• The fruiting body is a specialized structure formed by the aggregation and differentiation of the vegetative mycelium, the assimilative phase in fungi.
• These are the structures in which or within which meiospores or mitospores or even some vegetative perennating structures like stromata and sclerotia are produced in fungi i.e., the site of reproduction.
• Fruiting body shows morphogenetic plasticity. All the cells of a fruiting body except for the meiocytes are totipotent.
• Morphogenesis is compartmentalised into different subroutines.. These separate subroutines can be recognised at the levels of organs (e.g., cap, stem, veil), tissues (e.g., hymenophore, pileipellis), cells (e.g., basidium, paraphysis, cystidium) and cellular components (e.g. uniform wall growth, growth in girth, growth in length, growth in wall thickness). They are distinct genetically and physiologically and may run in parallel or in sequence.
• Fruit body morphogenesis is effected by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
• Positive autotropism is essential to cause hyphae to grow together for hyphal branches to cooperate and coordinate their activities, to create a multicellular fruit body.
• Fruiting bodies exhibit great diversity in morphological shapes, colors and sizes.
2. What is a Fungal Fruiting body?
Formed by aggregation of
vegetative mycelium.
Produce meiospore, mitospore or
perennating vegetative structures.
Cells totipotent except
for meiocytes.
Fruit body morphogenesis
characteristic for a species.
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect
morphogenesis.
Compartmentalization of
morphogenesis into subroutines.
Directional control of
morphogenesis-positive
(https:teara.govt.nz/en/interactive/11546/fungal-fruiting-body)
9. Polysphondylium pallidum P. violaceum Actyostelium sp.
P. tenuissimum
D. aureo-stipes D. polycephalum
(http://cosmos-kyoto.net/csm/photos2/DmL2s.jpeg)
11. Amoebozoa: Copromyxidae
A-E] Copromyxa protea. A] Complex branching sorocarp growing off of cow dung. B] Simple columnar sorocarp fruiting on an agar culture dish.
C] Sorocysts (spores), with one empty sorocyst wall. D] Limax-type monopodial amoeba. E] Thick-walled sphaerocyst. F-G] Copromyxella spicata,
redrawn from Raper et al. (1977). f Delicate interlaced sorocarps. g Limax-type amoeba.
12. Excavata:
Acrasidae
Complex sorocarp A]Acrasis kona
B] Acrasis rosea
C] Acrasis takarsan
D] Simple sorocarp of Acrasis helenhemmesae
E] Sorocarp with globose sorus of ''Pocheina'' rosea
F] Simple sorocarp of Allovahlkampfia spelaea
G] Spore of Acrasis sp. with characteristic areolate
structures (hila)
H] Limax-type amoeba of Acrasis sp.
I] Cysts of Acrasis sp.
J] Spores of Allovahlkampfia spelaea with out the
characteristic hila seen in Acrasis and Pocheina.
K] Limax-type amoeba of Allovahlkampfia spelaea
13. Opisthokonta: Fonticulaceae & Rhizaria: Guttulinopsidae
A] Sorocarp of Fonticula alba.
B-C] Amoebae of Fonticula alba with filose
pseudopodia, amoebae are near a fungal
hypha.
D]Two sorocarps of Guttulinopsis vulgaris
fruiting near each other off of cow dung.
E] Single sorocarp fruiting on cow dung.
F] Spore of Guttulinopsis with a
characteristic collapsed morphology.
G] Flabellate amoeba of Guttulinopsis
vulgaris. H] Sorocarp of Sorodiplophrys
stercorea with a globose deep golden sorus.
I] Spores of Sorodiplophrys stercorea.
J] Amoeba of Sorodiplophrys stercorea with
two filose pesudopodial extensions
extending from either pole.
17. 1. Sporangium
• In heterothalic myxomycetes, 7 parts.
• Hypothallus: Membranous, transparent, composed of Calcium carbonate.
May not be prominent in all species.
Didymium squamulosum
(https://granadanatural.com/imagenes/mixomicetes_fichas/didymium_sc
uamulosum--tizna-wl1-dsc_0241.jpg)
Arcyria denudata
(https://img.fotocommunity.com/arcyria-denudata-60534c31-b535-41d8-a34e-
fb7753af79eb.jpg?height=1080)
18. • Stalk/ Stipe: Support & elevate the spores above the substratum. Hollow or filled with some material.
