HAZWOPER

Unexploded ordnance (UXO) are explosive weapons such as bombs, mines, bullets, grenades, and/or
shells that did not explode when they were used. As a result of this weapons failure, the UXO poses a
risk of detonation, potentially many years after they were either used or discarded. Another term used in
place of UXO is Munitions and Explosives of Concern, or MEC. Throughout this manual, the term of UXO
will be used.
Unexploded ordnance poses a hazard worldwide, in both current and former military firing ranges and
combat areas. UXO can be found on the North American continent dating as far back as the American
Civil War. Even UXO this old still poses a threat. One of the primary safety hazards with unexploded
ordnance is that the detonator and main charge deteriorate over time, frequently making them more
sensitive to being disturbed, and therefore more
dangerous to handle. One of the most feared
UXOs is corroded artillery shells containing
chemical warfare agents such as mustard gas.
There are numerous examples of civilians
carelessly tampering with unexploded ordnance
that is many years old. Unfortunately, these
experiences are often fatal and are not always
limited to uneducated civilians. For this reason it
is universally recommended that unexploded
ordnance should not be touched or handled by
unqualified persons. Instead, the location should
be reported to the local police so that trained and
qualified professionals under closely controlled
circumstances can render the device safe.
German artillery shell from World War I left beside a field for disposal by the army
in 2004 - still live and dangerous.
A dramatic example of the global threat from
UXO is the wreck of the SS Richard
Montgomery, off the coast of Kent, England, which still contains 3,000 tons of munitions. When the Polish
ship Kielce, a similar World War II wreck, exploded in 1967, it produced an earth tremor measuring 4.5 on
the Richter scale.
UXO cleanup in the continental United States involves more than 10 million acres of land and 1,400
different sites. This is an area roughly the size of the state of Florida, with some individual sites in excess
of 500 square miles. To date, construction crews throughout the continental United States are discovering
UXO in new development areas and frequently have to halt construction efforts until the UXO can be
rendered safe. According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), UXO at more than 16,000
inactive domestic military ranges within the United States pose an “imminent and substantial” public
health risk and could require the largest environmental cleanup ever. Because it costs approximately
$1,000 to demolish a single UXO on-site, estimated clean-up costs are in the tens of billions of dollars.
Included in this cost estimate are site assessment, surveying and mapping, removing soil and/or
vegetation from the site, transportation, and UXO technicians to manually detect munitions.
Searching for UXOs is tedious work. It is not uncommon for 100 holes to be dug in the effort to locate one
(1) UXO. In addition to the obvious danger of unintentional explosion, buried UXO poses an additional
risk of environmental contamination. In some heavily used military training areas, munitions-related
1
Introduction
HAZ-021-000-L
Introduction HAZ-021-000-L

chemicals such as explosives and perchlorate from rocket fuel can enter soil and groundwater. One of the
most obvious examples of this can be seen at the Massachusetts Military Reservation on Cape Code.
Decades of artillery training at this site have contaminated the only drinking water for thousands of
surrounding residents. An extensive UXO recovery effort is under way there.
UXO on US military bases also causes problems for the EPA’s Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC)
program. Through the BRAC program, the EPA works to restore former munition testing areas in order to
transfer it to public use. The military uses millions of training rounds per year that lead to a substantial
amount of UXO. One of the common questions associated with UXO efforts on military properties is
whether or not the OSHA HAZWOPER standard applies on U.S. military property. This question was
answered in March of 1996 in written correspondence between OSHA and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. Following is the text of the OSHA interpretation of the HAZWOPER standard:
Colonel Walter J. Cunningham, Commanding
Huntsville Division,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Post Office Box 1600
Huntsville, Alabama 35807-4301
Dear Colonel Cunningham:
This is in response to your memorandum to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requesting
clarification of whether the OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) standard (29
CFR 1910.120 and 1926.65) applies to the remediation of unexploded conventional ordnance at formerly used defense
sites (FUDS) and active military installations.
Specifically, you asked whether 40-hour training for general site workers, mandated in 1910.120(e)(3) and 1926.65(e)(3),
is necessary for workers engaged in site activities that are not ground-intrusive, such as brush clearing and surveying, in
which the primary hazard is the detonation of unexploded conventional ordnance. In a subsequent telephone conversation
with Mr. William Chaffin of your staff, Mr. Chaffin further clarified that the remediation sites involved unexploded ordnance
both at and below the soil surface and that detonations could result if workers inadvertently stepped on or struck the
ordnance with an axe.
The Department of Transportation classifies conventional ordnance as a hazardous material in Title 49 of the Code of
Federal Regulations Part 172.101 (49 CFR 172.101). Based on this classification, conventional ordnance meets the
definition of a hazardous substance under OSHA's HAZWOPER standard. Accordingly, remediation work at FUDS and
active military installation sites contaminated with unexploded conventional ordnance falls within the scope of the
HAZWOPER standard. Workers performing remediation activities (including clearing and surveying activities) at these
sites, therefore, must meet the intent of the 40 hours of instruction off the site and a minimum of three days supervised
field experience in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.120(e)(3) (or 1926.65(e)(3)).
Your letter expressed concerns that the 40-hour training currently provided to workers engaged in remediation activities
on sites contaminated with unexploded conventional ordnance was of little value. Mr. Chaffin elaborated on this concern
in a subsequent telephone conversation, indicating that the 40-hour "standard HAZWOPER course" provided to these
workers does not address explosives hazards and therefore, does not seem pertinent to their work. We share your
concerns and acknowledge that training that does not address the hazards present on the worksite is of little value. We do
not agree, however, that the 40-hour training described by Mr. Chaffin and in your letter is consistent with the OSHA
HAZWOPER standard. The OSHA standard does not mandate a rigid, "standard" curriculum for the 40-hour training
requirement but rather specifies in paragraph (e)(2) of the standard that required training must address the safety and
health hazards present on the site and the related procedures and controls necessary for worker protection. Accordingly,
the training provided to workers engaged in remediation activities on sites contaminated with unexploded conventional
ordnance must address the hazards of unexploded ordnance and the related controls, as well as other hazards
associated with the remediation site and proposed activities.
Compliance with the intent of the training requirements of 29 CFR 1910.120(e) or 1926.65(e) is achieved when
employees are trained to a level required by their job functions and responsibilities. When sufficient training on safety and
health issues pertinent to a specific worksite is provided to cleanup workers, but the specific number of hours required by
the standard is not given, a de minimis violation may exist. If an employer complies with the clear intent of a standard but
deviates from its particular requirements in a manner that has no direct or immediate relationship to employee safety or
health, such a violation is characterized as de minimis. Citations are not issued for de minimis violations.
2

We hope that this response provides the clarification you need. If you have further questions, please contact this office at
(202) 219-8045.
Sincerely,
John B. Miles, Director
Directorate of Compliance Programs
Based on the interpretation above, Front Range Training and Consulting, has developed this
HAZWOPER course to provide worksite specific hazard training to UXO employees.
3

Notes
4

There are numerous safety polices, guidelines, regulations and laws which govern clean-up activities on
UXO sites. Without a firm understanding of these various rules, the UXO worker can be left with many
unanswered questions. It is the goal of this Student Manual to clarify and explain the many different rules
that govern activities on UXO sites, including but not limited to:
· Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
· Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)
· Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)
· OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response standard
· Military Munitions Rule
· Department of Defense Directive 6055.9 - DoD Explosives Safety Board
· DoD Directive 4715.11 – Environmental and Explosives Safety Management on Active and
· DoD Directive 4145.26M: Contractors’ Safety Manual for Ammunition and Explosives
In addition to the above list, it is important for the reader to understand that there are specific policies and
guidelines that impact UXO operations on military property. UXO personnel working on a federal facility
must be aware of the specific policies, regulations and guidelines that are pertinent to that worksite.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is responsible for administering all of the federal
government’s civil emergency planning, management, mitigation and assistance functions. FEMA is the
primary federal agency responsible for planning and related training for hazardous materials emergency
management. Their authority includes accidents at manufacturing, processing, storage and disposal
facilities, as well as hazardous material in transit.
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exists to protect and enhance the environment. The EPA
is the primary agency responsible for overseeing hazardous waste site operations and cleanup activities.
The Department of Transportation (DOT) establishes the nation’s overall transportation policy and has
responsibility for issuing standards and regulations relating to the transportation of hazardous materials.
The DOT trains and inspects carriers and shippers of hazardous materials to ensure that they remain in
full compliance with all applicable guidelines.
The Department of Energy (DOE) coordinates and administers the national energy functions. With
regard to hazardous materials, the DOE is heavily involved in administration of the radioactive waste
generated by both the nuclear weapons program as well as by the nuclear reactors which provide much
of the nation’s energy.
The Department of Defense (DoD) manufactures, tests and discards the full range of hazardous
materials and is also one of the nation’s largest shippers of these same hazardous materials.
The Department of Labor (DOL) exists to maintain and/or improve the welfare of the nation’s workers.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is one branch of the DOL. OSHA's
5
Regulatory Overview
HAZ-021-001-L
Inactive Ranges within the United States
Responsibilities of Federal Agencies
Regulatory Overview HAZ-021-001-L

