From here to there for first gen overcoming

“Getting from Here to There”- Overcoming
Obstacles to Access for First Generation
and Underrepresented College students.
Dr. Fay M. Butler
Director of Student Engagement
LaGuardia Community College/CUNY

This workshop will be presented in five parts
I. First Generation and Underrepresented College
Students: Who are they? Highlights
II. The Importance of College Access
III. The structure of College Access using College Choice
Models
IV. Obstacles to Access for First Generation and
Underrepresented Students
V. Conclusion – Some solutions to access issues, open
discussion
This workshop will be presented in five parts
I. First Generation and Underrepresented College
Students: Who are they? Highlights
II. The Importance of College Access
III. The structure of College Access using College Choice
Models
IV. Obstacles to Access for First Generation and
Underrepresented Students
V. Conclusion – Some solutions to access issues, open
discussion

Theoretical Models used in support of this
presentation are:
• Hossler’s and Gallagher’s (1987) college choice
model (College Choice
Theory);
• Freemans model of college predetermination
• Cabrera and LaNasa three task process
• Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1990) theory of cultural
capital;
• Ogbu’s (1992 ) theory of the role of community
forces (Status Attainment Theory);
Theoretical Models used in support of this
presentation are:
• Hossler’s and Gallagher’s (1987) college choice
model (College Choice
Theory);
• Freemans model of college predetermination
• Cabrera and LaNasa three task process
• Bourdieu and Passeron’s (1990) theory of cultural
capital;
• Ogbu’s (1992 ) theory of the role of community
forces (Status Attainment Theory);

Important Definitions for this session
Cultural and Social Capital
In simplest terms, the concepts of cultural and social
capital mean assets, in the form of behaviors, on which
individuals and/or families can draw to meet a certain set
of established values in a society.
Important Definitions for this session
Cultural and Social Capital
In simplest terms, the concepts of cultural and social
capital mean assets, in the form of behaviors, on which
individuals and/or families can draw to meet a certain set
of established values in a society.

First Generation
First Generation students
are defined as “those whose
parents have different levels of
education, the maximum
education level of either parent
determines how the student is
categorized”(NCES, 1998).
Underrepresented
For this workshop, historically
underrepresented groups in
education will be defined as
Black and Hispanic.
First Generation students
are defined as “those whose
parents have different levels of
education, the maximum
education level of either parent
determines how the student is
categorized”(NCES, 1998).
For this workshop, historically
underrepresented groups in
education will be defined as
Black and Hispanic.

First Generation
The proportion of first-generation
students within the overall
population of first-time, full-time
entering college freshman at four-
year institutions has steadily declined
since 1971, reflecting increasing
levels of education among the U.S.
population (HERI, 2007).
Underrepresented
• Differences between racial/ethnic
groups are cause for concern.
Specifically, since 1975, African
Americans show the greatest decline
in their representation of first-
generation college students—a
declining rate that is of concern
because it is faster than the relative
proportion of African American adults
without a college education as well as
the decline of first-generation students
in other racial/ethnic groups. Hispanics
remain the least educated group (69.1
percent of Hispanic adults lacked a
college education in 2005) and have
the highest proportion of first-
generation college students.
The proportion of first-generation
students within the overall
population of first-time, full-time
entering college freshman at four-
year institutions has steadily declined
since 1971, reflecting increasing
levels of education among the U.S.
population (HERI, 2007).
• Differences between racial/ethnic
groups are cause for concern.
Specifically, since 1975, African
Americans show the greatest decline
in their representation of first-
generation college students—a
declining rate that is of concern
because it is faster than the relative
proportion of African American adults
without a college education as well as
the decline of first-generation students
in other racial/ethnic groups. Hispanics
remain the least educated group (69.1
percent of Hispanic adults lacked a
college education in 2005) and have
the highest proportion of first-
generation college students.

II. Why Is College Access Important?
• In 2004, noted researcher Dr. Patricia McDonough wrote about
the challenges and prospects for the school to college transition
especially for underrepresented students. This is also true for First
Generation students
• The great increase in the importance of college has coincided
with a huge increase in the percentage of U.S. students who come
from historically excluded minority groups, which never had equal
access to college and were concentrated in weak high schools,
usually segregated by both race and poverty (Orfield, 2005).
• In 2004, noted researcher Dr. Patricia McDonough wrote about
the challenges and prospects for the school to college transition
especially for underrepresented students. This is also true for First
Generation students
• The great increase in the importance of college has coincided
with a huge increase in the percentage of U.S. students who come
from historically excluded minority groups, which never had equal
access to college and were concentrated in weak high schools,
usually segregated by both race and poverty (Orfield, 2005).

