2. Geological
field report of
ranikot
Submitted by:
Abdullah Khan
(2k10/glg/05)
Ali Raza Arain
(2k10/glg/11)
Muhammad Sajid Sardar
(2k10/glg/76)
Sajid Ali Malik
(2k10/glg/99)
Tarique Hussain
(2k10/glg/112)

3. Ranikot fort is a historical fort in sindh (Pakistan). Ranikot fort is known as the great
wall of sindh and it is the worlds largest fort with a circumstances of approximately 16 miles
or 26 kilometer. Since 1993, it has been on the tentative list of UNESCO World Heritage
Sites.
Ranikot Fort is situated in the Kirthar Range, about 30 km southwest of Sann,
in Jamshoro District, Sindh Province, Pakistan. It is approximately 105 km north
of Hyderabad.
Ranikot Fort has an approximate diameter of 6 km. Its walls are on the average 6
meters high and are made of gypsum and lime cut sandstone and total circumference is about
20 km. While originally constructed for bow and arrow warfare it was later expanded to
withstand firearms.
It is reputed to be the largest unexplored fort in the world. The purpose of its construction and
the reason for the choice of its location are still unknown.
Ranikot is the most talismanic wonder of Pakistan and Sindh Province. Visible from five
kilometers, its massive undulating walls twist and dip over the hills. With the circumference
of about twenty kilometers, its walls, built with dressed sandstone and reinforced with 45
bastions along the outer wall, of which 7 are rectangular and the remaining are round. All
modified through the ages to accommodate the use of gunpowder, this perhaps makes it the
largest fort in the world.
The original purpose and architects of Ranikot Fort are unknown. Some archaeologists
attribute it to Arabs, or possibly built by a Persian noble under the Abbasids by Imran Bin
MusaBarmaki who was the Governor of Sindh in 836. Others have suggested a much earlier period of
construction attributing to at times the Sassanians Persians and at times to the Greeks. Despite the fact
that a prehistoric site of Amri is nearby, there is no trace of any old city inside the fort and the present
structure has little evidence of prehistoric origins.

4. Archaeologists point to 17th century as its time of first construction but
now Sindh archaeologists agree that some of the present structure was reconstructed by Mir
Karam Ali Khan Talpur and his brother Mir Murad Ali in 1812 at a cost of 1.2 million rupees
(Sindh Gazetteer, 677).
Fort Ranikot is located in Lakki Mountains of the Kirthar Range to the west of the River
Indus at a distance of about 30 kilometers from the present day town of Sann. A mountainous
ridge, Karo Takkar (Black Hill), running north to south, forms its western boundary and the
'Lundi Hills' forms its eastern boundary. Mohan Nai, a rain-stream enters the fort from its
rarely used western 'Mohan Gate', where it is guarded by a small fortification, changes its
name to 'Reni' or 'Rani Nai' or rain-stream and gives the fort its name. Ranikot is thus the 'fort
of a rain stream' - Rani. It runs through it, tumbles in a series of turquoise pools to irrigate
fields and leaves the fort from its most used 'Sann Gate' on the eastern side. It then travels
about 33 kilometers more to enter the Lion River - Indus.
According to a tale told by the local inhabitants, fairies come from far and wide on the Ponam
Nights (full moon) to take bath at this spring near 'Karo Jabal'! Splashing sounds of water
falling on the rocks can be heard at another spring,Waggun jo Tarr or "the Crocodile Spring",
named so as crocodiles once lived there.
Within Ranikot, there are two more fortresses, Meeri and Shergarh, each have five
bastions. Meerikot takes its name from the word 'Mir' meaning top (for instance the top of a
hill, chief of any Baloch tribe, etc.). M.H. Panhwar (a Sindhologist) disagrees upon the
name's history being related to Mirs of Sindh, stating that "Of two forts inside the main Rani
Kot fort, the lower one is called Miri and is a word used in Seistan for small fortress. It has
nothing to do with Mirs of Sindh."[3]
Both the main Ranikot and the inner Meerikot have
similar entrances - curved, angulated with a safe tortuous path. From the military point of
view, Meerikot is located at a very safe and central place in the very heart of the Ranikot with
residential arrangements including a water-well.
Talpur Mirs used Meerikot as their fortified residence. One can explore ruins of the court,
harem, guest rooms, and soldiers quarters inside it. Its 1435 feet long wall has five bastions.
Every structure in the Ranikot has its own uniqueness and beauty. Looking up
from Meerikot one can find another fortified citadel - Shergarh (Abode of Lions) built with
whitish stone, it too has five bastions. Though its location at 1480 feet above the sea level
makes this fortress a unique structure, it also makes it equally difficult for supply of water,
which can only be had from the brooks and rain streams, hundreds of feet below.The steep
climb up to Shergarh gives a commanding view down over the whole fort and its entrance
and exit points. On a clear day one can even see Indus River, 37 kilometers away to the east.
A mosque found in the fort appears to be a later modification of a watchtower or a later
construction.
Scattered animal skeletons and prehistoric fossils can be found on the top of Lundi Hills. One
of the three graveyards has about four hundred graves made of Chowkundi like sandstone
with engraved motifs of sunflowers and peacocks. Whether we can call them
as theriomorphic and phytomorphic motifs is an open question. Another one appears to be a
graveyard of Arabs.