mission is to prevent work-related injuries, illnesses, and deaths. OSHA has broad range in administering
this mission throughout the nation.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)1
There are numerous requirements contained within the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA) that apply to managing, handling, transporting, storing and disposing of conventional explosive
ordnance. RCRA gives the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) the authority to
develop a nationwide program to regulate hazardous waste from the point at which is created, through it’s
lifespan until it is ultimately destroyed and/or disposed.
Section 6001 of the RCRA states that "Each department of the Federal Government…engaged in any
activity resulting in the disposal or management of solid or hazardous waste shall be subject to, and
comply with, all federal, state, interstate, and local requirements, both substantive and procedural
(including any requirements for permits and reporting)."
The Federal Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) are the 1984 amendments to RCRA that
focused on waste minimization and phasing out land disposal of hazardous waste ,as well as corrective
action for releases. Some of the other mandates of this law include increased enforcement authority for
EPA and more stringent hazardous waste management standards.
RCRA Compliance
40 CFR 270.1(c) requires an RCRA permit for the owners and operators of any facility where solid or
hazardous waste is treated, stored and/or disposed. Under RCRA, any hazardous waste generator is
responsible for that waste from its "cradle to its grave."
There are several definitions codified within RCRA that are important for the UXO worker to understand.
Hazardous Waste: A solid waste, or combination of solid wastes, which because of its quantity,
concentration, or physical, chemical, or infectious characteristics may:
a. cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious
irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or
b. pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed.
c. any facility for the collection, source separation, storage, transportation, transfer,
processing, treatment or disposal of solid wastes, including hazardous wastes, whether
such facility is associated with facilities generating such wastes or not.
Hazardous Waste Generator: Any person whose act or process produces hazardous waste or
whose act causes a hazardous waste to become subject to regulation.
Mixed Waste: Contains both hazardous waste and source, special nuclear, or by-product
material subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (42 U.S.C. 2011 et seq.).
Storage: The containment of hazardous waste, either on a temporary basis or for a period of
years, in such a manner as not to constitute disposal of such hazardous waste.
6
1 http://www.epa.gov/lawsregs/laws/rcra.html

Treatment: Any method, technique, or process, including neutralization, designed to change the
physical, chemical, or biological character or composition of any hazardous waste so as to
neutralize such waste or so as to render such waste nonhazardous, safer for transport, amenable
for recovery, amenable for storage, or reduced in volume. Such term includes any activity or
processing designed to change the physical form or chemical composition of hazardous waste so
as to render it nonhazardous.
The EPA has also provided an interpretation of the RCRA regulation2 which states that explosives may
indeed be a solid waste from the moment a decision is made that the explosives must be destroyed and
not returned to the original owners. The basis for this decision is that the explosives are not being used
for their originally-intended purpose (e.g., demolition of a building, military use, etc.), but rather are being
detonated to discard the materials. The explosives, therefore, would meet the definition of a solid waste. If
these explosives exhibit one of the characteristics of reactivity as defined below, they would be subject to
the RCRA hazardous waste regulations for storage, treatment and disposal.
Characteristics of Reactivity (per 40 CFR 261.23):
If a representative sample of the explosive exhibits any of the following characteristics of reactivity, it shall
be classified and treated as a solid waste according to RCRA regulation:
1. It is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent change without detonating.
2. It reacts violently with water.
3. It forms potentially explosive mixtures with water.
4. When mixed with water, it generates toxic gases, vapors or fumes in a quantity sufficient to
present a danger to human health or the environment.
5. It is a cyanide or sulfide bearing waste which, when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and
12.5, can generate toxic gases, vapors or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to
human health or the environment.
6. It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction if it is subjected to a strong initiating source or if
7. It is readily capable of detonation or explosive decomposition or reaction at standard temperature
8. It is a forbidden explosive as defined in 49 CFR 173.51, or a Class A explosive as defined in 49
CFR 173.53 or a Class B explosive as defined in 49 CFR 173.88.
Conventional explosive ordnance may also be considered as hazardous waste under the following
conditions:
1. An authorized official written record determination that the conventional explosive ordnance will
2. Custodians of the conventional explosive ordnance receive this written determination.
Therefore, based on the above information, it can be seen that generation, transportation, storage,
treatment, or disposal of conventional explosive ordnance designated as hazardous waste is subject to
RCRA requirements.
Permit and Record Keeping Requirements
Installations that generate, transport, treat, store, or dispose of solid or hazardous waste are required to
apply to local, state or federal regulatory agencies for an EPA identification number. Some state and local
2 Detonating Explosive Wastes, RCRA On-Line Document # 11305
7
heated under confinement.
and pressure.
be discarded; and

environmental regulations may require an emergency interim permit for transportation or thermal
treatment of conventional explosive ordnance that does not present an immediate threat to human life or
property.
For on-site emergency response operations, UXO actions are those associated with a call for immediate
action by EOD to render safe conventional explosive ordnance. These emergency actions might involve
destruction of the conventional ordnance in-place or removal to a safer location. Conventional ordnance
item on a range intended for that purpose can be treated in place without a permit and its requirements.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA)3
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), often referred
to as “Superfund,” was enacted by Congress in 1980. The law provided broad Federal authority to
respond directly to releases or threatened releases of hazardous substances that may endanger public
health or the environment. The basic provisions of the law include:
· Establishing requirements and restrictions concerning closed and abandoned hazardous waste
· Providing for liability of persons responsible for releases of hazardous waste at these sites; and
· Establishing a fund to pay for cleanup when no responsible party can be identified.
1. Short-term removals where actions may be taken to address releases or threatened releases
2. Long-term remedial response actions that permanently and significantly reduce the dangers
associated with releases or threats of releases of hazardous substances that are serious but not
immediately life threatening. These actions can be conducted only at sites listed on EPA's
National Priorities List (NPL).
CERCLA also enabled the revision of the National Contingency Plan (NCP). The NCP provided the
guidelines and procedures needed to respond to releases and threatened releases of hazardous
substances, pollutants, or contaminants. The NCP also established the NPL. The NCP outlines a
sequential investigation/evaluation process to determine the need for response action and the most
appropriate response actions to take.
· Preliminary Assessment of the site: A qualitative site investigation and a review of operational
and historical records. If this assessment indicates a potential for release of hazardous
substances to the environment, a Site Investigation is conducted.
· Site Investigation: Involves on-site sampling and analysis of the potentially affected area to
quantify the original findings from the Preliminary Assessment. If the Site Investigation confirms
significant releases of hazardous substances to the environment, a Remedial Investigation and
Feasibility Study is conducted.
· Remedial Investigation and Feasibility Study: The objectives of this process are to:
- Determine the nature and extent of contamination from the release,
- Determine the impacts associated with the release, and
8
sites; and
The law authorizes two kinds of response actions:
requiring prompt response.
3 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/cercla.htm

- Evaluate possible alternatives for remediating the problem.
The most appropriate remedial alternative is recommended for implementation and
becomes the legally binding remedy for the site.
· If the effected property is being transferred outside the control of the federal government, it is to
document that all remedial action necessary to protect human health and the environment has
been taken, and that the United States shall conduct any additional remedial action found to be
necessary after transfer.
CERCLA was amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) in 1986.
CERCLA does not apply directly to UXO sites because UXO is typically considered a solid waste rather
than as a hazardous waste under most conditions. However, should the ordnance be classified as
hazardous waste, it does fall under CERCLA requirements. Additionally, the CERCLA process provides
an excellent framework for defining a good UXO clean-up process, as exhibited by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers following a process similar to CERCLA at their UXO sites. Because of these similarities, the
UXO worker should become familiar with the CERCLA process.
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA)4
SARA made several important changes and additions to CERCLA, based on the EPA's experience in
administering the complex Superfund program during its first six years:
1. Stresses the importance of permanent remedies and innovative treatment technologies in
2. Requires Superfund actions to consider the standards and requirements found in other State and
Federal environmental laws and regulations;
3. Provides new enforcement authorities and settlement tools;
4. Increases State involvement in every phase of the Superfund program;
5. Increases the focus on human health problems posed by hazardous waste sites; and
6. Encourages greater citizen participation in making decisions on how sites should be cleaned up.
SARA also required EPA to revise their Hazard Ranking System to ensure that it accurately assessed the
relative degree of risk to human health and the environment posed by uncontrolled hazardous waste sites
that may be placed on the National Priorities List.
OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations & Emergency Response Standard
The OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) standard applies to
all UXO remediation operations. The HAZWOPER requirement is primarily established under federal
regulation 29 CFR 1910.120. Specific HAZWOPER requirements applicable to construction and
excavations can be found in 29 CFR 1926.65. The HAZWOPER standard will be discussed in detail in
subsequent sections of this manual.
9
cleaning up hazardous waste sites;
4 http://www.epa.gov/superfund/policy/sara.htm