• Access to higher education has taken on crucial importance in debating
about social mobility and equality because there is clear evidence that a
college education is associated with significant economic and non
economic benefits (Karen & Dougherty, 2005).
• Economic benefits of higher education include higher pay and employment
stability.
• Plain and simple education pays: A college education is associated with
better access to employment and high earning. (Education Commission of
the States, 2003).
• Access to higher education has taken on crucial importance in debating
about social mobility and equality because there is clear evidence that a
college education is associated with significant economic and non
economic benefits (Karen & Dougherty, 2005).
• Economic benefits of higher education include higher pay and employment
stability.
• Plain and simple education pays: A college education is associated with
better access to employment and high earning. (Education Commission of
the States, 2003).

For First Generation Students
• Research indicates that students whose parents did not attend college are
more likely than their non first-generation counterparts to be less
academically prepared for college, to have less knowledge of how to
apply for college and for financial assistance, and to have more difficulty
in acclimating themselves to college once they enroll. They are also more
at risk for not completing a degree because they are more likely to delay
enrollment after high school, to enroll in postsecondary education part time,
and to work full-time while enrolled. (First Generation College Student, 2004)
For First Generation Students
• Research indicates that students whose parents did not attend college are
more likely than their non first-generation counterparts to be less
academically prepared for college, to have less knowledge of how to
apply for college and for financial assistance, and to have more difficulty
in acclimating themselves to college once they enroll. They are also more
at risk for not completing a degree because they are more likely to delay
enrollment after high school, to enroll in postsecondary education part time,
and to work full-time while enrolled. (First Generation College Student, 2004)

For Underrepresented Students
• Transition from high school to college is particularly difficult for
historically underrepresented urban students who are not academically
talented (Butler, 2005).
• Black and Hispanic students are not obtaining postsecondary education
degrees at the same rate as their White, non-Latino counterparts nor
are they graduating from high school with the same level of academic
skills (NCES, 2001a.)
For Underrepresented Students
• Transition from high school to college is particularly difficult for
historically underrepresented urban students who are not academically
talented (Butler, 2005).
• Black and Hispanic students are not obtaining postsecondary education
degrees at the same rate as their White, non-Latino counterparts nor
are they graduating from high school with the same level of academic
skills (NCES, 2001a.)

Summary
Access to Higher Education is important
• Better Educated Citizens
• Significant economic and non economic benefits
• Social mobility
Summary
Access to Higher Education is important
• Better Educated Citizens
• Significant economic and non economic benefits
• Social mobility

III. Structure of College Access: Models of College Choice
How do Students get to college?
• Students aspire to, apply to and then enroll in college through a
complex, longitudinal, interactive process involving individual
aspiration and achievement, learning opportunities and intervention
programs in high school and institutional admissions (McDonough,
2004).
• What is college choice ? How do students make decisions to
participate or not to participate in Higher Education?
How do Students get to college?
• Students aspire to, apply to and then enroll in college through a
complex, longitudinal, interactive process involving individual
aspiration and achievement, learning opportunities and intervention
programs in high school and institutional admissions (McDonough,
2004).
• What is college choice ? How do students make decisions to
participate or not to participate in Higher Education?

• Models of student college choice have been developed to
demonstrate how traditional- age students go about realizing their
educational aspirations (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999).
• Hossler and Gallagher (1987) created a three-stage model of
college choice: predisposition, search, and choice.
• Models of student college choice have been developed to
demonstrate how traditional- age students go about realizing their
educational aspirations (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999).
• Hossler and Gallagher (1987) created a three-stage model of
college choice: predisposition, search, and choice.