Badhamia dubia
(https://www.mycodb.fr/photos/Badhamia_dubia_2012_iegm_1.jpg)
Comatricha tenerrima
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.627a8d1ad5f8c4095c3a45dad3861c2c?rik=%2bTWMRD2
76PS%2fzw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwaarnemingen.paddestoelenkartering.nl%2fsubpages
%2ffotomap%2fComten15_1.jpg&ehk=Rh%2bgopMoDfi45DJ0f66aZT2znLpRXIZclQmB
%2bdRviCw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
20. • Pseudocolumella: Ressemble columella but do not attach to the stalk. Found only in
the Order Physarales..
(https://live.staticflickr.com/713/22709487042_1234a969f6.jpg)
Craterium leucocephalum
21. • Capillitium: System of threadlike elements found within the spore mass of
fruiting body.
Badhamioid capillitium & Physaroid capillitium.
(https://medcraveonline.com/JBMOA/images/JBMOA-07-00260-g008.png)
Hemitrichia montana
(https://i.ytimg.com/vi/p3goJl_grFU/maxresdefault.jpg)
Fuligo septica
Click to add text
Willkommlangea reticulata
22. Lycogala epidendrum
• Pseudocapillitium: Ocuur in pseudoaethalia and aethalia of produced
by some Liceales. Individual structures are uniform.
Highly variable in size & shape.
(https://ultimate-mushroom.com/uploads/posts/2020-10/1602918879_lycogala-
epidendrum-2.jpg)
Amaurochaete atra
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.9aba7b6e7186a58fa13e90798dcc15fe?rik=Knwcp%2faJHjnl4g&riu=
http%3a%2f%2fmyxomycetes.net%2fcontent%2fSpecies-galleries-A-C%2fsection-
1%2fAmaurochaete+atra%2fAmaurochaete+atra_101.jpg&ehk=lb7trj3qd8QMajBs7%2bxZlQS8hJ
YGw71TGcy4A41TAa8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
23. • Spores: microscopic, haploid
Mostly spherical
Size and colour varying
Free or aggregated into clusters
Asperulate, verrucose, echinate and reticulate
In Badhamia sp. and Dianema corticatum spore balls are present.
Dianema depressum
(https://www.naturamediterraneo.com/Public/data9/Zissis%20Antonopoulos/201621420554_2.jpg)
Physarum pusillum
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6363d13f7b19d80d070f27b0349c19d5?rik=Igb3Lcw%2bO8mg2
g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hiddenforest.co.nz%2fslime%2ffamily%2fphysaraceae%2fimag
es%2fphysa17s.jpg&ehk=4iEP%2bjjLTPVIX1prvUXP3j4EOPdngt1dmWIreNVlWD4%3d&risl=&
pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.e11e9b321df5d4b3d1777ca1c2860354?rik
=Y%2fsz8IhgbqpqiQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmycologie.gmv.pagesperso-
orange.fr%2fPHOTOS%2fMyxomycetes%2fMyxomycetes_tableau%2fim
ages_Myxomycetes%2fimages%2fstemonitis-axifera-
spores.jpg&ehk=gBscxBcogjLNchV9ViCyaIpLKs86f057w1u6UiQScIc%3d
&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
Stemonitis sp.
24. • Peridium: Encloses the spores in the endosporous myxomycetes.
Sometimes brilliantly coloured
Some irridescent or infused with Calcium carbonate
Peridium Species
Single layered & persistent Perichaena microspora
Double layered & persistent P. depressa
Triple layered & persistent Physarum bogoriense
Membranous & evanescent Macbrideola, Stemonitis
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4ac2047cd5213fee75f35fef97d48e00?rik
=weV%2bmhdLsp3%2bqw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.discoverlife.org
%2fIM%2fI_UARK%2f0004%2f320%2fPerichaena_microspora%2cI_UA
RK403.jpg&ehk=Iww4UfuTRKZdcZtTWDLUGpz19aRnAW2nDKhfYEygn
Wg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
Perichaena microspora Perichaena depressa
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.e3f385ffd3c063745edb8ef7fcaa6d5a?rik=nlKax9PVnMYqCA&
riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.natur.vulkanland.at%2fdb%2fuploads%2f_thumbnails%2f700%2f
16052013094836_420_art_521_per+depressa+5427+4+-
+kopie.jpg&ehk=jev0muar%2fewCuJ%2bN%2b1YxA08vdc%2bzK1w0lKU8HYvqeks%3d&risl
=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
(https://myxomycetes.net/content/Species%20galleries-D-L/section-
1/Diderma%20radiatum%20(kalkrosett)/Diderma%20radiatum_06.jpg)
Diderma radiatum
25. • Cortex: Thick covering surrounding the mass of spores in aethalia.