Military Munitions Rule:5
Section 107 of the Federal Facilities Compliance Act of 1992 requires the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), in consultation with the Department of Defense (DOD) and each individual state, to issue
a rule that:
· Identifies when munitions become a solid waste, and
· If the waste is hazardous and subject to regulations under RCRA, and
· Provides for protective storage and transportation of that waste.
The overall objective of the Munitions Rule is to minimize health hazards and environmental damage
caused by the use or misuse of ordnance. Military munitions must be stored, transported, used, and
maintained in such a way as to ensure their effective, efficient, and safe employment to protect human
health and the environment. Because of their wider applicability, the provisions of the Munitions Rule are
incorporated into the current RCRA regulations. Within this Rule, the EPA has the option to delegate
RCRA program administration and enforcement authority to a state or territory. In turn, states or territories
may either adopt the federal Rule or develop their own state waste military munitions regulations that are
at least as stringent as those of the federal program. Therefore, compliance requirements for dealing with
waste military munitions differ throughout the country.
The regulatory structure of the Munitions Rule reflects the EPA’s recognition that military munitions are
different from other forms of industrial waste. The two most important provisions of the federal MR include
addressing emergency responses to incidents involving munitions or explosives and the promulgation of
a new RCRA unit standard for the storage of waste munitions or explosives. Other aspects of the
Munitions Rule address the management of all munitions and explosives, both military and non-military.
Definition of Military Munitions
At its simplest, Military Munitions can be defined as all types of both conventional and chemical
ammunition products, and their components, that are produced by and/or for the military for national
defense and/or security. This includes munitions under the control of the Department of Defense, the
United States Coast Guard, United States Department of Energy and National Guard personnel.
Examples of Military Munitions include confined gases, liquid and solid propellants, explosives,
pyrotechnics, chemical and riot-control agents, chemical munitions, rockets, guided and ballistic missiles,
bombs and warheads, mortar rounds, artillery ammunition, small-arms ammunition, grenades, mines,
torpedoes and depth charges, cluster munitions and dispensers, demolition charges, smokes and
incendiaries including bulk explosives and chemical-warfare agents, and devices and components
thereof.
Definition of Solid Waste
The Military Munitions Rule clarifies when conventional and chemical/ military munitions become a
hazardous waste under the RCRA. Unused military munitions are considered to be a solid waste when
any of the following four (4) conditions occur:
1. The unused munition is abandoned by being disposed of, burned, detonated (except during
intended use), incinerated or otherwise treated prior to disposal.
2. The unused munition is removed from storage for the purpose of being disposed of, burned,
5 PROACT Fact Sheet – Military Munitions Rule, December 2000
10
incinerated or treated prior to disposal.

3. The unused munition is deteriorated or damaged to the point that it can no longer be returned to
serviceable condition and cannot be reasonably recycled or used for other purposes.
4. The unused munition has been declared a solid waste by an authorized military official.
The rule further clarifies that military munitions are not a solid waste for regulatory purposes when they
are used for their intended purposes or for research and development, even when that use results in
depositing the munition on the ground. The EPA also considers range management as a critical part of
the safe use of munitions. Therefore, range clearance activities, including those performed by UXO
personnel, are an intrinsic part of training and testing and are not regulated under RCRA. However, it is
important to understand that used and/or fired munitions are still classified as a solid waste and
potentially subject to RCRA regulation when:
1. The munition is removed or managed off-range.
2. The munition is recovered, collected and then disposed of on-range.
3. The munition lands off-range.
Department of Defense Directive 6055.9 - DoD Explosives Safety Board (DDESB):6
The Directive requires that various military departments each develop and maintain comprehensive and
effective explosives safety program. It establishes uniform safety standards that are applicable to
ammunition and explosives, associated personnel and property, and unrelated personnel and property
that are or could be exposed to potential damaging effects of an accident that involves ammunition and/or
explosives during their development, manufacturing, testing, transportation, handling, storage,
maintenance, demilitarization, and/or disposal. The Standard is mandatory for the Office of the Secretary
of Defense, the various military departments, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Combatant Commands, and
the Defense agencies.
This document contains policies and procedures to provide protection to personnel by every means
possible from hazards related to DoD ammunition, explosives and/or chemical agent contamination of
real property currently and/or formerly owned, leased or used by DoD. These locations include
manufacturing areas such as pads, pits, basins, ponds, streams, burial sites and other locations incident
to such operations. This chapter also prohibits permanent contamination of real property (including land
burial, discharge into watersheds, sewers, lakes, streams, or waterways) by final disposal of ammunition
and explosives or chemical agents. Real property that is known to contain ammunition, explosives or
chemical agents must be decontaminated with the most appropriate technology to assure protection of
the public consistent with the proposed end use of the property.
Formerly Used Defense Site (FUDS) Remediation
The agency and/or contractor responsible for the remediation of the FUDS are required to develop
procedures to safely remediate sites contaminated with ammunition, explosives or chemical agents.
Priority is given to the remediation of sites with contamination that poses an immediate public risk.
Included in the remediation is the requirement to Identify the degree and extent of contamination, assess
the potential for migration of contamination, and implement steps to halt such migration. For land being
returned to the public domain the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for coordinating all UXO
actions.
6 DoD 655.9 – Ammunition and Explosives Safety Standards, Office of the Deputy Undersecretary of Defense
(Installations and Environment), February 29, 2009.
11

Plans for UXO removal actions on FUDS must be submitted to the DDESB for coordination and approval.
These plans must provide site specific information as well as document the types of UXO that are
suspected to exist at the site, the technologies and techniques that will be used for the identification of the
UXO, a UXO risk assessment, and the measures that will be taken to minimize the risk to workers and the
public during the assessment, cleanup and disposal phases. Site specific information includes identifying
the site boundaries, types of ordnance, and soil characteristics. The depth at which UXO may be present
must also be provided. In cases where site specific planning is not possible based on lack of information,
the following default assessment depths are used for interim planning.
Default Clearance Standards
Planned Use Examples Depth
Commercial, Residential, Utility, Subsurface Recreational
Construction Activity
Farming, Agriculture, Surface Recreation, Vehicle Parking,
Surface Supply Storage
Limited Public Access Livestock Grazing, Wildlife Preserve 1 ft
Not Yet Determined Surface
* (or 4 ft below planned excavation depths).
DoD Directive 4715.11: Environmental and Explosives Safety Management on Active and
Inactive Ranges within the United States
This Directive sets policy and responsibility for the use and management of active and inactive ranges
located within the United States. The goal of the policy is to protect DoD personnel and the public from
explosive hazards on active and inactive DoD ranges. This Directive gives overall responsibility for safety,
explosives safety, environment and technology policies related to this Directive to the Undersecretary of
Defense for Acquisition and Technology.
· The directive instructs all DoD contracted agents who are responsible for the coordination of UXO
· Restrict access to ranges containing or suspected of containing UXO.
· Take appropriate action to prevent unauthorized access to DoD ranges, including establishing
access controls such as posting warning signs, fencing the area, security patrols, etc.
· Provide explosives safety training to individuals who access DoD ranges.
· Develop EOD escort guidelines.
· Maintain permanent records of munitions expended, all UXO clearance operations and EOD
· Document UXO areas on installation maps or master plans.
· Minimize the use of submunitions and depleted uranium (DU) ordnance.
· Conduct appropriate range clearance operations consistent with the any new proposed uses of a
· Conduct a hazard assessment before range clearance operations.
· Establish safe and practical methods for recycling or disposing of range residues in accordance
12
Unrestricted
10 ft*
Public Access
4 ft
clearance on DoD ranges to:
incidents.
UXO area.
with DoD policies.

· Notify public when explosives hazards exist off-range.
· Participate in established national public-involvement Programs to discuss explosives hazards.
· Educate DoD personnel, their dependents, and the public living near DoD ranges on the
DoD Directive 4145.26M: Contractors’ Safety Manual for Ammunition and Explosives
This Manual provides standardized safety principles, methods, practices, requirements, and information
for contractual work or services involving ammunition and explosives. This manual and additional safety
requirements of the contract are intended to minimize the potential for mishaps that could interrupt DoD
operations or delay production, damage or destroy DoD material, cause injury to DoD personnel, or
endanger the general public. Adherence to the Manual's requirements and principles are intended to
support the DoD mission, provide a safe environment, and foster cooperation between contract and DoD
personnel.
The requirements of this Manual apply to contractors performing work or services on DoD contracts,
subcontracts, purchase orders, or other purchasing methods for ammunition or explosives. These
requirements also apply to other contractor operations to the extent they impact DoD work or services.
The directive states that the contractors shall:
· Comply with the requirements of this Manual and any other safety requirements contained within
· Develop and implement a demonstrable safety program, including operational procedures,
intended to prevent ammunition and explosive related mishaps.
· Designate qualified individuals to administer and implement this safety program.
· Provide information to the administrative contracting officer (ACO) pertaining to subcontractors
retained for ammunition and explosive work.
· Require subcontractors to comply with this manual and other safety requirements within the
· Conduct mishap investigations in accordance with, but not limited to, provisions of this Manual.
13
explosives hazards.
the contract.
contract.

