Running head FORMAL PROJECT PROPOSAL .docx

Running head: FORMAL PROJECT PROPOSAL
1
FORMAL PROJECT PROPOSAL
2
Formal Project Proposal
Sierra Spencer
October 30, 2018
Grantham University Online
Regency Star Hotel
This proposal seeks to identify one of the best 4-star hotels that
offers the best services at a convenient price. In this case, the
hotel of consideration is the Regency Star Hotel that offers
lucrative services a relatively lower price. Besides that, there
are numerous benefits that are associated with this hotel. As
such I urge that those looking for better services and feeling the
impact of their money be free to book a space at this hotel as its
one of the best in the region.

Most travelers are often complaining of not getting the value of
their money whenever they book places of reservations and
accommodation in hotels. However, in this case this is one of
the best hotels as it is under a good management system that
ensures everything is put into order for the customers to be
satisfied and their needs are met satisfactorily (Hahn et al,
2017). For instance, the staffs at this hotel are very hospital
offering a hand of service whenever required at any time of the
day.
Besides that, this is a luxury hotel that is equipped with the
most modern equipment in order to keep their customers well-
furnished and satisfied with their services. For instance,
everything here is done as programmed. For instance, the
breakfast, lunch, and dinner are always ready at a specified time
thus making it difficult for one not to be satisfied. The facility
is also equipped with internet connections that are free Wi-Fi
which one has access upon booking for the facility and being
within the premises. This means that one can always remain
updated as they remain in touch with the outside world (Rauch
et al, 2015).
Finally, the price of this facility is at a convenient price which
is pocket-friendly and can thus encourage family booking as
there are numerous activities and rooms that can always keep
family members happy and busy. Therefore, this is one of the
best 4-star hotels in the region that travelers, tourists, and
families can always visit and feel the worth of their money.

Reference
Hahn, S. E., Sparks, B., Wilkins, H., & Jin, X. (2017). E-service
quality management of a hotel website: A scale and implications
for management. Journal of Hospitality Marketing &
Management, 26(7), 694-716.
Rauch, D. A., Collins, M. D., Nale, R. D., & Barr, P. B. (2015).
Measuring service quality in mid-scale hotels. International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(1), 87-
106.
Running head: EXAMINATION OF THE BIG FIVE 1

*This sample paper was adapted by the Writing Center from an
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EXAMINATION OF THE BIG FIVE 2
Abstract
Self-direction in learning is a major topic in the field of adult
learning. There has been extensive
coverage of the topic by theorists, researchers, and
practitioners. However, there have been few
studies, which look at learner self-direction specifically as a

personality trait. The present study
addresses the relationship between learner self-direction and
other personality traits of college
students when the traits represented by the five-factor model of
personality are differentiated
from narrow personality traits. Analysis of the data revealed
five significant part correlations
between specific traits and learner self-direction. Results were
discussed in terms of the
predictive relationship between personality variables and
learner self-direction.
An abstract is a brief summary of your paper with an overview
of key points. Your topic and
research questions should be clear, and you may include the
importance of your results in
continuing current academic research.
This claim establishes the
important contribution of
this study.
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Examination of the Big Five and Narrow Traits in Relation to
Learner Self-Direction
Self-direction in learning is a major topic in the field of adult
learning. It has been shown
that many psychological variables are directly related to learner
self-directedness (Oliveira &
Simões, 2006). However, there have been few studies that look
at learner self-direction
specifically as a personality trait. If personality traits are
relatively consistent for learners across
situations and over time, and if learner self-direction changes
across situations and over time, the
most logical interpretation of why the personality trait—learner
self-direction relationship is
relatively consistent within and across such disparate factors as
age and returning to college after
a long break is because the personality traits are driving the
relationship. This implies that other
personality traits are affecting learner self-direction, not that
learner self-direction is influencing
other personality traits. The goal of the present study is to try to
understand the connection
between personality and self-direction in learning and ascertain
to what extent individual

personality traits are related to learner self-direction when the
traits represented by the five-factor
model of personality (Digman, 1990) are differentiated from
narrow personality traits. The study
draws on and extends the work of Lounsbury, Levy, Park,
Gibson, and Smith (2009), who
reported on the development of a valid personality measure of
learner self-direction.
Literature Review
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) emphasized the importance of
self-directed learners being
able to plan their own learning program and consistently
evaluate progress. Hiemstra (1994)
noted that self-directed learners should be prepared for the
“unexpected” and capable of dealing
with challenges in learning. Ponton and Carr (2000) stated that
“The concept of autonomy
This sentence defines
the key term and names
the overall topic for the
entire paper.
This statement acknowledges the work of others on this same
topic, showing

how this paper fits into the ongoing scholarly conversation on
this topic.
This is the
goal of the
research study
and the
purpose of the
analysis.
A literature review is a survey
of scholarly sources that
provides an overview of a topic.
An introduction clearly states the
focus of the rest of the paper.
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(Knowles, 1980; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) exists under the
personality characteristic rubric
of self-directed learning.” (p. 273). A student showing
initiative, resourcefulness, and persistence

is exhibiting manifestations related to personality
characteristics as a learner. Confessore (as
cited in Ponton & Carr, 2000) suggested that individuals who
exhibit these “conative” factors in
their learning activities “possess traits which are essential to
successful self-direction in learning”
(p. 273). These factors are related to Ponton’s (1999) discussion
of autonomous learning
consisting of five behaviors: goal-directedness, action-
orientation, active-approach to problem
solving, persistence in overcoming obstacles, and self-
startedness which is consistent with the
afore-mentioned conceptualizations of work drive (Lounsbury &
Gibson, 2010). Again, this
aligns with Lounsbury et al.’s (2004) work drive construct as a
predictor of performance and
Gladwell’s (2008) emphasis on persistence leading to success.
Methods
For this study, the focus is on learner self-direction as an
individual differences variable
that can be represented on a continuum from low to high rather
than a categorical or nominal
variable. Learner self-direction is conceptualized and measured
as a personality trait reflecting

individuals’: preference to be in charge of his or her learning
process; ability to conceptualize,
plan, implement, and evaluate one’s academic experience; and
disposition to be goal-oriented
and to work independently or in group settings with little
guidance.
Population and Sample
Undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory psychology
course (n = 1484) and
undergraduate student mentors in a peer-mentoring program (n
= 618) at a large southeastern
state university participated in this study. Of the 2102
participants in this study, 40% were male
and 60% were female. Fifty-seven percent of the participants
were Freshmen; 26%, Sophomores;
In the Methods section, your reader should
be able to reproduce the methods you used
to conduct your research study.
This first paragraph should give your reader a general
idea about what you measured in your research study.