May be calcareous
Arcyria minuta
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.8b55f1ceb588040469fd22a650a03814?rik=NyubgM5PMxdvPw&riu=http%3a%2f
%2fwww.argazkik.com%2fGaleriak%2fMixoak%2fArgazkiak%2fArcyria+minuta1.jpg&ehk=2BrUv0MIboDEV1mZ
bPYh%2bRBw9HnJksi0c9bFexCkkXg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
Cribraria piriformis
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a0b171d1d0a0fc7efbc5daea032fb362?rik=9Ae
ywzkAoXUfZg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmyxomycetes.net%2fcontent%2fSpecies-
galleries-A-C%2fSection-
4%2fCribraria+piriformis%2fCribraria+piriformis_03.jpg&ehk=Atvociy5qUBN
MFne14Xyj9ylb8fSqNCY8s%2bisvW0MJw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
26. 2. Plasmodiocarp
• Forms a network over the substratum
• Sessile
• Retains the shape of plasmodium at the time
of fruiting.
• Hypothallus, peridium and capillitia present.
Hemitrichia serpula
(https://img.fotocommunity.com/hemitrichia-serpula-9f138958-d71c-4e36-b89e-e8deebf78a6b.jpg?height=1080)
27. Click to add text
3. Aethalia
• Mass of fused sporangia.
• Massive, generally cushion
• shaped.
• Entire body is enclosed in
• peridium.
• Shows no traces of internal
• Sporangial walls.
• Hypothallus, peridial cortex, capillita & pseudocapillitia present
Lycogala epidendrum Reticularia lycoperdon
(https://live.staticflickr.com/2942/33367012764_19fc187916_b.jpg)
(https://www.naturephoto-cz.com/photos/maly/lycogala-epidendrum-xxx376.jpg)
28. 4. Pseudoaethalia
• Sporangia crowded together but not fuses.
• Individual sporangia are clearaly visible.
• Formed on common hypothallus.
Tubifera corymbosa T. vanderheuliae
(https://sarahlloydmyxos.files.wordpress.com/2019/08/tubifera-vanderheuliae-0423.jpg)
29. 5. Exosporous
• Produces spores on the surface of sporophores.
• In sporophores amorphous vacuolated material form pillar like to coralloid structures on which
spores are borne.
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7069b19dbb99ed3bc6e9a809be26ec9a?rik=q9epz93b%2fnlcbg&riu=http%3a
%2f%2fmushroomobserver.org%2fimages%2forig%2f409591.jpg&ehk=lVuORV9D%2bJFjufVb0YO2pgyzN4kL
ARSRzEF1zaJZUy8%3d&risl=1&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
Ceratiomyxa fruiticulosa
30. 3 Subclasses of Myxomycetes
Ceratiomyxomycetidae Myxogastromycetidae Stemonitomycetidae
Spores borne singly at the tips
of sporophores
• Sporophore
development subhypothallic
• Peridium continuous with
the stalk and hypothallus.
• Spores pallid, bright-
coloured, ferruginous
• Sporophore
development epihypothallic
• Spores violet-brown, lilac,
ferruginous or pallid
• Lime if present absent on
capillitium
31. PLASMODIOPHOROMYCETES
• Sporosorous/ cystosorus
• Contain resting spores
• Remain dormant for 8 years.
• Resting spores are haploid.
(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanna_Friberg/publication/30072729/figure/download/fig1/AS:30995391190220
8@1450910179105/SEM-photo-of-Plasmodiophora-brassicae-resting-spores-in-infected-roots-of-Brassica-rapa.png)
34. Meiosporangium
• Thick walled and pitted
• Reddish brown in colour
• Multinucleate, diploid contents
• Resting/ resistant sporangia
• Uniflagellate, uninucleate, haploid, opisthocont zoospores, slightly smaller
than the mitozoospores- meiozoospores/ gonozoospores.