Notes
14

OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations &
Emergency Response (HAZWOPER) Standard
HAZ-021-002-L
The Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency
Response (HAZWOPER) standard (29 CFR 1910.120 and 1926.65) applies to all UXO remediation
operations including FUDS, BRAC, and all active military sites. The primary HAZWOPER standard that is
enforced by OSHA is 29 CFR 1910.120, while 29 CFR 1926.65 is designed specifically for construction
and excavation, with additional reference to 29 CFR 1926.650 and 1926.900 – 914.
The HAZWOPER standard was initially developed for commercial/industrial work sites. However, as
discussed previously, it has been determined to be applicable to UXO operations. The HAZWOPER
requirements for a written site health and safety plan, a comprehensive work plan, personnel training, and
excavation will be discussed in this section. The HAZWOPER standard also addresses numerous other
health and safety requirements, including but not limited to: personal protective equipment, respiratory
protection, environmental monitoring and many other more specific safety-related requirements. These
requirements will be discussed in detail in other sections of this manual.
In order to ensure that everyone is using the same terms with the same meanings, let’s establish a few
definitions that we will refer to throughout this manual. The following definitions have been copied directly
from the HAZWOPER standard (29 CFR 1910.120).
Buddy System: A system of organizing employees into work groups so that each employee is observed
by at least one other employee in the same work group. The purpose of the buddy system is to provide
rapid assistance to employees in the event of an emergency.
Clean-up Operation: An operation where hazardous substances are removed, contained, incinerated,
neutralized, stabilized, cleared-up, processed or handled in any other manner intended to make the site
safer for people or the environment.
Decontamination: The removal of hazardous substances from employees and their equipment to the
extent necessary to prevent the occurrence of preventable adverse health effects.
Emergency Response: A response effort by employees from outside the immediate release area, or by
other designated responders from outside agencies, to an occurrence which results or is likely to result in
an uncontrolled release of a hazardous substance. Responses to incidental releases of hazardous
substances where the substance can be absorbed, neutralized, or otherwise controlled at the time of
release by employees in the immediate release area or by on-site personnel are not considered to be
emergency responses within the scope of this standard. In addition, responses to releases of hazardous
substances where there is no potential health or safety hazard are not considered to be emergency
responses.
Facility: Any building, structure, installation, equipment, pipe or pipeline, well, pit, pond, lagoon,
impoundment, ditch, storage container, motor vehicle, rolling stock, or aircraft. Any site or area where a
15
Definitions
OSHA Hazardous Waste Operations & HAZ-021-002-L

hazardous substance has been deposited, stored, disposed of, or placed or otherwise come to be
located. This does not include any consumer product in consumer use or any water-borne vessel.
Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) Response Team: An organized group of employees who are trained to
handle and control actual or potential releases of hazardous materials requiring possible direct contact
with the material. Their purpose is to control or stabilize the incident.
Hazardous Material: Any substance which may result in adverse effects to the health and/or safety of a
person, animal or the environment. Examples include, but are not limited to, a biologic agent or other
disease causing agent, a hazardous waste, or any substance designated as a hazardous material by the
U.S. Department of Transportation.
Hazardous Waste: A waste or combination of wastes as defined in the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act or by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration.
Health Hazard: A chemical, mixture of chemicals or pathogen that may cause acute and/or chronic
health effects in exposed persons. The term includes chemicals which are carcinogens, toxic or highly
toxic agents, reproductive toxins, irritants, corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins, nephrotoxins, neurotoxins
and agents which damage the lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes. It also includes stress due to
temperature extremes.
Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH): An atmospheric concentration of any toxic, corrosive
or asphyxiant substance that poses an immediate threat to life, or could interfere with an individual’s
ability to escape from a location.
Oxygen Deficiency: A concentration of oxygen which is detrimental to human survival, in which some
type of atmosphere-supplying respiratory protection must be provided. It exists in atmospheres where the
percentage of oxygen is less than 19.5%.
Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Site: An area where an accumulation of hazardous substances creates
a threat to the health and safety of persons, animals and/or the environment. These sites are usually
identified and designated as uncontrolled hazardous waste sites by a governmental body, either Federal,
state, local or other. Sites may be found on either public or private lands.
Site Health and Safety Plan
There are numerous requirements when it comes to the site’s health and safety plan. OSHA requires that
the plan be site-specific, meaning that a work site cannot use a “canned” program unless it is adapted to
the specific needs and issues at each individual site. The major requirements of this plan include:
The site-specific health and safety plan should also address the frequency and types of air monitoring,
personnel monitoring, and environmental monitoring programs being used on the site, including
maintenance and calibration methods for any monitoring equipment used. Site control measures be
16
· Organizational Structure
· Emergency Response Plan
· Employee Training Program
· Employee Medical Surveillance Program

thoroughly established and discussed, including the presence of any confined spaces and requirements
for entry into these confined spaces.
The tailgate safety briefing is another important requirement of the site-specific health and safety plan.
Tailgate safety briefings are required to be held prior to the beginning of any site activity, and at any other
time it becomes necessary to ensure that employees are kept up-to-date on changing conditions at the
site.
Organizational Structure
The site health and safety plan must clearly establish the specific chain of command. It must also specify
the overall responsibilities of supervisors and employees. While every UXO site is organized differently,
there is generally a common organizational structure that is found throughout the UXO community. The
organizational structure must include the following minimum elements:
· A general supervisor who has the responsibility and authority to direct all hazardous waste
· A site health and safety supervisor who has the responsibility and authority to develop and
implement the site health and safety plan, and to verify compliance.
· All other personnel needed for site operations and emergency response and their general
· The lines of authority, responsibility and communication.
The next page shows a simplified flow-chart of what might be expected for a normal chain-of-command
on a typical UXO site.
17
operations
functions and responsibilities.

It can be seen by looking at the above organizational structure that the UXO Tech 1 will usually be near
the bottom of the worksite’s chain of command. In spite of the seemingly low rank of the UXO Tech 1, it is
important for every employee on the UXO worksite to remember that s/he has leadership potential and is
in a leadership position. Leadership responsibilities will be discussed later in this manual.
Emergency Response Plan
Each work site must develop and implement a comprehensive emergency response plan. Oftentimes, the
contents of these plans will be dictated by various permits issued by the federal government. All
18
Sample UXO site chain of command:

emergency response plans, whether required by a permit or not, must be written components of the site’s
overall health and safety plan for the site. The plan must be compatible and integrated with the
emergency response plans of local, state and federal agencies in proximity to the site. In order to be
comprehensive, and truly effective, the plan must be rehearsed regularly as part of the overall training
program for the site. Additionally, the plan must be reviewed and updated periodically so that it remains
current with new or changing site conditions or information. The emergency response plan should
address the following topics:
· Emergency recognition and prevention
· Pre-emergency planning and coordination with agencies outside the boundaries of the UXO site
· Pre-established roles, lines of authority, and training requirements for every individual on the site
· Internal as well as external communication plans, including methods for announcing an
· Site topography, layout and prevailing weather conditions
· Site security and control during emergencies
· Designation of minimum safe distances and places of refuge
· Evacuation routes, responsibilities and procedures
· Decontamination procedures
· Emergency medical treatment and first aid protocols
· Critique of response and follow-up
· Personal protective equipment and emergency equipment requirements
· Procedures for reporting incidents to local, state and federal governmental agencies
All employees on the UXO site must be trained to be able to recognize the various health and/or safety
hazards they may encounter on the site. This requirement includes not only the proper selection and use
of personal protective equipment, but also extends to the use of power equipment, working with other
employees to minimize risks, and the recognition of signs and symptoms of excessive exposure to
harmful conditions.
Employees on the site who are expected and/or required to respond to emergencies must receive specific
training for that response before they are called upon to perform in real emergencies. Such training must
include all of the elements addressed in the site’s emergency response plan as well as the standard
operating procedures established on the work site. The employee must also be trained in the specific
personal protective equipment they will be wearing during their response, as well as all of the other
various types of PPE that are worn or used by other employees on the work site.
Employee Training Requirements
All employees working on a UXO site, including UXO Technicians, equipment operators, and general
laborers, who have the potential to be exposed to any hazardous substance, health hazard or safety
hazard must receive health and safety training prior to completing any job responsibilities on the work
site. Supervisors and managers must receive advanced training prior to beginning their responsibilities.
The training specified by OSHA is intended to be site-specific training over and above the HAZWOPER
course requirements listed below.
Initial Training: 40-Hour (Off-Site) And 3-Day (On-Site)
HAZWOPER requires that all workers on a UXO site, not just the UXO Technicians, complete at
least a 40-hour off-site classroom course as well as three (3) days of supervised, on-site field
19
emergency and response procedures

experience. OSHA does not provide specific guidelines for the training requirements but states
that the training must address the specific safety and health hazards present on the site and the
related procedures and controls necessary for worker protection. Site-specific training should
thoroughly cover the following material:
· Names of people on the site who are responsible for site health and safety programs
· Health, safety and other hazards present on the site
· Use of personal protective equipment
· Work practices and engineering controls that can reduce employee risk
· Overview of the site’s medical surveillance program requirements
Workers who are on the UXO site occasionally for specific, limited tasks including, but not limited
to, ground water monitoring, land surveying, or geophysical surveying, and who are unlikely to be
exposed over permissible exposure limits and published exposure limits are required to complete
at least 24 hours of instruction off the site and at least one (1) day of on-site field experience
under the direct supervision of a trained, experienced supervisor.
Supervisor Training
On-site supervisors and managers who are directly responsible for or who supervise employees
engaged in hazardous waste operations must complete the initial 40-hour course and the three
(3) days of supervised field experience, plus at least eight (8) additional hours of specialized
training at the time of their assignment. The additional training may include, but need not be
limited to, the employer's safety and health program, personal protective equipment program, spill
containment program, and/or health hazard monitoring procedure and techniques.
Refresher Training
Employees, managers and supervisors must complete at least eight (8) hours of refresher
training annually. OSHA permits the refresher training to include any critique of incidents that
have occurred in the past year and other topics relevant to the work being performed.
Equivalent Training
Employers who can show by documentation or certification that an employee's previous work
experience and/or training is equivalent to or exceeds HAZWOPER requirements is not be
required to provide the initial employee training. However, all employees who are new to a UXO
site must receive appropriate, site-specific training before site entry. New employees must also
receive appropriate, supervised field experience at the new site. Equivalent training includes any
academic training or the training from actual hazardous waste site experience. Currently, in
accordance with the guidance from the Department of the Army Office for Environment, Safety
and Occupational Health, completion of EOD school meets the training requirements of
HAZWOPER. Compliance with the intent of the training requirements of HAZWOPER is achieved
when employees are trained to a level required by their job functions and responsibilities.
20
24-hour Occasional Workers