14%, Juniors; and 5%, Seniors. Eighty-four percent of the
participants identified themselves as
Caucasian, 9%--African-American, 2 %--Hispanic, 2%--Asian,
and 3%--other. The median age
of participants was 18-19 years old.
Instrumentation
The personality measure used in this study was the Resource
Associates’ Transition to
College inventory (RATTC; Lounsbury & Gibson, 2010). The
RATTC is a normal personality
inventory contextualized for late adolescents (Jaffe, 1998) and
adults through high school and
college. It measures the Big Five Traits of openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism. The RATTC also measures the
narrow traits of aggression,
career-decidedness, optimism, self-directed learning, sense of
identity, tough-mindedness, and
work drive.
Results
Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated between learner
self-direction and the

Big Five traits as well as narrow traits of work drive and
optimism. Descriptive statistics and
intercorrelations among the study variables are displayed in
Table 1. As can be seen in Table 1,
all of the Big Five personality traits were correlated
significantly and positively with learner self-
direction, except for extraversion. Specifically, in descending
order of magnitude, the
correlations with self-directed learning were: openness (r = .43,
p < .01), agreeableness (r = .21,
p < .01), emotional stability (r = .20, p < .01),
conscientiousness (r = .20, p < .01), and
extraversion (r = .01, ns). The narrow personality traits also
correlated significantly with learner
self-direction, with the largest magnitude correlation observed
for work drive (r = .49, p < .01),
followed by optimism (r = .31, p <.01).
Include whether you used questionnaires, did a case study,
created an
experiment, etc. Explain these instruments or methods to your
reader
to provide a clear awareness of what this method is or involves.
In the Results section, report your
findings. Be sure to avoid commentary
or analysis in this section.

Explain what
readers can find
within any
tables, graphs,
or images that
you include.
The next step of the analysis involved examining the part
correlations of learner self-
direction with openness, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, emotional stability,
optimism, and work drive. A multiple regression analysis was
conducted with learner self-
direction as the dependent variable, and the remaining variables
as predictors entered
simultaneously. The part correlations represent the correlations
of learner self-direction with
each of the predictor variables, independent of the other
predictors. Thus, the squared part
correlations give an indication of the unique contribution of
each variable to learner self-
direction. An examination of the squared part correlations of the
five significant variables
indicates that work drive accounted for 9.6% of the variance,

openness accounted for
approximately 4.3% of the variance, optimism accounted for
almost 1% of the variance, and
extraversion and agreeableness each accounted for less than 1%
of the variance in learner self-
direction.
All variables were entered simultaneously into a multiple
regression model to estimate
the degree of learner self-direction prediction. The overall
regression was significant, F (7, 2094)
= 15.19, p < .01, and these variables accounted for over 52% of
the variance in learner self-
direction. As can be seen in Table 1, five of the variables
explained significant variance in the
model: work drive, openness, optimism, emotional stability, and
extraversion. The strongest
correlate of learner self-direction was work drive (β = .37, p <
.01), followed by openness (β =
.23, p < .01), optimism (β = .12, p < .01), emotional stability (β
= .07, p < .01), extraversion (β =
-.05, p < .05), conscientiousness (β = .03, ns), and
agreeableness (β = .02, ns).

Explaining your findings one step
at a time can be a useful way to
organize your results.
Table 1
Simultaneous Regression
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized Coefficients Correlations
β SE β t Sig. Zero
Order
Partial Part
Work Drive .39 .03 .37 15.90 .00 .49 .33 .31
Openness .24 .02 .23 10.08 .00 .43 .23 .21
Optimism .18 .03 .12 5.85 .00 .13 .13 .09
Emotional .11 .02 .07 4.69 .00 .10 .10 .05
Extraversion -.07 .02 -.05 -3.40 .01 -.08 -.08 -.04
Discussion
The present study was generally successful in terms of
providing validation of the main
research propositions. Six of the eight hypotheses were
supported, which is both consistent with

and extends prior studies (Kirwan, et al., 2010; Lounsbury, et
al., 2009) in that learner self-
direction was uniquely related to four of the Big Five traits
studied as well as and both of the
narrow traits examined here. The present findings reinforce and
support Lounsbury et al.’s
(2009) findings that demonstrated “…the importance and
richness of the self-directed learning
construct and … its role as a personality trait” (p. 417).
Considering first the Big Five traits, the
significant, positive relationships between them and learner
self-direction are consistent with
Lounsbury et al.’s (2009) findings. Regarding the narrow traits,
significant, positive relationships
between learner self-direction and work drive as well as
optimism were also supported.
Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) emphasized the importance of
self-directed learners being
able to plan their own learning program and consistently
evaluate progress. Hiemstra (1994)
noted that self-directed learners should be prepared for the
“unexpected” and capable of dealing
with challenges in learning. Ponton and Carr (2000) stated that
“the concept of autonomy

(Knowles, 1980; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) exists under the
personality characteristic rubric
You can make a table, figure, or image to help present your
findings.
In the Discussion section, analyze and interpret your findings.
What do the
results mean? Explain if you found what you expected to find.
In other words:,
which of your hypotheses were supported by the findings?
Which were not?
Explain how your findings support or refute the research of
others on the topic.
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of self-directed learning.” (p. 273). A student showing
initiative, resourcefulness, and persistence
is exhibiting manifestations related to personality
characteristics as a learner. Confessore (1991)
suggested that individuals who exhibit these “conative” factors
in their learning activities
“possess traits which are essential to successful self-direction in
learning” (p. 273). These factors

are related to Ponton’s (1999) discussion of autonomous
learning consisting of five behaviors:
goal-directedness, action-orientation, active-approach to
problem solving, persistence in
overcoming obstacles, and self-startedness which is consistent
with the afore-mentioned
conceptualizations of work drive (Lounsbury & Gibson, 2010).
Again, this aligns with
Lounsbury et al.’s (2004) work drive construct as a predictor of
performance and Gladwell’s
(2008) emphasis on persistence leading to success.
There are two primary limitations of the current study that
should be acknowledged.
First, this study was limited to a four-month interval in time in
a single geographic area at a
large, public university, leaving open the question of
generalizability to other time periods,
geographic areas, and types of universities. Second, most of the
study participants were lower-
level students; thus, it is not possible to know if the results
would generalize to samples of
primarily upper-level or graduate students.
There are a number of other interesting areas for future research

that could clarify and
extend the present findings. In addition to the need for
replication on different samples, research
could be conducted on how the Big Five and narrow personality
traits relate to sense of identity
and learner self-direction. Another topic for investigation is the
relationship between age of
students and learner self-directedness. As mentioned earlier,
perhaps the most important need for
future research is to utilize longitudinal research designs to help
clarify the direction of causality
In the Discussion section, you can also suggest additional
research your findings could/should lead to in the future.
Comment on any
limitations of your
study. How might your
study have been
lacking? What might
you have overlooked?
for personality traits vis-à-vis self-directed learning and to try
to determine how these linkages
are established.