(https://live.staticflickr.com/7420/10680489734_7386039b9c_b.jpg) (https://gd.eppo.int/media/data/taxon/S/SYNCEN/pics/1024x0/1585.jpg)
35. 2. OOMYCETES
• Classified into 4 orders:
1. Saprolegniales- sporangia producing zoospores
2. Peronosporales- Sporangia under wet conditions produce zoospores
Under dry conditions,
Sporangium gets
detached
Functions as a
conidiosporangia,
producing a germ
tube.
Form a new
mycelium
36. Morphotaxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of Saprolegnia ferax from India - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Saprolegnia-ferax-NFCCI-4174-A-Colonies-on-incubated-natural-substrate-showing_fig1_326347352 [accessed 9 Jan, 2022]
Saprolengia sp.
A) A branched zoosporangium. B) Encysted zoospores within sporangium
producing germ tubes, E) Numerous zoosporangia. F) Branched, cylindrical and
clavate, hyaline zoosporangia. G) Cylindrical, solitary zoosporangium. H) Simple
filamentous zoosporangium with dispersed encysted zoospores..
Pythium sp.
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.9f3efa0623c321dab1675427dc765667?rik=jgldt%2fikCplCZQ&riu=htt
p%3a%2f%2fwww.zor.zut.edu.pl%2fSkrypt-web%2fimages%2fPythium-sporangia-
r_jpg.jpg&ehk=oJL87ByjTbe9vioscC9cVCi9he14RIDu25BErNJZ9es%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sre
s=1&sresct=1)
Sclerospora sp.
(https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336747917/figur
e/fig4/AS:817222696054786@1571852482998/Confocal-
laser-scanning-microscopy-of-sporulation-of-Sclerospora-
graminicola-showing.jpg)
42. SUBDIVISION ASCOMYCOTINA
• Ascocarps except in Hemiascomycetes.
• Divided into 6 classes
Class Ascocarp
Hemiascomycetes No ascocarp
Loculoascomycetes ascostroma
Plectomycetes cleistothecium
Laboulbeniomycetes perithecium
Pyrenomycetes perithecium
Discomycetes Apothecium
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.31c81fdd6dcf03e42c58977526448f4e?rik=l7w0saXlVXrDpA&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com%2f-
A4w209ljL5M%2fTutErYmcU-
I%2fAAAAAAAAARs%2fGaEmLvwjdsc%2fs1600%2fAscomycetes.jpg&ehk=hL5JaJvXqnU%2bGXeHm3GVndKv6kw%2bAbA1WRmMHD6Gnrk%3d&ri
sl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
43. 1.Plectomycetes
• Cleistothecium
• Ascocarps are rudimentary
• Erysiphales-One to several club shaped
asci disharge ascospores violently
• Eurotiales- Ascocarps variable in form.
Asci are small & globose. Ascospores
not discharged violently
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a826bf1fd746ff6aa0de54f3c91175e?rik=gG123WZr0Nofyg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fbotit.botany.wisc.edu%2fResources%2fToms+Fungi%2fAscomycota
%2fPlectomycetes%2fErysiphe_cleistothecium_I_tjv.jpg&ehk=X19Oke%2f9%2fmdlJzhtB42oLee4SkqyEykHWekbKOz%2fMvk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1)
44. Erysiphales
• Cleistothecia are brown, globose without ostiole
• Contain one to several asci
• Discharge spores explosively
• Peridium- 4-6 layered, darkly pigmented
• Immmature ascocarp, centrum pseudoparenchymatous
• Receptive hyphae, thickwalled appendages present.
48. Eurotiaceae
• Perfect state and imperfect state fruiting bodies are seen.