The comprehensive work plan portion is separate and distinct from the site’s health and safety plan. The
work plan is intended to address the goals, objectives and tasks to be accomplished on the site. As such,
this plan establishes and describes the various operations that will take place on the work site, and it
addresses the logistics and resources necessary to accomplish the goals, objectives and tasks specified
in the plan. It also provides for the implementation of the training required by OSHA and any other
oversight agencies. In general the comprehensive work plan:
· Defines expected clean-up activities.
· Defines normal operating procedures.
· Defines work tasks, objectives and overall project goals.
· Identifies the methods for accomplishing these tasks and objectives.
· Establishes personnel requirements for implementing the plan.
· Establishes and implements the required training programs.
· Implements the required informational programs.
· Develops and implements the employee medical surveillance program.
Other Requirements of the Site Health and Safety Plan
HAZWOPER requires employers to develop, document, and implement a written health and safety
program for their employees who are or may become involved in hazardous waste operations. The Site
Health and Safety Plan should be designed to identify, evaluate, and control safety and health hazards. It
must address site analysis, engineering controls, exposure limits, handling procedures and uses of new
technologies. It also must provide for emergency response for hazardous waste operations. Finally, the
plan must meet all applicable federal, state and local regulations.
All portions of the site’s health and safety program must be made available to all employees as well as
any contractor or subcontractor, or their representative, who will be involved with the operations on the
job site. In addition, the plan must be made available to OSHA personnel and to personnel of any other
government entity with regulatory authority over the site.
Some of the more minor sections of the Site Health and Safety Plan will be addressed in this section of
the manual, while many of the more complex requirements will be discussed in later sections of this
manual. As a quick review, the plan must include the following sections:
a. An identification of any hazardous materials expected to be found on-site
b. A detailed map of the site
c. A detailed organizational structure
d. A comprehensive work plan
e. An emergency procedures plan
f. A site-specific health and safety training program
g. A medical monitoring program
h. The employer's standard operating procedures for health and safety, and
i. Any necessary interface between general program and site specific activities.
21
Comprehensive Work Plan

Sanitation Facility Requirements
Potable Water – OSHA requires that the work site provide an adequate supply of potable water for
employees. If portable containers are used to dispense drinking water, the containers must be able to be
tightly closed and equipped with a tap. This helps prevent unintentional contamination of the water
supply. In addition, any container that is used to distribute drinking water must be clearly marked to show
its contents and it cannot used for any other purpose.
Non-Potable Water – If there are outlets for non-potable water, such as water for firefighting, must be
clearly identified to indicate that it is unsafe for drinking, washing, or cooking.
Toilet Facilities – Toilet facilities must be provided based on the total number of employees and visitors
on the work site. If employees work “in the field,” the work site must make provisions for at least one
temporary toilet to be available. These toilets may either be chemical toilets, recirculating toilets or
common flush toilets. The following table provides a breakdown of the number of required toilet facilities.
Minimum Number of Required Toilet Facilities
Number of Employees Number of Required Toilets
20 of Fewer One
More than 20 Fewer than 200 One Toilet and One Urinal per 40 Employees
More than 200 One Toilet and One Urinal per 50 Employees
OSHA requires that the work site provide adequate illumination to any area in which employees are
working. This is usually not something that is at the forefront of the employee’s mind. However, working in
an area with diminished lighting can be difficult. The following table provides a brief list of the OSHA
lighting requirements. For reference, unobstructed sunlight has an intensity of approximately 10,000 foot-candles,
an overcast day has an intensity of around 1,000 foot-candles and the intensity of light near a
window can range from 100 to 5,000 foot-candles, depending on the orientation of the window and time of
year.
Minimum Illumination Intensities ( Measured in Food-Candles)
Excavation and Waste Areas, Accessways, Active Storage Areas, Loading Platforms, Refueling,
and Field Maintenance Areas
5 Indoors: Warehouses, Corridors, Hallways, and Exitways
Tunnels, Shafts, and General Underground Work Areas: (Exception: Minimum at 10 foot-candles
is required at tunnel and shaft heading during drilling, mucking, and scaling.) Mine
Safety and Health Administration Approved Cap Lights shall be acceptable for use in the tunnel
heading.
General Shops (e.g., Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Rooms, Active Storerooms, Barracks
or Living Quarters, Locker or Dressing Rooms, Dining Areas, and Indoor Toilets and Workrooms
22
Illumination Requirements
5 General Site Areas
3
5
10
30 First Aid Stations, Infirmaries, and Offices

Because of the nature of work on a UXO site, OSHA requires that the work site provide adequate
washing facilities for employees who are engaged in operations with potentially hazardous substances.
These facilities must be in close proximity to the actual work area, in an area free from contamination.
These washing facilities must include showers and changing rooms. OSHA further requires that
employees must shower at the end of their works shift as well as when leaving the hazardous work site.
New Technology Programs
One aspect of the OSHA HAZWOPER standard that is frequently disregarded is the requirement that the
employer must constantly strive to maintain the highest level of technology available to ensure a safe and
efficient working environment. One example of this technology is the integration of new and more
advanced metal detectors on the UXO site. However, this requirement also extends to personal protective
equipment and any other equipment that promotes or improves the health and/or safety of the employee.
Examples could include improved decontamination methods, new air monitoring equipment or improved
excavation capabilities.
Emergency Response Personnel Training Requirements
Employees who are involved in emergency response to hazardous materials incidents must be trained to
a different level than the typical employees. Most commonly, these requirements apply to personnel
employed by fire and police departments; however, the requirements also include any employee who is
expected to respond to an emergency situation on a hazardous job site. Employees who are required to
engage in emergency response and could be exposed to hazardous substances that are a potential
inhalation hazard must wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus while engaged in the
emergency response until air monitoring determines that a decreased level of respiratory protection is
acceptable. Obviously, there is the potential for a UXO Technician to be expected to respond to
emergency situations on the UXO site. Therefore, it is necessary to spend a few moments discussing the
various training requirements for emergency response personnel.
The training requirements, as established in 29 CFR 1910.120 are intended to provide for a means to
train and certify employees in either a support role or as a specialist. Personnel who are skilled in the
operation of a certain piece of equipment may be viewed as support personnel. Another example of
support personnel could be those individuals needed to assist with the maintenance of site security
measures. Specialists are those who are involved in the incident and have the potential for direct contact
with the source of contamination. Examples would be individuals working on decontamination procedures
or those who are rendering the scene safe.
First Responder Awareness
Awareness level training is provided to personnel who are likely to witness or discover a hazardous
substance release. These personnel are trained to initiate an emergency response sequence by making
proper notifications about the release. Awareness level training addresses the following topics:
· Understanding what hazardous substances are and the risks associated with them in an incident
· Potential outcomes associated with an emergency created when hazardous substances are
· Recognizing the presence of hazardous substances in an emergency
23
Washing Facility Requirements
present

· Identifying the hazardous substances, if possible
· The role of the awareness-level responder in the employer's emergency response plan including
site security and control and use of the U.S. Department of Transportation's Emergency
Response Guidebook
· Recognizing the need for additional resources and making appropriate notifications to the
Operations level training is primarily directed at those individuals who respond to reports of hazardous
material release and take defensive action to protect nearby persons, property, or the environment from
the effects of the release. This level of training does not include actually working to stop the release. Their
function is to contain the release from a safe distance, keep it from spreading, and prevent exposures.
Operations level responders must demonstrate the following competencies:
· Knowledge of basic hazard and risk assessment techniques.
· Ability to select and use proper personal protective equipment.
· Understanding basic hazardous materials terms.
· How to perform basic control, containment and/or confinement operations.
· How to implement basic decontamination procedures.
· An understanding of the relevant standard operating procedures and termination procedures.
Hazardous materials technicians are individuals who respond to releases or potential releases for the
purpose of stopping the release. They take an aggressive role by approaching the point of release in
order to plug, patch or otherwise stop the release. Hazardous materials technicians must demonstrate
competency in the following areas:
· Knowing how to implement the agency’s emergency response plan.
· Knowing the proper procedures for the classification, identification and verification of known and
unknown materials by using field survey instruments and equipment.
· Being able to function within an assigned role in the Incident Command System.
· Knowing how to select and use the proper types of specialized chemical personal protective
· Understanding hazard and risk assessment techniques.
· Being able to perform advance control, containment, and/or confinement operations.
· Understanding and implementing decontamination procedures.
· Understanding termination procedures.
· Understanding basic chemical and toxicological terminology and behavior.
Hazardous materials specialists respond with and provide support to hazardous materials technicians.
Their duties are very similar to the hazardous materials technician. However, the specialist is required to
have a more directed or specific knowledge of the various substances they may be called upon to
contain. The specialist would also act as the site liaison with Federal, state, local and other government
authorities in regards to site activities. These individuals must demonstrate the same competencies as
the hazardous materials technicians, as well as meeting the following additional requirements:
24
communication center
First Responder Operations
Hazardous Materials Technician
equipment.
Hazardous Materials Specialist