Conclusion
The results of the present study indicate that the Big Five traits
as well as the two narrow
traits measured in this study were each related to learner self-
direction, with work drive and
openness accounting for most of the variance in learner self-
direction on their own. Taken as a
whole, the present findings were interpreted as, in part,
confirming and extending the results of
Lounsbury et al. (2009) and Kirwan et al. (2010) regarding the
Big Five, narrow traits, and
learner self-direction, demonstrating the generalizability of
personality trait—learner self-
direction relationships across a variety of different demographic
and personal subgroups of
students, and providing some clues that the direction of the
causal arrow may be from personality
traits to learner self-direction.
In conclusion, it is clear that learner self-direction has multiple
connections to personality
traits and is not clearly associated with just one of the Big Five
traits. In a sense, this pattern of
multiple connections to personality is consistent with the
diverse factors learner self-direction

has been linked to in the theoretical literature, as, for example,
the six vectors of college student
development that Chickering and Reisser (1993) posit as leading
to identity establishment for
college students. Hopefully, further research will extend and
clarify the nomological network of
personality traits and self-direction in learning across a broad
range of settings.
The conclusion should be a short
section without any new research or
findings.
A good technique is to state the relevance of your research in
the final paragraph. Consider what
the reader has learned from this research, how your work can
expand on the existing research, or
what future research could gain from your study.
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References

Brockett, R. (1983). Self-directed learning and the hard-to-
reach adult. Lifelong Learning: The
Adult Years, 6(8), 16–18.
Brockett, R., & Hiemstra, R. (1991). Self-direction in adult
learning: Perspectives on theory,
research, and practice. Retrieved from
http://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/sdlindex.html
Chickering, A., & Reisser, L. (1993). Education and identity.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Confessore, G. J. (1991). Human behavior as a construct for
assessing Guglielmino's Self-
directed learning readiness scale: Pragmatism revisited. In H. B.
Long & Associates
(Eds.), Self-directed learning: Consensus and conflict (pp. 123–
146). Norman, OK:
Oklahoma Center for Continuing Professional and Higher
Education, University of
Oklahoma.
Costa, P., & Kalick, B. (2003). Assessment strategies for self-
directed learning (Experts in
Assessment Series). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Costa, P., & McCrae, R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality
Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-

Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL:
Psychological
Assessment Services.
Digman, J. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-
factor model. Annual Review of
Psychology, 41, 417–440.
doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.002221
Gladwell, M. (2008). Outliers: The story of success. New York,
NY: Little, Brown and
Company.
Hiemstra, R. (1994). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from
hhttp://home.twcny.rr.com/hiemstra/sdlhdbk.html
A references list must be included. All
sources cited within your paper must be
listed here.
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Jaffe, M. L. (1998). Adolescence. New York, NY: Wiley.
Kirwan, J. R., Lounsbury, J., & Gibson, L. (2010). Self-directed
learning and personality: The

big five and narrow personality traits in relation to learner self-
direction. International
Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 7(2), 21–34.
Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education.
New York, NY: Cambridge
Books.
Lounsbury, J., & Gibson, L. (2010). Technical manual for the
resource associates personal style
inventory and adolescent personal style inventory. Knoxville,
TN: Resource Associates.
Lounsbury, J., Gibson, L., & Hamrick, F. (2004). The
development of a personological measure
of work drive. Journal of Business Psychology, 18, 347–371.
Lounsbury, J., Gibson, L., Sundstrom, E., Wilburn, D., &
Loveland, J. (2003). An empirical
investigation of the proposition that "school is work": A
comparison of personality-
performance correlations in school and work settings. Journal of
Education and Work,
17, 119–131.
Lounsbury, J., Levy, J., Park, S., Gibson, L., & Smith, R.
(2009). An investigation of the
construct validity of the personality trait of self-directed

learning Learning and Individual
Differences, 19, 411–18. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.03.001
Lounsbury, J., Loveland, J., Sundstrom, E., Gibson, L., Drost,
A. W., & Hamrick, F. (2003). An
investigation of personality traits in relation to career
satisfaction. Journal of Career
Assessment, 11, 287–307.
Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in
adulthood. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass.
Moon, H., Hollenbeck, J. R., Humphrey, S. E., & Maue, B.
(2003). The tripartite model of
neuroticism and the suppression of depression and anxiety
within an escalation of
commitment dilemma. Journal of Personality, 71(3), 347–368.
doi:10.1111/1467-
6494.7103004
Oliveira, A. L., & Simões, A. (2006). Impact of socio-
demographic and psychological variables
on the self-directedness of higher education students.

International Journal of Self-
Directed Learning, 3(1), 1–12.
Ponton, M. K. (1999). The measurement of an adult's intention
to exhibit personal initiative in
autonomous learning. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60,
3933.
Ponton, M. K., & Carr, P. B. (2000). Understanding and
promoting autonomy in self-directed
learning. Current Research in Social Psychology, 5(19), 271–
284.
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2
The Interpersonal
Communication Process
iStockphoto
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter and studying the

materials, you should be able to:
1. Describe the essential parts of an interpersonal
communications model.
2. Identify the barriers to interpersonal communication.
3. Overcome the barriers to interpersonal communication.
4. Recognize the additional challenges present in international
interpersonal communication.
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© Axel Koester/Sygma/Corbis
Bill Marriott's communication style is an integral part of
the
success of his company.
2.1 Interpersonal Communication
Learning Objective # 1: What are the essential
parts of an interpersonal communication model?
One-on-one contact continues to be the most crucial form
of business and management communication. Interpersonal
communication interactions take
place between two or more people—co-workers, with
customers, suppliers, and others in the marketing channel,
with members of governmental agencies,
between supervisors and employees, and with a wide
variety of publics on a daily basis. Each represents the
potential to build trust, loyalty, and other

positive elements of a relationship but also to generate
disharmony, distrust, and, at times, hostility. An effective
communicator tries to maintain pleasant
and positive relations with others, even when points of
disagreement arise. Understanding how interpersonal
communication works helps form the
foundation for improving your social skills on the job and
in everyday life.
Bill Marriott: Maintaining a Legacy of Management
Communication Success
The Marriott International chain of hotel properties has
undergone a series of dramatic success periods along with
eras of change. Marriott
International's "spirit to serve" culture is based on a
business philosophy established more than 80 years ago by
founders J. Willard and
Alice S. Marriott, who often said, "Take care of the
associates, and they'll take care of the guests." By 2010,
approximately 300,000 Marriott
associates were serving guests in Marriott-managed and
franchised properties throughout the world.
CEO Bill Marriot is responsible for much of the
company's current success. An
ABC News story about Marriott noted, "In the post-Enron
era, when CEOs
tend to generate publicity for cutting corners and
questionable business
practices, Marriott sets a different standard. His attention
to detail is
legendary, as is his devotion to his employees. He thinks
both have been the
key to the company's success" (ABC News Nightline,
2007).