Byssochlamys fulva. a. Conidiophores; b. conidia; c. asci and
ascospores. — Byssochlamys nivea. d. Conidiophores; e. conidia; f.
ascospores. — Byssochlamys verrucosa. g, h. Conidiophores and
conidia; i. asci and ascospores
(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jos-
Houbraken/publication/41669957/figure/fig8/AS:202806708445196@1425364295560/B
yssochlamys-fulva-a-Conidiophores-b-conidia-c-asci-and-ascospores-Byssochlamys.png)
(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joao-Siqueira-
2/publication/320988664/figure/fig2/AS:716475170054149@1547832400597/Morphological-
features-of-Aspergillus-microperforatus-sp-nov-UTHSCSA-DI16-407.jpg)
Aspergillus microperforatus- k, l, ascoma; m, n, asci; o, p,
ascospores; q, r, s, conidial heads; t, u, conidia.
51. 2. Pyrenomycetes
• Perfect state fruiting body-
Perithecium & imperfect state
fruiting body- conidia
• Ostiole, lined by periphyses
• Occur singly or in clustered on or
within stroma.
• Have unitunicate asci.
(https://live.staticflickr.com/3261/2404297009_4a5b021010_b.jpg)
52. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-
Harrington/publication/7182802/figure/fig5/AS:394501769187334@1471067959765/25-Ceratocystis-
populicola-17-Perithecium-18-Ostiolar-hyphae-19-Ascospores-20.png)
Ceratocystis populicola. 17. Perithecium. 18. Ostiolar hyphae.
19. Ascospores. 20. Flask-shaped endoconidiophore and
cylindrical endoconidia. 21. Cylindrical and doliiform
endoconidia. 22. Wide-mouth endoconidiophore with
emerging doliiform endoconidia. 23. melanized doliiform
endoconidia, most mature conidium at right. 24. Melanized
doliiform endoconidia attached to wide-mouth
endoconidiophore. 25. Aleurioconidium
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Douglas-
Mcnew/publication/318833506/figure/fig5/AS:670383753682957@1536843350565/e-Perithecia-
ascospores-and-conidia-of-Ceratocystis-uchidae-ex-holotype-C1714-CBS.png
Ceratocystis uchidae (ex-holotype, C1714, CBS 115164). A:
Perithecium. B: Pyriform base of perithecium with swelling at
perithecial neck. C: Divergent ostiolar hyphae with ascospores
emerging through the mouth of the neck. D: Hat-shaped
ascospores in side and top view. E: Deep-seated phialide on a
short conidiophore producing cylindrical conidia. F: Chain of
cylindrical conidia. G: Chain of thick-walled, pigmented conidia
(aleurioconidia) produced basipetally from a conidiogenous cell.
55. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Priscila-
Chaverri/publication/225290850/figure/fig23/AS:268035143499776@1440915966386/Nectria-nigrescens-on-natural-
substrata-A-teleomorph-and-anamorph-B-F-teleomorph-G-T.png)
Nectria nigrescens A.
Perithecia (black arrows)
and astipitate sporodochia
(white arrows) on natural
substrata; B. Perithecia on
natural substrata; C.
Median section of
perithecia; D. Median
section of perithecial wall;
E. Ascus; F. Ascospores; G–
K. Long and short stipitate
sporodochia; L. Median
section of long stipitate
sporodochium; M. Edge of
long stipitate
sporodochium; N. Median
section of short stipitate
sporodochium; O. Edge of
short stipitate
sporodochium; P–S.
Acropleurogenous
conidiophores and
acropleurogenously
developing phialides on
natural substrata; T.
Conidia on natural
substrata.
(https://i.pinimg.com/736x/23/6d/7b/236d7b13ba01cabee
db9322949a7ddaa--wicked-plants.jpg)
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.46d5783dde1bcafd281ced76f85
dca14?rik=26JyGwapdpUNtA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fpflanzenkr
ankheiten.ch%2fimages%2ffuttergraeser%2fClaviceps_purpu
rea%2fHauptfruchtform%2fbecssg_images%2fC_Claviceps_p
urpurea_523_348_95.jpg&ehk=zrEd%2fo%2fwkbuGczcJ2okRk
YFVRenNbVawqy3%2fj%2bZ4vp4%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=
0&sres=1&sresct=1)
Claviceps purpurea
59. Hypogaeous Discomycetes
• Form subterranean fruit bodies
• Fruit bodies have a strong
smell and flavour.