III. Models of College Choice: Traditional College Choice Theory
• Predisposition refers to the plans students develop for education or work
after they graduate from high school (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999). In
this stage, a students’ family background, academic achievements, and
peers influence the development of post-high school plans. In this stage,
Hossler et al. found that most high school students formalize their
educational plans between eighth and tenth grade.
• The search stage includes students’ discovering and evaluating possible
colleges in which to enroll. In their study on going to college, Hossler et al.
(1999) discovered that during the search stage of college choice, students’
educational aspirations tended to remain steady or increased during
sophomore and junior years.
• In the choice stage students choose a school from among those they have
considered.
III. Models of College Choice: Traditional College Choice Theory
• Predisposition refers to the plans students develop for education or work
after they graduate from high school (Hossler, Schmit, & Vesper, 1999). In
this stage, a students’ family background, academic achievements, and
peers influence the development of post-high school plans. In this stage,
Hossler et al. found that most high school students formalize their
educational plans between eighth and tenth grade.
• The search stage includes students’ discovering and evaluating possible
colleges in which to enroll. In their study on going to college, Hossler et al.
(1999) discovered that during the search stage of college choice, students’
educational aspirations tended to remain steady or increased during
sophomore and junior years.
• In the choice stage students choose a school from among those they have
considered.

III. Models of College Choice: Alternate Model
• Dr. Kassie Freeman’s alternate model of college choice called the model of
predetermination focuses primarily on the decision making process of
underrepresented groups
• Freeman created her model based on the following questions:
a) Are the influences that determine the choice to go to college the same
for different cultural groups?
b) At what age does the process to choose higher education begin?
c) What role does economics and secondary school play in the process
for underrepresented groups?
• Dr. Kassie Freeman’s alternate model of college choice called the model of
predetermination focuses primarily on the decision making process of
underrepresented groups
• Freeman created her model based on the following questions:
a) Are the influences that determine the choice to go to college the same
for different cultural groups?
b) At what age does the process to choose higher education begin?
c) What role does economics and secondary school play in the process
for underrepresented groups?

• Her model is meant to address the culturally diverse perspectives not
captured by Hossler and others (Smith, 2008).
• Freeman also presents a dynamic model where multiple, intersecting
influences such as school context, economic, outlook, gender and
psychological make up of the individual (knowers, seekers and dreamers)
result in either college attendance or the exploration of other
postsecondary options.
• In contrast to Hossler and Gallagher’s discrete three stage model,
Freemans model instead describes a fluid process that begins with
kinship/family influences that intersect with school characteristics to create
student cultural characteristics that shape college predetermination
• Her model is meant to address the culturally diverse perspectives not
captured by Hossler and others (Smith, 2008).
• Freeman also presents a dynamic model where multiple, intersecting
influences such as school context, economic, outlook, gender and
psychological make up of the individual (knowers, seekers and dreamers)
result in either college attendance or the exploration of other
postsecondary options.
• In contrast to Hossler and Gallagher’s discrete three stage model,
Freemans model instead describes a fluid process that begins with
kinship/family influences that intersect with school characteristics to create
student cultural characteristics that shape college predetermination

III. Structure of College Access
Models of College Choice
Summary
• Hossler and Gallagher’s traditional three stage model
• Freeman’s Fluid model of predetermination
III. Structure of College Access
Models of College Choice
Summary
• Hossler and Gallagher’s traditional three stage model
• Freeman’s Fluid model of predetermination

IV. Obstacles to and Inequalities of Access for
Underrepresented and First Generation students
What obstacles do students face as they progress through
the stages of college choice models
• Unequal educational expectations
• Unequal academic qualifications
• Inequalities of information in the College Search Process
• Inadequate Financial Assistance
• There will be a review of each
the stages of college choice models
• Unequal educational expectations
• Unequal academic qualifications
• Inequalities of information in the College Search Process
• Inadequate Financial Assistance
• There will be a review of each

Highlights
Socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity are
considered causal or background variables because of
how they affect educational expectations, aspirations,
and information resources for students about college.
The effects of these background variables are direct
(Butler, 2005).
Highlights
Socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity are
considered causal or background variables because of
how they affect educational expectations, aspirations,
and information resources for students about college.
The effects of these background variables are direct
(Butler, 2005).