Marriott has built and maintained a culture designed to
enhance personal
relationships with individual employees that transfers to
quality service to
customers. He drops in to personally inspect hundreds of
hotels a year. His
style is "hands on," literally, with plenty of pats on the
back and even hugs
from loyal workers. He insists on a �irst-name basis.
Marriott is so popular
that company employees treat him with nearly "rock star"
status when he
arrives at a property (ABC News Nightline, 2007).
Marriott learned much of his management communication
style from his
father. "I'd walk with him into a hotel, we'd be late for
a meeting, and he'd
take 20 minutes and sit down in the lobby and talk to
the lobby maid. He wanted to know how her kids were,
was she making enough
money, does she have enough work hours, was her health
care good" (ABC News Nightline, 2007).
Bill Marriott expects his managers to maintain high
standards of quality, and he gives them a 159- page
checklist to make sure they take
care of every detail. An interactive blog, titled "Marriott
on the Move" allows CEO Marriott to personally converse
with the public and with
employees. Any complaint receives a prompt response and
action as needed.
Bill Marriott has received the International Association of

Business Communicators (IABC, 2007) Leadership in
Communication Award. The
award stipulated that "Marriott International is also well
known as a great place to work and for its commitment
to diversity and community
service. It has consistently been named to Fortune's lists
of most admired companies, best places to work and top
companies for minorities."
The J.D. Power & Associates 2007 North America Hotel
Guest Satisfaction Study measured overall guest hotel
satisfaction across six hotel
segments. The Ritz-Carlton brand came in No. 1 in the
luxury segment. The JW Marriott brand came in No. 2.
Business Traveler, Executive
Travel, and Condé Nast Traveler have also recognized the
company (Marriott.com, 2011).
Superior customer service is built on the foundation
provided by a quality management communication program.
The Marriott International
story serves as an example of the role that excellent
interpersonal communication skills play in a successful
company and a person's career.
Questions for Students
1. What does Bill Marriott's management style communicate to
employees?
2. Should a CEO insist that company employees call him/her by
a �irst name? Would the CEO's gender make a difference in
your answer?
3. Would Bill Marriott's hands-on communication style succeed
in every country?
A Simpli�ied Interpersonal Communication Model

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Over the years, several models of interpersonal
communication have been created. The models portray the
movement of information from one person to
another or to a set of people. Figure 2.1 provides one of
the most straightforward models.
Figure 2.1: A simpli�ied interpersonal
communications model
This model depicts a conversation between a
manager and an employee,between co-workers, a
presentation by a salesperson to a buyer or
a buying committee, and numerous other
interpersonal
exchanges.
Source: Adapted from Guffrey, M. E., & Loewy, D.
(2011). Business Communication: Process and
Product. Mason, OH:
South-Western Cengage Learning, pp. 13–14.
In the model, the sender is the person transmitting a
message or an idea. In business settings, a conversation is
initiated with a communication goal in
mind. The goals are as simple as an of�ice assistant
reminding a supervisor about an upcoming meeting or as
complex as a manager trying to convince a key

employee to stay with the company instead of accepting a
job offer from another �irm. A salesperson who heads a
team that is trying to win over a new
client sends the message. That person may speak to a set
of receivers, the purchasing team from the client company,
and achieving the communication goal
requires carefully chosen words, visual images on a
PowerPoint display, inspiring music in the background, and
handouts provided to each person in the
client's buying group.
Encoding is the presentation of verbal and nonverbal cues.
Encoding takes four forms: (1) verbal, oral cues, (2)
verbal, written cues, (3) nonverbal cues, and
(4) electronic transmissions that employ both verbal and
nonverbal elements.
Verbal cues are words. They take the form of spoken
language, printed matter, a text message, or even a
drawing used to represent a concept. Verbal
encoding includes the abbreviations and shortcuts that are
part of tweets and text messages.
Nonverbal cues are all other forms of message-sending,
including posture, eye contact, physical distance from the
receiver, voice volume, gestures, and
physical contact, such as touching someone on a shoulder
or arm. Most messages contain both verbal and nonverbal
elements.
Electronic transmissions go beyond text messages and
emails. Technologies such as Skype allow for interpersonal
meetings via televised images. The
receiver encounters both verbal and nonverbal cues in
those conversations.

The transmission device is anything that carries a
message, including sound waves, light waves, pieces of
paper, mobile-phone signals and screens, the
Internet, computer monitors, billboards, radio and television
signals, and an endless number of additional carriers.
Modern management communication
features a variety of new transmission devices that add to
speed and ef�iciency but also create confusion and
disruption for individuals trying to
communicate on the job.
Decoding occurs as the receiver encounters the message.
Every sensory device can be part of decoding, including
hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling, and
tasting various cues. In a standard interpersonal
interaction, sight and hearing are often used. Decoding
involves interpretation of verbal and nonverbal cues,
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normally at the same time.
The receiver is the sender's intended audience. It can be a
single person or a small group of people. Someone who
passes by and hears a conversation is
not considered a receiver, unless the sender suddenly
adjusts the message to make sure the intruder receives
part of the message. A manager who says, "We
are going to be short-handed for a while," and just as the
outsider passes by adds, "So everyone is going to have to

pitch in," has expanded the audience to
the second receiver.
Feedback returns to the sender in the form of evaluation
of the message. The receiver transmits verbal and
nonverbal cues that suggest, "I don't
understand," "I disagree," "You're absolutely right," "This
is frustrating," and other forms of reaction to the sender,
including, "I'm not really listening." Then,
most of the time, the conversation continues (Burgoon,
Hunsaker, & Dawson, 2004; Shannon, 1948).
In an ideal world, the communication goal is met, the
message travels without interruption, the receiver
understands the idea correctly, and feedback is
transmitted con�irming the message got through.
Unfortunately, the world is often not ideal. A variety of
forces and factors can prevent messages from being
sent correctly or accurately received. In Figure 2.1, the
disruptions are shown as noise, or the barriers to
communication.
Evaluation
The simpli�ied model of communication displayed in
Figure 2.1 offers a method to explain how a person seeks
to transmit an idea or message to someone
else or to a group of people. The concepts of encoding,
transmission devices, and decoding help explain the
movement of a message from a sender to a
receiver. The model does not, however, accurately depict
what transpires in an actual conversation or exchange of
ideas. This led to the evolution of more
intricate models, discussed next.
For Review