· Knowing how to implement the local emergency response plan.
· Using advanced survey instruments and equipment to properly classify, identify and verify known
· Knowing the state’s emergency response plan.
· Selecting and using proper specialized chemical personal protective equipment.
· Understanding in-depth hazard and risk techniques.
· Being able to perform specialized control, containment, and/or confinement operations.
· Being able to determine and implement decontamination procedures.
· Having the ability to develop a site safety and control plan.
· Understanding chemical, radiological and toxicological terminology and behavior.
Incident commanders are persons who are required to take control of the emergency incident scene
beyond the awareness level. The most senior person who responds to an emergency should take charge
of the incident. This person is referred to as the Incident Commander and s/he is in charge of
implementing a site-specific Incident Command System (ICS). All other emergency responders report to
the Incident Commander through the chain of command established for the incident. The incident
commander has the ultimate responsibility for identifying all hazardous substances or conditions present
and for establishing a safe operating environment for all emergency responders.
Incident commanders must receive at least 24 hours of training equal to the first responder operations
level and also demonstrate competency in the following areas:
· Having an understanding of, and ability to implement, the agency’s incident command system.
· Knowing how to implement the agency's emergency response plan.
· Knowing and understanding the hazards and risks associated with employees working in
· Knowing how to implement the local emergency response plan.
· Understanding the requirements of the state’s emergency response plan and of the Federal
· Knowing and understanding the importance of decontamination procedures.
25
and unknown materials.
Hazardous Materials Incident Commander
chemical protective clothing.
Regional Response Team.

Notes
26

Nuclear, Biological & Chemical Hazard Safety
HAZ-021-003-L
Nuclear Hazard Safety
In general, nuclear safety in the United States is governed by federal regulations and is studied by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC does not have regulatory authority over nuclear safety
issues pertaining to nuclear weapons. However, the NRC has extensive information available on the
issue of nuclear and/or radiological emergencies. The essence of the NRC’s Emergency Preparedness
Program centers on good planning. Their programs exist to enable personnel to quickly identify, evaluate
and react to a wide variety of radiological emergencies. Typically, these programs are geared towards
emergency response personnel, rather than UXO Technicians. However, the NRC training programs
emphasize the integration of safety, security and preparedness as the basis for nuclear safety. These
three factors not only apply to nuclear safety, but also to the general safety of the UXO Technician.
There is a potential, however small, that the UXO Technician may be called upon to inspect or otherwise
interact with a small tactical nuclear weapon. Before handling any nuclear weapon, the handler must have
a firm understanding of nuclear weapon safety. Nuclear weapons should never be handled by untrained
persons.
All nuclear weapons must be maintained in a subcritical state until detonation is desired. This is usually
accomplished by keeping the nuclear fuel in many separate pieces, each piece below the critical size for
that material. For a detonation to occur, these pieces must be brought together very rapidly. Often, this is
done by producing some type of explosion around the nuclear material. Thus, the best way to prevent
unwanted nuclear explosions is to avoid moving the weapon in any way. This is best accomplished by not
touching the weapon and leaving that responsibility to the properly trained and experienced explosive
ordnance disposal technician.
Radiation Poisoning
Radiation poisoning, also called radiation sickness is damage to a person’s internal organ tissue resulting
from excessive exposure to ionizing radiation. Radiation sickness or poisoning usually refers to acute
problems, or problems associated with short-term exposure to a large dose of radiation. The Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) gives the clinical name for radiation sickness as Acute Radiation
Syndrome (ARS). Radiation exposure can also increase a person’s susceptibility to other diseases such
as cancer, tumors and genetic damage.
Ionizing Radiation1
Ionizing radiation is made up of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that contain enough energy
to detach electrons from an atom or molecule. The ability of a substance to be ionizing radiation is made
up of subatomic particles or electromagnetic waves that contain enough energy to detach electrons from
an atom or molecule. The ability of a substance to be ionizing depends entirely on its inherent energy, not
on the number of particles or waves it emits. Ionizing radiation consists of Alpha particles, Beta particles,
Gamma particles and Neutrons.
1 http://epa.gov/radiation/understand/ionize_nonionize.html
27
Nuclear, Biological & Chemical Hazard Safety HAZ-021-003-L

Alpha (α) Particles– These particles are commonly given off by all of the larger radioactive
elements, such as uranium and radium. An Alpha particle is the same thing as the nucleus of a
Helium atom. These particles can only travel a short distance, so are usually thought of as being
the least hazardous type of radiation. However, Alpha particles are
extremely toxic if they are swallowed or inhaled because they are
quickly absorbed by the body. Alpha radiation is the most
destructive form of ionizing radiation because it has the greatest
capacity to ionize cells within the body. Radiation damage from
Alpha radiation is roughly 100 times greater than damage caused
by the equivalent amount of any other radiation.
Beta (β) Particles – These particles are high-energy, high-speed
particles that are given off by certain types of radioactive elements
such as Potassium-40. Beta radiation is in the middle in terms of
penetrating power and ionizing capability, as compared to Alpha
and Gamma radiation. Most beta particles can be stopped by a few
millimeters of aluminum shielding.
Gamma (γ) Particles – Gamma radiation is extremely high
frequency radiation that is produced at the sub-atomic level, such
as through radioactive decay, fission or fusion. The only effective
shielding from gamma radiation is very large amounts of mass.
Gamma radiation is most effectively blocked by extremely dense
materials, but the total mass in the path of the gamma ray is the
most important factor. Thicker shielding is required for higher
energy gamma radiation.
Neutrons – Neutrons are produced when Alpha particles impact
one of many different types of elements with low atomic weights.
They can only be created by nuclear disintegrations, nuclear
reactions or other high-energy reactions such as cosmic events. In other words, Neutrons are
extremely rare in the UXO field, so they will not be discussed in this document.
Alpha radiation is stopped by a sheet of paper.
Beta radiation is stopped by an aluminum
plate. Gamma radiation is able to penetrate
most materials
Other types of ionizing radiation include X-rays and Ultraviolet radiation. Most people are familiar
with these types of radiation and their health effects. Therefore, they will not be discussed in this
document.
Health Effects from Radiation Exposure
All forms of ionizing radiation cause damage at the cellular level. However, exposure to Alpha and Beta
radiation causes only minor, localized tissue damage because of their relative inability to penetrate skin.
As mentioned previously, Alpha particles are extremely toxic if they are inhaled or ingested. Gamma
radiation is able to penetrate most types of shielding and result in widespread damage throughout the
body.
Exposure to low doses of radiation causes cancer, tumors and genetic damage. High dose exposures
can cause burns to the skin, radiation sickness, and even death. Radiation sickness is usually associated
with a single, intense exposure to the radiation. The amount of time between the exposure and the
beginning of symptoms can be a good indicator of how much radiation was absorbed. Symptoms will
appear much sooner with greater exposure. As the amount of exposure increases, the symptoms of
28

radiation sickness become more serious and the chance of survival drops. Signs and symptoms of
radiation sickness will include:
· Nausea and vomiting are the primary symptoms. They usually occur within one to two days after
· Headache, fatigue, and weakness are associated with mild exposure.
· Fever, diarrhea, hair loss, infections, bloody vomit, bloody feces, and poor ability to heal small
wounds are common symptoms of moderate radiation exposure.
· Dizziness, disorientation, and low blood pressure will occur with exposure to high amounts of
Signs and symptoms of internal exposure to radiation will be significantly different than those from
external exposure to radiation. When a radioactive substance enters the human body, the internal organs
are directly affected. This exposure can severely damage organs and symptoms will be similar to those of
a massive poisoning.
Protection from Radiation
There are four recognized ways to prevent unwanted exposure to possible sources of radiation:
· Time - The longer a person is exposed to radiation, the greater the dose their body absorbs.
Minimize the time of exposure to minimize the associated risk.
· Distance – The greater the distance from the source of radiation, the lower the potential
exposure will be. Distance can be gained by something as simple as using a tool, rather than a
hand, to handle an object suspected of containing ionizing radiation.
· Shielding – Being aware of the types of radiation that may be present and wearing appropriate
personal protective equipment will dramatically reduce the risk of unintentional exposure to
harmful radiation.
· Containment – Materials that are known to be radioactive, or suspected of being radioactive,
should be kept in the smallest possible space at all times. Confinement includes controlling
ventilation.
Treatment of Radiation Exposure
At this time, there is currently no treatment for exposure to ionizing radiation. At best, people who
experience signs or symptoms of radiation sickness can only have those signs or symptoms treated, such
as through administration of drugs to reduce pain or prevent vomiting. If a person is only exposed over a
small part of his/her body, it is easier to treat that exposure because the human body is able to withstand
large exposures to its non-vital parts, such as the hands and feet, without affecting the entire body. This is
not to say that the person will not experience any ill effects from the exposure. S/he will quite likely lose
the body part(s) that experienced the exposure, but the problems may not progress to full-blown radiation
sickness and eventual death. This type of injury is referred to as a radiation burn.
The primary danger of whole-body exposure is the effect the exposure has on the body’s ability to fight off
infection. One result of whole-body exposure is that the body’s bone marrow is destroyed, which
eliminates the body’s ability to produce white blood cells, which are the primary cells involved in fighting
off infection. The only treatment for this type of exposure is placing the person into a sterile environment
and beginning both blood transfusions and bone marrow transplants.
29
exposure to mild exposure to radiation.
radiation.