Highlights
• These inequalities are summarized best by reviewing Cabera and
La Nasa three critical tasks underrepresented /low income/first
generation students must complete
• Using college choice theory and the framework of the three stages,
Cabrera and La Nasa (2001) identified three tasks that
underrepresented and underserved students must overcome if they
are to gain access to postsecondary education
• The three tasks are:
a) Acquiring college qualifications
b) Graduating from high school
c) Applying to college
Highlights
• These inequalities are summarized best by reviewing Cabera and
La Nasa three critical tasks underrepresented /low income/first
generation students must complete
• Using college choice theory and the framework of the three stages,
Cabrera and La Nasa (2001) identified three tasks that
underrepresented and underserved students must overcome if they
are to gain access to postsecondary education
• The three tasks are:
a) Acquiring college qualifications
b) Graduating from high school
c) Applying to college

What obstacles do students face as they progress through the stages of
college choice models?
Unequal educational expectations
• Educational aspirations and plans are important predictors
of college enrollment (Perna, 2000b)
• Parental encouragement is a pivotal force in the emergence
of occupational and educational aspirations
• Parental involvement or the lack thereof is an obstacle to access
• Family/kinship involvement for lack thereof is an obstacle to access
What obstacles do students face as they progress through the stages of
college choice models?
• Educational aspirations and plans are important predictors
of college enrollment (Perna, 2000b)
• Parental encouragement is a pivotal force in the emergence
of occupational and educational aspirations
• Parental involvement or the lack thereof is an obstacle to access
• Family/kinship involvement for lack thereof is an obstacle to access

Obstacles to and Inequalities of Access for
the stages of college choice models?
• The amount of support and encouragement that parents
give to their children influences both their decision to enroll
in postsecondary education and their actual postsecondary
enrollment behavior. (Perna,2000a)
• The amount of support and encouragement that parents
give to their children influences both their decision to enroll
in postsecondary education and their actual postsecondary
enrollment behavior. (Perna,2000a)

First Generation
Unequal Education Expectations
•First-generation students are likely to enter college
with less academic preparation, and to have limited
access to information about the college experience,
either first hand or from relatives (Thayer, 2000)
•Despite the assertion that first-generation
students are at a disadvantage due to their
parents’ lack of knowledge about formal
educational systems and higher education, our
CIRP Freshman Survey trends show that both
first-generation and non-first generation students
placed similar importance on parental
encouragement for college. An increasing
proportion of students over the last couple of
decades have reported that a very important reason
why they went to college was because their parents
wanted them to go.
Underrepresented
• Educational expectations are also
affected by High school counselors,
teachers, and peers (Perna, 20001).
• Within the educational system
students face challenges based on
educator beliefs (Butler, 2005).
• Support or lack thereof from
counselors and teachers may shape
students’ actual postsecondary
education decisions
•First-generation students are likely to enter college
with less academic preparation, and to have limited
access to information about the college experience,
either first hand or from relatives (Thayer, 2000)
•Despite the assertion that first-generation
students are at a disadvantage due to their
parents’ lack of knowledge about formal
educational systems and higher education, our
CIRP Freshman Survey trends show that both
first-generation and non-first generation students
placed similar importance on parental
encouragement for college. An increasing
proportion of students over the last couple of
decades have reported that a very important reason
why they went to college was because their parents
wanted them to go.
• Educational expectations are also
affected by High school counselors,
teachers, and peers (Perna, 20001).
• Within the educational system
students face challenges based on
educator beliefs (Butler, 2005).
• Support or lack thereof from
counselors and teachers may shape
students’ actual postsecondary
education decisions

First Generation
Underrepresented
•First-generation students are often placed
in vocational, technical, and/or remedial
programs which impede their progress
toward transferring to a four-year program,
and receive poor counseling (Striplin,
1999).
•Academic preparation of Hispanics is
lacking: on average, Hispanic students
score lower on standardized college-
admission tests, and require more
remedial English and mathematics
compared to white students (Schmidt,
2003).
Martinez and Klopott (2003) report that
research in the relationship between
teachers’ expectations and student
performance indicate that teacher’s
judgments and expectations of students’
ability clearly influences students .
“Underrepresented students are provided
less encouragement by teachers who
may harbor doubts about their abilities and
thereby contribute to a self-fulfilling
prophecy of underachievement.”
•First-generation students are often placed
in vocational, technical, and/or remedial
programs which impede their progress
toward transferring to a four-year program,
and receive poor counseling (Striplin,
1999).
•Academic preparation of Hispanics is
lacking: on average, Hispanic students
score lower on standardized college-
admission tests, and require more
remedial English and mathematics
compared to white students (Schmidt,
2003).
Martinez and Klopott (2003) report that
research in the relationship between
teachers’ expectations and student
performance indicate that teacher’s
judgments and expectations of students’
ability clearly influences students .
“Underrepresented students are provided
less encouragement by teachers who
may harbor doubts about their abilities and
thereby contribute to a self-fulfilling
prophecy of underachievement.”