5. The Ranikot area is located 93 kilometres far away from district jamshoro and 30 km
west to Sann. To access for that area we hired our university points and started our journey at
10:00 A.m from university’s main campus.
we are going towards the Ranikot, we took the security guards from Sann police
station and it has several security hazards.
The general geology of the ranikot area is very spectacular geology and gigantic
exposures of rocks. The ranikot group has been proposed for the ranikot series of Blanford
(1876). The type section is beautifully exposed along the bara nala, west of Amri (latitude 26o
30’N, longitude 67o
35’E). The group is badly faulted at ranikot.
The thickness of khadro formation is 42 meters, the thickness of Bara formation is
approximately 319 meters, the thickness of Laki formation is Approximately 60 meters and
this data was observed by our surveing group.
Stratigraphically the Ranikot group is of Palaeocene age. The Ranikot group is mainly composed
of these formation in which one is missing:
Khadro Formation (oldest formation),
Bara formation,
Lakhra formation, (missing) and
Laki formation. (youngest formation)
The Ranikot group is consist of variegated sandstone, shale, limestone, volcanic basalt
intrusion, veins of gypsum and some contents of coal & presence of fossils. It has been
revealed by drilling that the maximum thickness of Ranikot group (3,300 ft.) is at sann
back well east of thano bulla khan. It is interesting to note that the ranikot group is totally

6. absent at Mari north east of Rohri probably due to uplifting. The lower contact of khadro
formation is not visible while the upper contact of khadro formation is visible, the upper
contact of khadro formation and lower formation of Bara formation is composed of
calcerous material. Here the Lakhra formation is missing due to several geological
reasons thats why the contact between Bara and Laki formation is easily seen by our
recognises.
The strike of ranikot area was in the direction of the N-S. The dip amount of western
flank of ranikot anticline is 25o
SE, and dip amount of eastern flank of ranikot anticline is 40 o
NE. In the laki formation the orientation of beds is overturned and abnormal fault is present.
The ranikot group is comprised of various geological structures. As the sedimentary
structures are classified into two groups:
Primary Sedimentary Structures, and
Secondary Sedimentary structures.
Primary sedimentary structures: in the ranikot area, we observed different types of primary
sedimentary structures. E.g., Bedding (cross bedding, graded bedding). When we were in the
core of ranikot anticline (asymmetrical fold) we found cross bedding in the sandstone and
also observed lamination in khadro formation.
Secondary sedimentary structures: the ranikot area is structurally folded,faulted and having
few joints and fractures. When we were in the Bara formation we observed few small scale
normal faults, thrust fault. After that we are moves towards the laki formation. In laki
formation, we have saw the tight fold and recumbent fold.
The ranikot group is of Palaeocene age. The type section of ranikot is Bara nala and type
locality is ranikot fort. As we have talk about the all formation of ranikot group now. We
have discussing about the further information about all of these:
Khadro Formation (oldest formation),
Bara formation,
Lakhra formation, (missing) and
Laki formation (youngest formation).
The Bara formation of ranikot group (lower Indus basin) is correlated with Hangu formation
of Palaeocene age of Kohat potwar range( upper Indus basin).