Biological Hazard Safety
Biological warfare is a military technique that uses disease-causing biological agents, such as viruses,
bacteria or other toxins, to kill, injure or impair a person or person. Biological warfare is very similar to
chemical warfare, which will be discussed later in this section. A toxin is a poisonous substance that is
produced by living cells or organisms. Title 18 of the United States Code defines a toxin as the toxic
material or product of plants, animals, micro-organisms, infectious substance, or a man-made substance.
Toxins are inanimate and cannot reproduce themselves. Toxins vary greatly in their ability to cause harm,
from something as mild as a bee sting to something as deadly as anthrax.
Biotoxins
A biotoxin is a toxin that is produced by some type of living creature. They typically have one of two
primary functions – predation or defense. Biotoxins can be extremely complex substances capable of
causing severe tissue damage or death. Examples of biotoxins include:
· Hematotoxins – Target and destroy red blood cells. These toxins spread through the blood
stream and are produced by pit vipers such as rattlesnakes
· Necrotoxins – Cause death in the cells they enter and destroy all types of tissue. They spread
through the blood stream and are produced by the brown recluse and puff adder.
· Neurotoxins – Affect the nervous system. These types of toxins are produced by the black
· Cytotoxins – Substances that are toxic at the level of the individual cell. An example of a
cytotoxin is ricin, which is found in the castor bean plant.
Biological Hazards
A biological hazard, or biohazard, is an organism or a substance derived from an organism that poses a
threat to human health. Biohazards include a broad range of substances, from medical waste to samples
of an active virus or toxin. If the biohazard is used as a weapon, it is termed a biological agent. There are
more than 1,000 different types of biological agents that have been
studied and/or used.
The universal symbol that represents a biohazard is often referred to as a
cloverleaf. It is very distinctive in appearance, as shown to the right.
Biohazardous agents are assigned UN numbers for classification during
transportation:
· UN 2814 – Infectious Substance Affecting Humans
· UN 2900 – Infectious Substance Affecting Animals
· UN 3373 – Clinical Specimen
· UN 3291 – Medical Waste
The United States Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has established four levels of risk
associated with biological hazards:
· Biohazard Level 1 – The lowest level of risk. Examples include chicken pox and E. coli.
Precautions against the infectious substance are minimal – gloves and some type of facial
protection. Decontamination procedures consist of hand-washing and the disinfecting all exposed
surfaces.
30
widow and scorpions.

· Biohazard Level 2 – Bacteria or viruses that cause mild disease symptoms or are difficult to
contract when in the air. Examples include hepatitis, influenza, mumps and measles.
Decontamination procedures are the same as for Biohazard Level 1.
· Biohazard Level 3 – Bacteria or viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease or for which
vaccines or other treatments exist. Examples include anthrax, West Nile virus, SARS virus,
smallpox, and malaria. Decontamination procedures are similar to Level 2, but consist of more
involved disinfection.
· Biohazard Level 4 – Viruses or bacteria that cause severe to fatal disease and for which there
are no known treatments or vaccines. Examples include Ebola virus, Dengue hemorrhagic fever,
and hantavirus. It is necessary to wear a fully-encapsulating hazardous materials suit and self-contained
air supply when dealing with Biohazard Level 4 substances. Decontamination
procedures involve extensive disinfection and sterilization.
As described in the different Biohazard Levels, the primary means for maintaining protection against
biological weapons or other biohazards it to maintain cleanliness. In addition, it is important to be aware
of, and to use, the appropriate personal protective equipment, including respiratory protection. Finally,
proper cleaning, sanitizing and disinfecting is absolutely critical to prevent the spread of any potential
toxins.
Hazardous materials, or dangerous goods, are solids, liquids or gases that can harm living organisms,
property or the environment. These hazardous materials may be radioactive, biohazardous, explosive,
flammable, corrosive, toxic, or corrosive. They also frequently have potentially harmful physical
characteristics, such as compressed gases or liquids. As discussed in previous sections of this manual,
there are numerous regulations governing how hazardous materials are marked, labeled and transported.
However, it is not uncommon on any worksite, especially a UXO site, to encounter unmarked or
improperly marked hazardous materials. Thus, it is important to have a good understanding of how to
safely mitigate the hazards associated with these materials.
Hazardous materials are divided into Packing Groups for the purposes of segregating them during
storage and transport.
Group I These materials pose the greatest danger and require the most extensive and protective
Group II These materials pose a moderate danger
Group III These materials pose the least amount of danger and have the least stringent packaging
These packing groups and other material handling information will be discussed more thoroughly in
Section 14 of this manual.
Chemical Warfare
Chemical Warfare has many similarities with Biological Warfare, in that it uses substances to injure, kill or
otherwise incapacitate people. The difference between Biological and Chemical warfare lies in the
substances that are used. As their names imply, Biological Warfare uses biological, or naturally occurring,
31
Chemical Hazard Safety
packaging
requirements

substances, while Chemical Warfare uses substances that are created in a laboratory and are not
naturally occurring. It is extremely likely that the UXO Technician will encounter chemical weapons while
working in the field.
Once exposed to the atmosphere, the chemical contaminants will generally dissipate to safe levels within
two to three days. So there is usually little hazard associated with handling a chemical weapon that
discharged as intended. The hazard arises when dealing with chemical weapons that failed to operate
properly and must be made safe.
Examples of some of the chemical warfare weapons that the UXO Technician may encounter include
ricin, mustard gas, sarin and butulinum toxin. However, it is important to know that there are at least 70
different chemicals that have been known to be used as chemical warfare agents over the past century.
Chemicals that are toxic enough to be used as chemical weapons or that may be used to manufacture
chemical weapons are divided into three groups, or Schedules, according to their purpose and how their
exposure is treated. The classification of chemical weapons is managed internationally under the
Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical
Weapons and on their Destruction. This agreement is commonly referred to as the Chemical Weapons
Convention. This Convention is an arms control agreement that is administered by the Organisation for
the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), an independent organization located in The Hague,
Netherlands. More than 188 countries have currently ratified and signed the agreement.
Schedule 1 – These substances have few, if any, legitimate uses. They may only be produced or
used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or protective purposes such as the testing of
chemical protective clothing or chemical weapon sensors. Any production of more than 100
grams of a Schedule 1 substance requires that the producer notify the OPCW. No country is
allowed to store or stockpile more than one ton of these substances.
Schedule 2 – These substances do not have large-scale industrial uses but they may have
legitimate small-scale uses. For example, dimethyl methylphosphonate is used as a flame
retardant and also is a precursor for sarin production. Thiodiglycol is commonly used as solvent in
many inks and is also a precursor for the production of mustard gas.
Schedule 3 – These are substances that have legitimate large-scale industrial uses. The OPCW
must be notified of any plant that produces more than 30 tons of these substances annually.
Once notified, the OPCW must be allowed to inspect those plants. Examples of Schedule 3
substances include phosgene, which is used in the production of plastics, and chloropicrin, which
is a fumigant. Both of these chemicals have also been used as chemical weapons.
Persistency
Modern chemical warfare doctrine requires that a person exposed to the chemical delivery should inhale
a lethal does in one breath. Obviously, if the UXO Technician has the potential to be working with
chemical weapons, this poses a very obvious hazard. It is important to understand the potential for the
chemical to remain viable if a container of suspected chemical agent is discovered.
A common way to classify chemical warfare agents that is particularly useful to the UXO Technician is by
their persistency or the length of the time that they remain effective after being exposed to the
atmosphere or after being dispersed. Chemical agents are classified as being either persistent or
nonpersistent. Agents that are classified as nonpersistent lose their effectiveness after a few minutes or a
few hours. These chemicals must be dispersed as very fine droplets, similar to a mist or aerosol.
Examples of nonpersistent chemical agents include chlorine gas, sarin and most nerve agents. By
contrast, a chemical agent that is classified as a persistent agent will remain viable in the atmosphere for
32