Unequal academic qualifications
• Poor academic preparation is another obstacle for many students.
• Students who secure college qualifications while in high school have
a higher chance of enrolling in college than those who do not
• Poor academic preparation is another obstacle for many students.
• Students who secure college qualifications while in high school have
a higher chance of enrolling in college than those who do not

First Generation Underrepresented
Academic preparation for college varies by
parents’ education: 49 percent of 1992
high school graduates whose parents
never attended college were only
marginally qualified or were not qualified to
attend college when they finished high
school, compared to 33 percent of
students whose parents had some college
education and 15 percent of those who
had at least one parent with a bachelor’s
degree (Choy, 2001).
•Black and Hispanic high school graduates are
less likely to be well-prepared academically to
attend a four- year college (NCES, 1997a)
•Underrepresented students are more likely to
attend crowded, inner-city public schools, where
the quality of counseling is poor and students are
neither adequately informed of their
postsecondary options nor helped to achieve
their goals (NCES, 2001b).
•Venezia, Kirst and Antonio (2002) found that
“underrepresented students are especially likely
to be hampered by insufficient access to college
preparatory courses, and a lack of early and high
quality college counseling” (p.8).
Academic preparation for college varies by
parents’ education: 49 percent of 1992
high school graduates whose parents
never attended college were only
marginally qualified or were not qualified to
attend college when they finished high
school, compared to 33 percent of
students whose parents had some college
education and 15 percent of those who
had at least one parent with a bachelor’s
degree (Choy, 2001).
•Black and Hispanic high school graduates are
less likely to be well-prepared academically to
attend a four- year college (NCES, 1997a)
•Underrepresented students are more likely to
attend crowded, inner-city public schools, where
the quality of counseling is poor and students are
neither adequately informed of their
postsecondary options nor helped to achieve
their goals (NCES, 2001b).
•Venezia, Kirst and Antonio (2002) found that
“underrepresented students are especially likely
to be hampered by insufficient access to college
preparatory courses, and a lack of early and high
quality college counseling” (p.8).

Inequalities of information in the College Search Process
• Research shows that students are particularly less likely to enroll in college
when their parents lack accurate information and knowledge about college
(Perna, 2000a).
• “Parental education also conditions the extent to which parents are
knowledgeable about college qualification criteria and financial strategies to
pay for college” (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001, p 125).
• An informed public must understand the realities of college prices, financial
aid and the range of postsecondary options (Price, 2002).
Inequalities of information in the College Search Process
• Research shows that students are particularly less likely to enroll in college
when their parents lack accurate information and knowledge about college
(Perna, 2000a).
• “Parental education also conditions the extent to which parents are
knowledgeable about college qualification criteria and financial strategies to
pay for college” (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2001, p 125).
• An informed public must understand the realities of college prices, financial
aid and the range of postsecondary options (Price, 2002).