Name and describe each part of an interpersonal
communication model.
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sectio
ns/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.
2/sections/fm#)
The sender is the person transmitting a
message or an idea. Encoding is the presentation
of verbal and nonverbal cues.The transmission
device
is anything that carries a message. Decoding occurs
as the receiver encounters the message. The
receiver is the sender's intended audience.
Feedback returns to the sender in the form of
evaluation of the message.
An Interaction Model
In the 1960s, models were expanded to indicate the
interaction of two people engaged in a dialog. Figure 2.2
illustrates how models were expanded. The
interaction model remains "linear" in the sense that a
message �irst goes one way (Person A to Person B) then
the other (Person B back to Person A).
Clearly, most conversations are not quite that stilted,
leaving room for additional ideas about how interpersonal
communication transpires.
Figure 2.2: An interaction model of
communication
https://content.ashford.edu/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/
books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sect
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This model depicts mutual transmission, the
reception of messages, and feedback. In essence, a
mirror was added to showthe moreinteractive
nature of communication.
For Review
Describe the interaction model of interpersonal
communication.
2/sections/fm#)
The interaction model applies to two people
engaged in a dialog. The interaction model
remains "linear" in the sense that a
message �irstgoes
one way (Person A to Person B) then the other
(Person B back to Person A).
Transaction Model
More recent conceptualizations of the nature of
communication propose a far more complex and
sophisticated pattern of message generation and reception.
Instead of viewing a conversation as essentially a ping-
pong match, where one person sends and the other
receives and then the process reverses, actual
discussions take place nearly simultaneously.

In the transaction model (see Figure 2.3), a person
speaking observes the intended audience as the message is
being sent. The speaker may observe a
"receiver" or second person with a scowl, a grin, or
nodding in agreement before all of the words have been
transmitted. In essence, rather than a ping-pong
match, conversations more closely resemble a dance in
which both parties socially construct the interaction. Such
a model accounts for interruptions,
persons �inishing each other's sentences, and incomplete
transmissions, �inishing with phrases such as, "You know
what I'm talking about," or "You see what
I'm saying" as the other person nods "yes," or "I know
you think I'm wrong" as the person nods "no."
Further, the transaction approach models the movement
from misunderstanding to understanding, from disagreement
to agreement, as well as the
escalation of a conversation into a con�lict. In essence,
not every dance goes well. At times, the partners move in
perfect synch; at others, they stumble or
step on each other's toes.
Each of the three models—the simpli�ied version, the
interaction model, and the transaction model—contains key
elements of encoding, transmission,
decoding, and feedback. More important, the models also
indicate that conversations can go awry and that
misunderstandings occur. The primary causes of
these disruptions are called noise, or the barriers to
interpersonal communication.
ions/fm#

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Jupiter Images/Thinkstock
The transaction model suggests that conversations
more closely resemble a dance in which both
parties
socially construct the interaction.
Figure 2.3: A transaction model of
communication
The transaction model of communication is similar
to a dance between two partners in a
conversation. The messages �low in
both directions as each communicator sends and
receives based on responding to the other
communicator.
For Review
Describe the transaction model of interpersonal
communication.
2/sections/fm#)
In the transaction model, instead of viewing a
conversation as essentially a ping-pong match,

where one person sends and the other
receives and
then the process reverses, actual discussions take
place nearly simultaneously.
Concept Check
ions/fm#
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2.2 Barriers to Interpersonal Communication
Learning Objective # 2: What are the potential
barriers to interpersonal communication?
Many times, a message will be sent but not correctly
received. Three categories of barriers to individual

communication explain this problem. Each of the
items shown in Figure 2.4 can distort or disrupt a
message at any point, as depicted in Figure 2.1. The
�irst set of barriers—individual differences—is
present simply because of the characteristics of the two
people involved in the conversation. Effective
communicators know about each of the potential
barriers and �ind ways to overcome them.
Figure 2.4: Barriers to individual communication
Numerous factors can disrupt quality communication
between individuals.
IndividualDifferences
Any number of messages become lost because of a
difference between the sender and receiver. Sometimes the
barrier emerges due to natural circumstances,
such as age or gender. Social events and the social
construction of language generate others. Table 2.1
identi�ies the individual differences that can obstruct
quality communication.
Table 2.1: Individualdifferences
Age
Gender
Exclusive language
Educational level
Organizational rank

Personalities
Age
Differences in age lead to varying frames of reference. A
Baby Boomer would likely be familiar with a reference to
Woodstock. Someone who was born in
1990 may not. A young employee probably knows quite a
bit more about a current cultural icon, such as Lady
Gaga, than an older worker does. Each
generation shares markers, or mutually experienced events.
The Greatest Generation (World War II) veterans vividly
recall the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
Almost all Baby Boomers remember the assassination of
President Kennedy and the �irst walk on the moon.
Generation Xers have a �irst space shuttle
disaster in common.
Age may become a barrier to management communication
when an older worker offers constructive criticism to
younger employee, especially when the
older worker is not a direct supervisor. The more junior
employee may respond ineffectively or defensively. Also,
many younger supervisors report problems
managing more senior employees. Age discrimination
occurs in a variety of organizations. Sometimes it can be
as subtle as a younger manager making the
senior worker feel unwelcome, or by telling crude, age-
based jokes about an older supervisor, thereby undermining
the individual's authority and ability to
communicate with younger employees.
Gender
Historically, management communication writers and others,
including those in the popular press, have extensively