several weeks. Unfortunately for the UXO Technician, it is not always possible to view a spent warhead or
shell and know without a doubt that it contains a particular chemical weapon. Thus, the only reasonable
defense against chemical weapons is the use of appropriate personal protective equipment.
The Development of Chemical Warfare Agents
Chemical Agent Distribution Mandatory Personal
Appropriately Rated Gas
Masks
Gas Mask
Rosin Oil Clothing
Agents Aerodynamic Gas Mask with Water Supply Nerve Gas Alarm
1980s Binary Munitions Improved Gas Masks Laser Detection
Unknown Unknown Unknown
Chemical weapons typically are inert agents that are designed to effect the human body in one of six
ways: nerve, asphyxiant/blood, blistering, choking/pulmonary, incapacitating and cytotoxic proteins.
Nerve Agents – These agents act by inactivating a specific enzyme in the brain. This inhibits the
ability of the brain to secrete a necessary neurotransmitter, which impairs the ability of the
effected person’s body to function properly. Inhaled vapors may take effect within seconds. If the
agent comes into contact with skin, effects can be delayed for several hours. Examples of nerve
agents include: cyclosarin, sarin, VX, Novichok agents, soman, tuban and some insecticides. VX
is a contact hazard and is classified as persistent. Most other nerve agents are inhalation hazards
and are nonpersistent.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to a nerve agent include: pinpoint pupils, headache,
nausea/vomiting, diarrhea, blurred or dimmed vision, muscle twitches, profuse sweating, difficulty
breathing, seizures, loss of consciousness and death.
Asphyxiant/Blood Agents – These agents have many different modes of action on the human
body. Some agents cause massive internal bleeding, others prevent the cells of the body from
using oxygen, and others cause the body to create excessive amounts of lactic acid which slowly
33
Protective Equipment
Means of
Detection
1900s
Chlorine
Chloropicrin
Phosgene
Mustard Gas
Atmospheric / Wind
Dispersal
Smell
1910s Lewisite Chemical Shells
1930s
G-Series Nerve
Agents Aircraft Bombs
Blister Agent
Detectors Color
Change Paper
1960s V-Series Nerve
1990s Novichok Nerve
Agents
Classes of Chemical Weapons

turns the blood into an acid. The agents are fast-acting and are typically nonpersistent inhalation
hazards. Examples of asphyxiant/blood agents include arsine, a derivative of arsenic; cyanogens
chloride and hydrogen cyanide.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to these agents include: confusion, nausea/vomiting, blueness
of the lips or nailbed (cyanosis), gasping for air, seizures and death.
Blistering Agents – These agents are contact hazards that are persistent. They act by forming
acids or other compounds that damage skin and the respiratory system, leading to burns and
breathing problems. Examples of blistering agents include: sulfur mustard, nitrogen mustard,
lewisite and phosgene oxime. Lewisite has immediate effects upon contact, while the effects from
the mustards may be delayed by four to 48 hours depending upon weather the agent is inhaled or
comes into contact with the skin.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to blistering agents include: severe irritation to the skin, eye
and mucous membranes; redness and blistering of the skin; damage to the eyes; and respiratory
problems ranging from mild distress to severe airway damage.
Choking/Pulmonary Agents – These agents are very similar to blistering agents, in that they
usually form acids. However, in these agents, the blisters are much more pronounced within the
victim’s respiratory system. They typically act immediately upon contact and they are persistent
inhalation hazards. The blisters they form within the respiratory system end up flooding the lungs
with fluid, causing the victim to drown or suffocate. Examples of this type of chemical agent
include: chlorine, hydrogen chloride, nitrogen oxides and phosgene.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to these agents include: eye and skin irritation, difficulty
breathing, excessive coughing, sore throat, chest tightness and wheezing.
Incapacitating Agents – There is only one identified incapacitating agent – Agent 15, also called
BZ. This agent acts by inhibiting the acetylcholine in the body’s peripheral nervous system.
Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for coordinating muscle function. It is extremely
persistent in soil, in water and on most surfaces. It is a contact hazard that acts within 30 minutes
if inhaled and up to 36 hours after contact with the skin.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to BZ often are confused with drug intoxication. They include
hallucination, erratic behavior, confusion, dilated pupils, dry mouth, lack of coordination and high
body temperature.
Cytotoxin Protein Agents – These agents degrade quickly in the atmosphere. They are
designed to inhibit the creation of protein within the body, leading to flu-like symptoms. Examples
include ricin and abrin. Signs and symptoms are usually seen between four and 24 hours of
exposure, with more pronounced symptoms showing if the agent is inhaled or injected.
Signs and symptoms of exposure to these agents are similar to those seen with the common flu,
such as nausea/vomiting, coughing, difficulty breathing and gastrointestinal upset. However,
there is typically gastrointestinal bleeding that is demonstrated by visible blood in the feces or
vomit. Eventually, these symptoms progress towards liver and kidney failure, resulting in death.
Other chemical weapons that the UXO Technician may encounter are not controlled or limited by the
Chemical Weapons Convention but still pose a definite hazard to the Technician. These weapons include:
34

Defoliants – Defoliants destroy vegetation but are not immediately toxic to people. Agent Orange
is a good example of a defoliant.
Incendiaries – These are explosive chemicals that are used because of their destructive force
from fire or explosion, not their chemical action. Napalm is a good example of an incendiary
chemical weapon.
Protection Against Chemical Warfare Agents
It is obvious that chemical weapons pose a tremendous risk to human beings. Because the most common
cause of any workplace injury is the unintentional accident, it is absolutely critical that any weapon that
could potentially be a chemical weapon be treated with the utmost care. Suspected chemical weapons
must be thoroughly and carefully analyzed prior to any handling in order to determine what hazards may
be present.
When handling potential or known chemical weapon, protection begins with wearing the appropriate
personal protective equipment (PPE). Appropriate protection usually involves some level of respiratory
protection as well as protective clothing. The specific appropriate PPE can only truly be determined once
the specific chemical threat is identified. However, if the threat is unknown, it must be treated the same as
the highest possible threat, which would include a fully-encapsulated chemical resistant suit with a self-contained
air supply. Personal protective equipment and respiratory protection will be discussed in more
detail in later sections of this manual.
Another key point in the safe handling of chemical weapons involves the protection of structures or
buildings within the hazard zone. By carefully protecting the buildings and structures within the chemical
weapon’s hazard zone, people can continue to function in those spaces without fear of contamination.
Protection may be as simple as erecting barriers of plastic sheeting, or as complex as mobile air supplies
and substantial physical barriers.
Decontamination
If an individual, structure or area has been exposed to a real or suspected chemical weapon, it is
imperative that immediate decontamination take place. The decontamination procedure differs with each
specific chemical agent. Decontamination of some nonpersistent pulmonary agents, such as chlorine and
phosgene, may be as simple as providing improved ventilation to the area. However, in some cases it
may be necessary to chemically neutralize a substance, such as through the use of ammonia to
neutralize hydrogen cyanide. Or the individual may require immediate medical intervention in order to
survive. A thorough discussion of decontamination procedures can be found in later sections of this
manual.
35

Notes
36

Fire & Explosive Hazard Recognition
HAZ-021-004-L
Dangers of Uncontrolled Fire on UXO Sites
Sites containing unexploded ordnance are typically not locations where fire is desirable, for obvious
reasons. Many of the devices or other objects that the UXO Technician will potentially be working with are
either heat sensitive or shock sensitive, or both. In order to prevent uncontrolled fires and provide the
greatest measure of employee safety, there must first be a good understanding of what creates fire and
how it can be controlled.
Definitions
Combustion – The sequence of heat-releasing chemical reactions between a fuel (something that can
burn) and an oxidant (something which helps promote burning), which produces heat and light.
Combustion does not necessarily require the presence of oxygen, such as when hydrogen gas burns
upon contact with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
Complete Combustion – The fuel burns in oxygen, producing a limited number of products,
usually carbon dioxide and water. Complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve.
Incomplete Combustion – Occurs when there isn't enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react
completely with the oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Most combustion results in the
creation of carbon soot or ash as well as various other compounds.
Smoldering Combustion - Slow, low-temperature, flameless combustion, sustained by the heat
created when oxygen reaches the surface of a fuel. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering
reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, and tobacco.
Conflagration – An uncontrolled burning or fire that threatens human life, health, property or ecology. It
can be created either accidentally or intentionally. Sometimes, a conflagration may produce a firestorm in
which the central column of rising heated air creates strong inward winds, which supply oxygen to the fire,
further feeding its growth.
Deflagration – A subsonic combustion process that propagates through a substance’s ability to conduct
heat to adjacent materials.
Detonation – A process of combustion that creates a supersonic shock wave through a body of
detonable material, such as an oxygen-methane mixture or a high explosive. In a detonation, the
supersonic shock wave compresses the surrounding material, which increases that material’s
temperature to its ignition point. The ignited material burns behind the shock wave, releasing heat energy
and a high-pressure volume of gas that propagates the shock wave, creating a self-sustaining reaction.
Detonations can be produced by explosives, reactive gaseous mixtures, certain dusts and aerosols.
Explosion – An extremely rapid and violent increase in volume of gas, accompanied by a release of
energy usually in the form of high temperature. An explosion creates a shock wave. If the shock wave is a
supersonic, then the then the source of the explosion is called a “high explosive.” If the shock wave is
subsonic, then the sources of the explosion are called a “low explosive.
37
Fire & Explosive Hazard Recognition HAZ-021-004-L

HAZWOPER

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