7. The term khadro was proposed by William in (1959). The type section is taken from
khadro nala west of amri, Dadu district.
This formation consider as oldest rock formation of Palaeocene age in Sindh. The khadro
formation is late Palaeocene age, the lower contact of khadro formation is un comfortable and
the upper part of contact is comfortable and it is the also lower contact of Bara formation.
The khadro formation is lies in the core of ranikot anticline and Bara nala is cutting it. The
lithology of khadro formation is consist of sandstone of black colour, shale of multiple
colours, carbonaceous shale of brown colour, volcanic intrusion of basalt of brown and green
colour. In the sandstone of khadro formation, the cross bedding was prominent which
indicates the flow of water direction.
it is exposed above the khadro formation. The lower contact of Bara formation is the
upper contact of khadro formation is clearly seemed. The upper contact of Bara formation is
lower formation of Laki formation. Bara formation is of late Palaeocene age.
In the Bara formation the sandstone was dominant. Here the sandstone was of multiple
colours(purple, yellow patches). There is massive bedding in Bara formation of sandstone.
The pinkish colour (weathered colour) of sandstone indicates that it may be due to oxidation.
In the upper part of Bara formation the mudstone was present in which gypsum was seen.
Gypsyferous shale (medium to dark gray, reddish brown) was also present in Bara formation.
At the top of Bara formation of Shale was dominant and 2-3 cm thick lamination of gypsum
was present at the top of Bara formation. The sulphur content was also found in the Bara
formation. The oxidized zone was seen in Bara formation which starts from pink colour
sandstone imbedded with yellow colour shale. The fossil ooster which is related from the
phylum molluska was present which indicates the near shore deposition environment.
Dipping value of rocks beds in Bara formation was about 50o
to 600
SE. The normal fault and
cross stratification is also seen in Bara formation during sampling.
Lakhra formation is missing in ranikot group.

8. The term Laki formation was proposed by Hunting survey in 1960 for the basal part
of kirtahr group of Blenford and for laki series of noetling. The blenford area in Rehman
Dharo, Amri is proposed in laki range as a type section.
The rocks of laki formation generally composed of soft chalky to nodular and well compacted
limestone with some calcareous shale, sandstone, and laterite clay of local importance. A
local fault was present in laki formation. The recumbent and tight fold was also present or
seen by us in western flank of ranikot anticline in the laki formation.
There are three methods which are used for the section measurement. These are:
Jacob stuff method,
Tape and brunton method and,
Direct or true method
In our field work, we measure sections through tape and brunton method.
The economic geology of the rocks of ranikot group includes the economic
significance of minerals and rocks present in the different formation of ranikot group. The
following are the most dominant rocks and minerals which have economically used:
Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock that forms from the compaction of silt and
clay-size mineral particles that we commonly call "mud". This composition places shale in a
category of sedimentary rocks known as "mudstones". Shale is distinguished from other
mudstones because it is fissile and laminated. "Laminated" means that the rock is made up of
many thin layers."Fissile" means that the rock readily splits into thin pieces along the

9. laminations.
Some shales have special properties that make them important resources. Black shales
contain organic material that sometimes breaks down to form natural gas or oil. Other shales
can be crushed and mixed with water to produce clays that can be made into a variety of
useful objects.
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock made up mainly of sand-size (1/16 to 2
millimeter diameter) weathering debris. Environments where large amounts of sand can
accumulate include beaches, deserts, flood plains and deltas.