explored differences in gender. One of
the most noteworthy researchers, Deborah Tannen,
presented many gender-based dif�iculties in her book You
Just Don't Understand and in other works
(Tannen, 1990). Subtle contrasts between genders
sometimes in�luence male-female interactions. Tannen has
pointed out as many as 105 key differences.
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Stockbyte/Thinkstock
People who rely on sports metaphorsat work create
communication
barriers as a form of exclusive language, because
not everyone
understands the meaning.
Note that not every man or woman is inclined to exhibit
these patterns. Even though some may be true of men in
general or women in general, many
individual men and women do not exhibit these patterns.
In general, then, women are more likely to employ more
expressive and effusive language, to use a verbal hedge,
such as "umm" when thinking something
over, or "so" to add power to an expression ("She was so
smart"), and are more likely to frame business requests as
questions. A female supervisor may say,
"Would you mind making copies of this report?" Women

are less likely to directly criticize an employee, especially
in public.
Males tend to use more direct language. Men are more
likely to interrupt conversational partners, especially when
speaking to women. Males also often use
sports metaphors as part of everyday language, such as
"She took one for the team"; "He gave a Hail Mary
answer;" "This is our goal line stand"; and "That
was a back door play." Men are more inclined to
aggressively disagree with someone in public. They are
also more prone to making declarative statements
of fact (sometimes when they don't actually know the
facts). Men are more likely to ignore comments that have
been offered by another person, especially
when that person disagrees with them. And �inally, men
tend to �ind ways to control conversations, especially by
changing the subject when they feel they
are "losing" an argument.
Women and men have different experiences and operate in
different social contexts, which lead to differing genres of
speech and skills for accomplishing
things with words. Patterns of interaction in rural areas
vary from those in urban areas; differences may be found
in various regions of a country, and
factors such as ethnicity also affect communication styles
of both men and women. This, in turn, shapes the
diversity found in male/female communication
patterns (Maltz & Borker, 2007).
Despite these prevalent tendencies and differences, recent
formulations of communication and gender issues add a
more complex conceptualization of the
relationship. Previously, male/female communication
patterns were viewed in a binary manner in which "men

are likely to do this and women are likely to
do this." Current conceptualizations suggest a wider
diversity of gender identities and communication patterns
(Cameron, 2005).
Exclusive Language
Exclusive language consists of terminology that is only
understood by a distinct set of
individuals. Those who are unfamiliar with the language
are excluded from the
conversation when it is used. In the workplace, numerous
differences between
individuals perpetrate exclusive language. For instance,
those who graduate from a
certain college can exclude others through continual
conversations about campus
events that took place years before or by referring to
individuals known only to the
group. Exclusive language accentuates the differences
between employees and creates
an eventual barrier, based largely on excluded employees
feeling like they are not part
of the "in-crowd" on the job. Exclusive language re�lects
racial differences, differences
in status, and even differences in company departments.
Sports metaphors used by
men in the workplace can become a form of exclusive
language. In each case, its
deliberate use is designed to alienate or separate one
group from another (Media Task
Force, 2011).
For example, a sales manager approaches a group of
information technology (IT)
employees with a request to update the company's web-

based purchasing system. The
IT employees respond with their tech terminology, which
excludes the salesperson.
Another example involves an informal setting where a set
of employees who graduated
from the same high school might exclude someone who
did not, simply by constantly
talking about "old times" whenever a group gathers for
lunch or in other social
situations.
Educational Attainment
If nothing else, each year of education adds to your
vocabulary. For most, studying in
high school and college also improves a person's ability
to think critically and to analyze situations using a greater
set of decision-making concepts and
models. Problems occur when someone who possesses
these skills converses with someone who does not, and
the educated person is unwilling or unable to
shift gears. A supervisor seeking to intimidate employees
might use fancy words and literary references that
demonstrate his or her level of education. This
type of approach can be counterproductive and is a
common barrier to interpersonal communication.
Organizational Rank
Have you ever run into someone you idolize? For most,
an encounter with a celebrity or idol results in a tongue-
tied, stammering interaction. Any person
with greater status, no matter the context, becomes
accustomed to dealing with people who are somewhat
awestruck or anxious. The same process takes
place in organizational settings. For some employees, a

chance meeting with the CEO or some high-ranking
executive in the company leads to an awkward
exchange of pleasantries or an uncomfortable silence.
Many employees struggle to speak publicly, and the
presence of a high-ranking member of the �irm in
the audience potentially worsens the problem. Further,
some research indicates that people at different levels of
status may interpret words differently (Hale
& Delia, 1976).
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Status also affects the ability to listen effectively. When a
worker feels unsettled in front of people of higher rank,
the employee may focus on trying to look
good in front of them at the cost of not carefully
monitoring the message they are transmitting. Others seek
to ingratiate themselves or "kiss up" rather than
to have a genuine conversation. They wait for an opening
to pass along a compliment instead of hearing what the
executive has to say.
Personalities
Some people just rub each other the wrong way. Various
personality types do not combine for quality
communication. A shy person may feel pressured,
bullied, or intimidated by an outgoing or bombastic
person. Those with strong egos may clash with one
another, each thinking he or she is right about

everything. An individual with an analytical and reserved
personality may have dif�iculty communicating with
someone who is more inclined to react
instinctively to problems and circumstances.
Individual differences create a variety of circumstances
under which communication does not take place as
intended. As companies become more diverse,
some of these problems become more complicated. Quality
communication begins with awareness of these and other
potential individual barriers.
For Review
What types of individual differences create
barriers to interpersonal communication?
2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.
Age, gender, exclusive language, educational level,
organizational rank,and personalities.
Situational Factors
At times, characteristics associated with senders and
receivers are not the primary barrier to communication.
Instead, situational circumstances are the
cause of the problem. Table 2.2 lists three common
situational factors that prevent a message from being
received.
Table 2.2: Situational factors that disrupt
communication
Emotions

Anger
Sadness
Envy and jealousy
Romantic feelings
Personal attitudes and values
Settings
Distractions
Emotions
It is impossible to work in any organization and remain
unaffected by emotions. Some are positive and conducive
to pleasant working relationships. Feelings
of affection, loyalty, and trust help build and maintain
quality interpersonal interactions.
Other emotions disrupt communication and interfere with a
workplace process. Anger and sadness are two of the more
commonly mentioned emotions that
affect communication.
Simply stated, it is dif�icult to express yourself clearly
when you are mad. Anger tends to disturb a person's
concentration. Nearly everyone would have to
admit to saying something, while annoyed in the heat of
the moment, that they wish they could take back. The
consequences of such outbursts play out both
in the short term and in the long term. In the short term,
the conversation quickly deteriorates and a meaningful