First Generation Underrepresented
Lack of College Knowledge
•Low-income, minority, and first-generation students are
especially likely to lack specific types of “college
knowledge.” They often do not understand the steps
necessary to prepare for higher education which include
knowing about how to finance a college education, to
complete basic admissions procedures, and to make
connections between career goals and educational
requirements (Vargas, 2004).
•Students whose parents had not attended college
received less help from their parents
in applying to college, and were not more likely to receive
help from their schools. (Choy, 2001)
•Low income, African American, and Latino families are
less informed about financial aid: they tend to
overestimate the cost of tuition and underestimate
available aid (A shared Agenda, 2004).
•Access to information about college varies by
class more than by race (NCES, 1998; Terenzini
et. al, 2001).
•For three decades, socioeconomic factors have
also impacted students’ access to information
about college (Terenzini et al.).
•Lowest SES students had few information
sources that upper-level students and also
relied on high school counselors as the single-
most likely source of information about college
(Cabrera & LaNasa, 2001)
•Many families misunderstand the costs
associated with attending postsecondary
education and many students are unsure about
application requirements and financial aid
options (LUMINA Foundation, 2003).
•Low-income, minority, and first-generation students are
especially likely to lack specific types of “college
knowledge.” They often do not understand the steps
necessary to prepare for higher education which include
knowing about how to finance a college education, to
complete basic admissions procedures, and to make
connections between career goals and educational
requirements (Vargas, 2004).
•Students whose parents had not attended college
received less help from their parents
in applying to college, and were not more likely to receive
help from their schools. (Choy, 2001)
•Low income, African American, and Latino families are
less informed about financial aid: they tend to
overestimate the cost of tuition and underestimate
available aid (A shared Agenda, 2004).
•Access to information about college varies by
class more than by race (NCES, 1998; Terenzini
et. al, 2001).
•For three decades, socioeconomic factors have
also impacted students’ access to information
about college (Terenzini et al.).
•Lowest SES students had few information
sources that upper-level students and also
relied on high school counselors as the single-
most likely source of information about college
(Cabrera & LaNasa, 2001)
•Many families misunderstand the costs
associated with attending postsecondary
education and many students are unsure about
application requirements and financial aid
options (LUMINA Foundation, 2003).

Inadequate financial assistance
• Another obstacle to access is inadequate financial
assistance. Who pays for college and what is affordable
are specific concerns of underrepresented students
Inadequate financial assistance
• Another obstacle to access is inadequate financial
assistance. Who pays for college and what is affordable
are specific concerns of underrepresented students

First Generation
• Black and Hispanic students and their parents
are more likely to be concerned about
affordability than their Asian or White
counterparts (NCES, 1997a). Freeman (1997)
reported that for African American students, “The
issue of lack of money to attend college was also
a concern expressed by students across cities
and school types” (p.536).
Underrepresented
Inadequate Financial AssistanceInadequate Financial Assistance
An Advisory Committee on Student
Financial Assistance estimated that four
million college qualified students from
low and moderate income families would
be denied access to four year colleges in
the first decade of the 21st century
because remaining costs of college after
loans and grants would be higher than
the students could afford (St. John,
Musoba, Simmons & Chung, 2002).
• Black and Hispanic students and their parents
are more likely to be concerned about
affordability than their Asian or White
counterparts (NCES, 1997a). Freeman (1997)
reported that for African American students, “The
issue of lack of money to attend college was also
a concern expressed by students across cities
and school types” (p.536).
Inadequate Financial Assistance
An Advisory Committee on Student
Financial Assistance estimated that four
million college qualified students from
low and moderate income families would
be denied access to four year colleges in
the first decade of the 21st century
because remaining costs of college after
loans and grants would be higher than
the students could afford (St. John,
Musoba, Simmons & Chung, 2002).

Summary
• In summary, SES, race and ethnicity, academic
preparation, educational expectations, the lack of
information about college and the amount of financial
assistance available affect the postsecondary
attendance plans of underrepresented students.
Summary
• In summary, SES, race and ethnicity, academic
preparation, educational expectations, the lack of
information about college and the amount of financial
assistance available affect the postsecondary
attendance plans of underrepresented students.

Conclusion
Solutions to Access
• Thus far, this workshop has suggested that certain groups like low-income
students and underrepresented students have difficulty completing high
school and going to college.
• However, in reviewing the literature many solutions emerged to improve
access to higher education, especially for underrepresented groups.
Conclusion
Solutions to Access
• Thus far, this workshop has suggested that certain groups like low-income
students and underrepresented students have difficulty completing high
school and going to college.
• However, in reviewing the literature many solutions emerged to improve
access to higher education, especially for underrepresented groups.

Conclusion
Solutions to Access
THIS IS NOT A CONCLUSIVE LIST!!!!!!
• There are many solutions to improve access for Underrepresented
and First Generation students
Some Suggestions
• Increase Educational Expectations, Improve Academic Preparation,
Improve College Knowledge ,Improve Social Supports, Increase Financial
Assistance
• Early Intervention Programs (I have A Dream, GEAR UP.etc)
• High School Dual Enrollment Programs (College Now, Running Start,)
• Personal Commitment
Conclusion
Solutions to Access
THIS IS NOT A CONCLUSIVE LIST!!!!!!
• There are many solutions to improve access for Underrepresented
and First Generation students
Some Suggestions
• Increase Educational Expectations, Improve Academic Preparation,
Improve College Knowledge ,Improve Social Supports, Increase Financial
Assistance
• Early Intervention Programs (I have A Dream, GEAR UP.etc)
• High School Dual Enrollment Programs (College Now, Running Start,)
• Personal Commitment

