who are <2 years of age
65. suspect
‒ A discrepancy exists between the history and
the degree of physical injury
‒ A prolonged interval has passed between the
time of the injury and presentation for medical
care.
‒ The history includes repeated trauma, treated
in the same or different EDs.
‒ The history of injury changes or is different
between parents or guardians.
66. suspect
‒ There is a history of hospital or doctor
“shopping.”
‒ Parents respond inappropriately to or do not
comply with medical advice
‒ The mechanism of injury is implausible based
on the child’s developmental stage.
67.
68. findings
‒ Multicolored bruises (bruises in different
stages of healing)
‒ Evidence of frequent previous injuries,
typified by old scars or healed fractures on x-
ray examination
‒ Perioral injuries
‒ Injuries to the genital or perianal area
‒ Fractures of long bones in children <3 years
of age
69. findings
‒ Ruptured internal viscera without antecedent
major blunt trauma
‒ Multiple subdural hematomas, especially
without a fresh skull fracture
‒ Retinal hemorrhages
‒ Bizarre injuries, such as bites, cigarette
burns, or rope marks
70. findings
‒ Sharply demarcated 2nd & 3rd-degree burns
‒ Skull fractures or rib fractures seen in
children <24 months of age
Editor's Notes
pliable: ยืดหยุ่นได้
pliable: ยืดหยุ่นได้
Robust: แข็งแกร่ง
FIGURE 10-1 Resuscitation Tape. A length-based resuscitation tape, such as the Broselow®
Pediatric Emergency Tape, is an ideal adjunct for the rapid determination of weight based on
length for appropriate fluid volumes, drug doses, and equipment size. O ne side of the tape
provides drugs and their recommended doses for the pediatric patient based on weight. The
other side identifies equipment needs for pediatric patients based on length.