resolution to a dispute becomes unlikely.
In the long term, some people have powerful memories.
These people may recall an insult or words of frustration
in future interactions with the same
individual.
In terms of sadness, a person's thinking becomes muddled
when he or she is down in the dumps. It does not have
to be clinical depression to be a barrier
to communication. Someone sad or just in a bad mood
may choose words less carefully or may be less willing to
speak up.
Beyond these more obvious emotions, other factors
in�luence managerial communication, including envy and
jealousy, romantic intentions, and the emotions
associated with personal attitudes and values.
ions/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm#
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Envy and jealousy evolve from a series of causes. An
employee can become jealous when he or she is passed
over for promotion. Another may be envious of
the job assignment given to a peer. Envy and jealousy
may result from seeing your supervisor giving extra
attention to a co-worker while basically ignoring
you. These feelings may impact future conversations. More

caustic comments may be made, more guarded language
may be used, or someone may be
treated with a cold silence and not know why.
Romantic feelings and intentions result in one of the more
complex communication problems. Many of�ices are aware
of the possible complications that
surface from of�ice relationships. Some go so far as to
prohibit employees from dating one another; others enforce
clear policies that permit romantic
relationships but create clear guidelines for their
expression in the professional realm. When a supervisor
expresses romantic intentions toward an
employee, any overture can become grounds for sexual
harassment complaints. Table 2.3 de�ines sexual
harassment and identi�ies the two most common
forms and their consequences. Still, at times, an employee
is attracted to a co-worker, and, at times, the attraction
becomes mutual. Before pursuing any
romantic involvements at work, the employee(s) should
make sure such actions do not violate company policies
and practices, and consider all the possible
consequences of pursuing a relationship.
Table 2.3: Sexual harassment and management
communication
De�inition: Sexual harassment consists of unwelcome
verbal, visual, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that
is severe or pervasive, and affects
working conditions or creates a hostile work environment.
Forms
1. "Quid pro quo": Sexual advances or sexual favors are
exchanged for favorable treatment, including better job

assignments, undeserved
performance evaluation ratings, promotions, and pay raises.
What it communicates
The way to move up in this organization is by giving in
to sexual demands. All of the human resource activities
are tainted. If you are
unwilling to play the game, you cannot get ahead.
2. Hostile environment: Sexual innuendos in language,
including jokes, sexual references, and inappropriate
comments about appearance and
dress; unwanted touching; signage (sexually referent
calendars, cartoons); and conduct toward another person
that suggests a discrepancy in how
people are treated.
What it communicates
The person is the object of disrespect and even contempt.
This person will not receive equal treatment. If you don't
"play along," you will be
ostracized.
Source: Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., &
Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual
harassment: Theoretical and psychometric
advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology,
17(4), 425–
445. Retrieved from
http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr/29cfr1604.11
.htm
(http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr/29cfr1604.1

1.htm)
An array of personal attitudes and values interrupt
communication. Racism, sexism, and other forms of
discrimination result in derisive language designed
to intimidate or insult others. Meaningful, constructive,
and high-quality interpersonal communication cannot take
place in these circumstances (Weitzer,
2002).
Settings
At times, the organizational setting itself creates
communication problems. Many times these barriers result
from unfortunate events. For example, when a
manager announces that a popular employee has become
terribly sick or has died, trying to effectively transmit
messages after that point will be
problematic. The same is true after a company declares
layoffs or relocation to a foreign country. In some
instances, joyous occasions hinder communication,
such as the announcement of the retirement of a manager
or of�ice parties celebrating holidays.
Distractions
Even the most chaotic workplace can be in�luenced by
distractions. Outside weather events, including snowstorms
or strong rains, tend to draw attention
away from an interpersonal conversation or a presentation
to a group. Any workplace that is near a construction site
probably suffers from some inattention
due to the noise outside.
More subtle cues also disrupt interpersonal interactions,
such as when one person tries to hold a conversation with

someone who is dressed
inappropriately. On an even smaller scale, have you ever
tried to talk to someone with something stuck in his
teeth?
In summary, the situational factors of emotions, settings,
and distractions tend to overlap as barriers to
communication.
For Review
http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2009/julqtr/29cfr1604.11.htm
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What situational factors disrupt interpersonal
communication?
The emotions of anger, sadness, envy, jealousy,
romantic feelings, personal attitudes and values, as
well as settings and distractions.
Describe the two main forms of sexual harassment
and the message each sends to employees.

Quid pro quo, or somethingfor something, suggests
that the way to get ahead is by giv ing in
to sexual demands and that the system is
not fair.
Hostile environment commu nicates that people
are the objects of disrespect and even contempt
and that employees do not receive equal
treatment.
Transmission Problems
In any conversation or message-sending situation, the
number of transmission venues varies and involves a
variety of words and symbols. One key to being
an effective communicator is the ability to choose the
right words and send them in the right manner. Table 2.4
lists a different set of barriers that prevent
messages from arriving.
Table 2.4: Transmission problems as barriers to
communication
Language (semantics)
Slang
Technical terminology
Disabilities
Sender
Receiver
Nonverbal contradictions of verbal messages

Language and Semantics
Even in circumstances in which everyone speaks the same
language, barriers to communication still arise. Semantics
problems emerge when a word or
phrase has more than one meaning, and the sender and
receiver are using different versions. For instance, the
word "justi�ied" can be interpreted as
"acceptable" or "necessary," which have different
connotations. Many managers claim they have an "open-
door policy." What this actually means varies
widely. Some are suggesting that they willingly listen to
complaints and suggestions. Others are saying that you can
come in and ask for help, but nothing
more.
Language becomes more complicated when various dialects
are present. In the United States, linguists have argued
that regional dialects are beginning to
disappear; however, many still exist. These dialects affect
the pronunciation of words as well as how terms are
used. In the Northeast, the words "park" and
"yard" sound signi�icantly different than when spoken in
the South. In the South, many restaurants serve sweet tea,
which means cold tea that is already
sweetened with sugar, while in the North iced tea
typically comes unsweetened.
Slang
Nearly any language used widely around the world
contains a great deal of slang.
What becomes problematic, for purposes of managerial
communication, is that slang
evolves and changes fairly quickly. In the 1980s, the
terms "rad" and "gnarly" were

popular with teens. In the 1950s, the word "bitchin" was
in vogue. Each generation
develops its set of slang expressions, and even those
change over time. The Baby Boom
generation was fond of terms such as "bummer," "mellow,"
and "cool," in the 1960s.
Two decades later, someone still using that terminology
was thought to be something
of a buffoon. The 1980s and 1990s �ilms Valley Girl
and Clueless spoofed girls who
included the word "like" in every sentence. Such usage is
now common, even among
older adults.
Slang creates barriers to managerial communication in
several ways. First, someone
unfamiliar with a term may take offense. The concept of
a woman being "phat" in the
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Jupiterimages/Thinkstock
Social media have created an entire new