References
• Cabrera, A.F & La Nasa, S.M. (2001). On the path to college: Three critical
tasks facing America’s disadvantaged. Research in Higher Education, 42
(2) 119-148.
• Cabrera, A.F., Prabhu, R., Deil-Amen, R., Terenzini, P.T., Lee, C. & Franklin,
R.E. (Eds.). (2003). Paper presented at the 2003 ASHE meeting:
Increasing the college preparedness of at-risk students, Portland, Or.
• Cabrera, A.F.,Burkum, K.R. & La Nasa, S.M. (2003). Pathways to a four
year degree: Determinants of transfer & degree completion among
socioeconomically disadvantaged students. In A. Seidman (Ed.) College
student retention: A formula for student success. (pp.161). ACE/Praeger
series on Higher Education.
References
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Options:dual/concurrent enrollment.
• Freeman, K. (1997). Increasing African Americans participation in higher
education. Journal of higher education, 68, 523-550
• Higher Education Research Institute. (2007). First in my Family: A Profile of
First Generation College Students
• Hossler, D., Schmit, J., & Vesper, N. (1999). Going to College. Baltimore,
MD: Johns Hopkins University Press
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opportunities for success in postsecondary San Francisco, CA Jossey
Bass
• Kuh,G.D.,Kinzie,J.,Buckley, J.A. &Bridges, B.,(2006). What Matters to
Student Success: A Review of the literature. NPEC
• LUMINA Foundation (2003). Restricted access. Lumina Foundation for
Education New Agenda series. Indianapolis, In.
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low-income, and first generation students. Pathway to College Network.
Boston, Ma.
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social class and schools structure opportunity Albany. N.Y. State
University of New York Press.
• National Center for Education Statistics (1996), National education
longitudinal study: 1988-1994, Descriptive summary report
Washington, D.C.:U.S, Department of Education.
• National Center for Education Statistics (1997), Confronting the Odds;
students at risk and the pipeline to higher education, Washington, D.C.:
U.S. Department of Education.
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education fro the 1992 high school graduates. Washington, D.C.,U.S.
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Undergraduates whose Parents Never Enrolled in Postsecondary
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NJ: Earlbaum Associates.
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intervention. ERIC Review, 8 (1) 4-8.
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Institution, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
• National Center for Education Statistics (1998). First-Generation Students:
Undergraduates whose Parents Never Enrolled in Postsecondary
Education., Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
• National Center for Education Statistics (2001), Educational Achievement in
black-White Inequality, Washington , D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.
• Ogbu, J. (2003). Black American students in an affluent suburb. Mahwah,
NJ: Earlbaum Associates.
• Perna, L.W. (2000). Promoting college enrollment through early
intervention. ERIC Review, 8 (1) 4-8.

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African American, Hispanics and Whites. The Journal of Higher Education,
71 (2), 117-141
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& Medndez, J.P, (2204. Expanding college access: The impact of state
finance strategies. Lumina Foundation for Education New Agenda Series.
References
• Perna, L.W. (2000). Differences in the decision to attend college among
African American, Hispanics and Whites. The Journal of Higher Education,
71 (2), 117-141
• Price, D.V. (2002). What we know about access and success in
postsecondary education. Lumina Foundation for Education, Indianapolis,
In.
• Roscigno, V.J. (1998).Race and the reproduction of educational
disadvantage. Social forces, 76 (3), 1033-1061.
• St. John, E.P., Chung, C.G. Musoba, G.D., Simmons, A.B, & Wooden, O.S.
& Medndez, J.P, (2204. Expanding college access: The impact of state
finance strategies. Lumina Foundation for Education New Agenda Series.

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• Venezia, A., Kirst, M.W., & Antonio, A.L. (2003). Betraying the college
dream: How disconnected K-12 and postsecondary education systems
undermine student aspirations. Stanford University Bridge Project.
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dream: How disconnected K-12 and postsecondary education systems
undermine student aspirations. Stanford University Bridge Project.

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