10. Shale have been used for domestic construction and housewares since prehistoric times, and
continues to be used.
Sandstone was a popular building material from ancient times. It is relatively soft, making it
easy to carve. It has been widely used around the world in constructing temples, cathedrals,
homes, and other buildings. It has also been used for artistic purposes to create ornamental
fountains and statues.
Some sandstones are resistant to weathering, yet are easy to work. This makes sandstone a
common building and paving material.
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calciteand aragonite,
which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate(CaCO3). Many limestones are composed from
skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera.
Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks.
The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads tokarst landscapes, in

11. which water erodes the limestone over thousands to millions of years. Most cave systems are
through limestone bedrock.
Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America.
Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated complex in
Giza, Egypt, are made of limestone. So many buildings inKingston, Ontario, Canada were
constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.
It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide),slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide), cement and mortar.
Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils.
It is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads.
Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs;
As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution
control.
Glass making, in some circumstances, uses limestone.
It is added to toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white
pigment and a cheap filler.
It can suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.
Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.

12. Calcium levels in livestock feed are supplemented with it, such as for poultry (when
ground up).
It can be used for demineralising and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to
prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.
Used in blast furnaces, limestone extracts iron from its ore.
It is often found in medicines and cosmetics.
It is used in sculptures because of its suitability for carving.
Gypsum is a very soft sulphate mineral composed of calcium sulfatedihydrate, with
the chemical formula CaSO4·2H2O.[3]
It can be used as a fertilizer, is the main constituent in
many forms of plaster and is widely mined. As a mineral, it is alabaster, which has been used
for sculpture by many cultures including Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Nottingham
alabasters of medieval England. It is the definition of a hardness of 2 on the Mohs scale of
mineral hardness. It forms as an evaporite mineral and as a hydration product of anhydrite.
Gypsum is used in a wide variety of applications:

13. Gypsum board is primarily used as a finish for walls and ceilings, and is known in
construction as drywall or plasterboard.
Plaster ingredient (surgical splints, casting moulds, modelling).
Fertilizer and soil conditioner: In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Nova Scotia
gypsum, often referred to as plaster, was a highly sought fertilizer for wheat fields in
the United States. It is also used in ameliorating high sodium soils.
A binder in fast-dry tennis court clay.
As alabaster, a material for sculpture, especially in the ancient world before steel was
developed, when its relative softness made it much easier to carve than stone with
available tools.
A wood substitute in the ancient world: For example, when wood became scarce due
to deforestation on Age Crete, gypsum was employed in building construction at
locations where wood was previously used.
A tofu (soy bean curd) coagulant, making it ultimately a major source of
dietary calcium, especially in Asian cultures which traditionally use few dairy
products.
Adding hardness to water used for home brewing.
A component of Portland cement used to prevent flash setting of concrete.
Soil/water potential monitoring (soil moisture tension).
A common ingredient in making mead.
In the medieval period, it was mixed, by scribes and illuminators, with lead carbonate
(powdered white lead) to make gesso, which was applied to illuminated letters and
gilded with gold in illuminated manuscripts.
In foot creams, shampoos and many other hair products.
A medicinal agent in traditional Chinese medicine called shi gao.
Impression plasters in dentistry.
Calcite is a carbonate mineral and the most stable polymorph of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The other polymorphs are the minerals aragonite andvaterite. Aragonite
will change to calcite at 380-470°C, and venerate is even less stable.

14. High-grade optical calcite was used in World War II for gun sights, specifically in
bomb sights and anti-aircraft weaponry. Also, experiments have been conducted to use calcite
for a cloak of invisibility.
Ranikot fort is a historical fort in sindh (Pakistan). Ranikot fort is known as the great wall
of sindh and it is the worlds largest fort with a circumstances of approximately 16 miles or 26
kilometre.
The stratigraphy of ranikot group is of Palaeocene age according to geological time
scale, it is divided into following formations:
 Khadro formation (oldest)
 Bara formation
 Lakhra formation (missing)
 Laki formation (of Eocene age & the youngest formation).

15. petrology of area have limestone, sandstone, shae, mudstone,
some fossils are also present from phylum molluska.
The area consist of both, the primary and secondary structures. Primarr are the
lamination,cross bedding, ripple marks and mud cracks.
Secondary structures are a huge fold which is assymetrical, a tight fold and a normal
fault in bara formation.
We also take the measurement of section by using of tape and brunton method.
Finally the economically minerals and rocks mostly of them is the limestone which is
used in various parts of life.
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://geology.com/rocks/