• Outer peridium, gleba & veins
Tuber rufum
(https://www.trufamania.com/trufas/Tuber%20rufum04.jpg)
Elaphomyces granulatus
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.cafc8d4db28bc5156cc3258734e
410c6?rik=7WK9BYqOl%2fRWcg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fgribi.ne
t.ua%2fwp-
content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f12%2fElaphomyces-
granulatus1.jpg&ehk=yZeVdbaXuGKkpaYXC9RsoWaEYQ7eLcE
aJGeKNxMZJNA%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)
60. 4. Loculoascomycetes
• Ascostroma/ Pseudothecia
• Ascus bitunicate
Ascomata on host
substrate. b. Close up of
ascoma .c . Section of
ascoma. d. Close up of the
peridium. e. Cellular, hyaline,
septate, broad
pseudoparaphyses. f-h. Asci
with short, broad pedicel
bearing 8 ascospores i-l.
Mature and immature
ascospores with
mucilaginous
sheath. Stemphylium sp. m-
p. Conidiophores with pale
to mid dark or olivaceous
brown, smooth conidia.
(https://www.facesoffungi.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Fig.-22-
Pleospora-herbarum-.jpg)
Pleospora sp.
Sporormia fimetaria
(https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.d9IcamCV1aLH6dLXxbGeMAHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)
61. SUBDIVISION
BASIDIOMYCOTINA
• Basidiocarp
• Spores exogenous on sterigmata
• Typically 4 spores in a basidium
• Holobasidium, tuning fork type of
basidium & Heterobasidium/
Phragmobasidium
• Basidiocarps absent in Teliomycetes.
62. 1. Teliomycetes
• Thick walled teliospore and metabasidium give rise to 4 or more
sporidia
• Uredinales- 4 sporidia formed on metabasidium
Ustilaginales- indefinite sporidia
Ustilago sp.
(https://i.pinimg.com/originals/fb/47/21/fb47213cfa2b50f0e
d4929a4e71a0357.jpg)
Tilletia puccinelliae
(https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xiaodong-Bao-
3/publication/44650579/figure/fig3/AS:601760041295879@1520482182411/Til
letia-puccinelliae-WSP-71469-holotype-a-Teliospores-plane-view-b-
Teliospores.png)
68. SUBDIVISION DEUTEROMYCOTINA
• Imperfect state fruiting bodies- conidia
• Vary in complexity
• Macronematous, Micronematous, mononematous & synnematous
• Colour of the conidiophore and conidia are important in classification
• Hyphomycetes- conidiophores bearing conidia
• Coelomycetes- spores in pycnidia or acervuli
71. References
• Ursula Kües, Weeradej Khonsuntia, and Shanta Subba. "Complex Fungi." Fungal biology reviews, v. 32,.4 pp. 205-218. doi: 10.1016/j.fbr.2018.08.001
• Halbwachs, Hans & Simmel, Josef & Bässler, Claus. (2016). Tales and mysteries of fungal fruiting: How morphological and physiological traits affect a pileate
lifestyle. Fungal Biology Reviews. 30. 36-61. 10.1016/j.fbr.2016.04.002.
• "Fruiting bodies." American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. 2011. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company 2 Jan. 2022
https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Fruiting+bodies
• Alexopoulos, C. J, Mims, C. W & Blackwell, M. Introductory Mycology.fourth edition., Wiley, 2014.
• Mehrotra, R.S & Aneja, K. R. An Introduction to Mycology. Wiley Eastern Limited, 1990.
• Webster, John. Introduction to fungi. Second Edition.Cambridge University Press, 1999.
• Sharma, O.P. Textbook of Fungi. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 1989.
• Dube, H. C. An Introduction to Fungi. Second Revised Edition. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1990.
• Vashishta, B.R & Sinha, A. K. Botany for Degree Students. S. Chand & Company Pvt Ltd, 2014.
• Moore, David & Gange, Alan & Gange, Edward & Boddy, Lynne. (2008). Chapter 5 Fruit bodies: Their production and development in relation to environment.
British Mycological Society Symposia Series. 28. 79-103. 10.1016/S0275-0287(08)80007-0.
• Shadwick, Lora & Spiegel, Frederick & Shadwick, John & Brown, Matthew & Silberman, Jeffrey. (2009). Eumycetozoa = Amoebozoa? SSUrDNA Phylogeny of
Protosteloid Slime Molds and Its Significance for the Amoebozoan Supergroup. PloS one. 4. e6754. 10.1371/journal.pone.0006754.