generation of slang
terminology.
1990s insulted some, who thought they were being called
"fat" when they were really
being told they were attractive. Second, slang at work
often presents the image of
being less polished, or less educated. Applicants who
cannot get through an interview
without using heavy doses of "ya know" and "like" may
�ind themselves more quickly
screened out. The same holds true for those seeking to be
promoted. Third, the use of slang when dealing with
clients and customers may lead the contact
to think the salesperson is either taking him or her for
granted or is not acting in a professional manner.
A new form of slang has emerged in social media. Due
to the 140-character limitation imposed by Twitter, many
shortcuts have evolved. Table 2.5 contains
some of the more frequently used abbreviations. Someone
unfamiliar with tweet abbreviations encounters a major
barrier to interpersonal communication,
in an age where social media use has grown at a
tremendous pace.
Table 2.5: Popular Twitter abbreviations and
acronyms
abt = about njoy = enjoy
b/c = because OMW = on my way
chk = check PPL = people
deets = details RU? = are you?

Eml = email shld = should
FB = Facebook TIA = thanks in advance
GR8 = great Twaiting = Twittering while waiting
IC = I see U = you
j/k = just kidding V2V = voice to voice on the phone
LMK = let me know w00t!= excitement
mil = million YW = you're welcome
In the workplace, some common abbreviations used in
email and instant messages include:
BRB—Be right back
CTRN—Can't talk right now
IMO—In my opinion
HTH—Hope this (or that) helps
IAM—In a meeting
WFM—Works for me
BFO—Blinding �lash of the obvious
DHTB—Don't have the bandwidth
SLAP—Sounds like a plan
Technical Terminology
The explosion of new technologies brings with it a vast
amount of new terms. In the year 2000, the term "app"
had no special meaning with regard to
mobile phone devices. A "tweet" was something sung by a
bird.

In business settings, each discipline (accounting,
information technology, marketing) has its own language.
When someone from one area speaks to another
in a different department, the use of technical terms and
acronyms may create confusion. While an accountant
knows what DDB means, a marketer may not.
A marketer may suggest that microtargeting will work for
one product but not for another; someone from information
technology might not know precisely
what that means. Department-specialized terminology can
create a form of exclusive language in the workplace.
Disabilities
Effective communication is dif�icult enough under ideal
conditions. Disabilities can present additional challenges
for both senders and receivers. Senders
with speech impairments have greater dif�iculty framing
messages. Someone who stutters or has a lisp may have
trouble speaking, especially to groups of
people. Part of the challenge may be the actual forming
of words; the other part can emerge as the embarrassment
or shyness that results. Table 2.6
identi�ies additional speech problems (Buzzle.com, 2011).
Table 2.6: Types of speech disabilities
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Keith Brofsky/Photodisc/Thinkstock
Nonverbal gestures can interfere with the correct
interpretation of a
verbal message when the gestures and words
spoken do not match.
Articulation Disorder Dif�iculty in producing a speci�ic
sound
Dysarthria Slurred speech
Cluttering Speaking too quickly or with too much
repetition
Expressive Language Disorder Dif�iculty in verbally
expressing ideas
Source: http://www.buzzle.com (http://www.buzzle.com)
(2011). Types of speech disorders
Receivers can experience problems in conversations as
well. Two common challenges include visual and hearing
impairments. A visually impaired person
misses some or all of the nonverbal cues transmitted by
the sender. In essence, the person only encounters part of
the message. Hearing impairments range
from a partial loss to total deafness. Hearing can be
affected by tinnitus, or ringing of the ears, or muddled
reception. In each instance, message reception
becomes more dif�icult.
Nonverbal Contradictions of Verbal Messages
Far too often, what a person says verbally does not

correspond with his or her body
language and gestures. Some experts have suggested that
nonverbal cues constitute
the major part of a person-to-person message (Archer &
Akert, 1977). Even if that is
not the case, it is safe to conclude that nonverbal cues
send powerful signals. Saying
something is interesting while looking distracted or
inattentive conveys two different
messages. When someone crowds you, it is hard to avoid
feeling uncomfortable or
believing that the person is being aggressive, no matter
what words are spoken. A
person who tells you to "trust me" but cannot make eye
contact sends two very
different signals.
In job interviews, someone who arrives late, is dressed
casually or inappropriately,
gives a limp handshake, fails to make eye contact, and
slumps down in a chair will
likely be quickly removed from consideration. Tardiness
can be interpreted as
irresponsibility. Casual dress and slouching portray a lack
of interest. Failing to make
eye contact indicates you have something to hide. A weak
handshake suggests you will
not be assertive or that you lack con�idence.
Some of the transmission problems relate to the actions of
the sender. Poor choice of
language, excessive use of slang, overuse of technical
terminology, and sending
contradictory nonverbal cues may be due to the poor
communication skills of the
sender. Under the proper circumstances, and with the

proper training, these dif�iculties
can be improved. Remedies for disabilities are also
available. Hearing aids and signers
assist those who are deaf. The visually impaired have
access to resources to help them
communicate with those who do not have visual
impairments, including low vision
aids, magni�iers, talking watches, and telephone signaling
devices.
For Review
What transmission problems can become barriers to
interpersonal communication?
Language (semantics), slang, technical terminology,
disabilities in the sender or receiver, and
nonverbal contradiction of the verbal message.
Concept Check
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2.3 Overcoming Barriers to Communication
Learning Objective # 3: How can a sender and
receiver overcome the barriers to interpersonal
communication?
Excellent communication results from careful preparation
and situation sensitivity by the sender and receiver in any
context. Following a few simple steps
helps a sender avoid misunderstandings and con�lict, and
improve a message's chances of being correctly understood.
Both senders and receivers have a
responsibility to overcome any barriers that are present.
Table 2.7 summarizes these duties.
Table 2.7: Creating quality interpersonal
communication
Sender Duties Receiver Duties
Be aware of barriers
Be empathetic
Pay careful attention to nonverbal cues
Con�irm understanding of the message
Listen actively
Seek clari�ication of the message

Sender Responsibilities
Senders are charged with making sure they understand the
barriers that might be present. To make sure a
conversation begins on the right note,
acknowledge the existence of the barrier. Many public
speakers use humor to point out its presence, to help
place the audience at ease. Table 2.8 provides
advice about communicating when you are angry.
Table 2.8: What to do when you're angry
1 Take a deep breath.
2 Consider postponing the conversation in a nonthreatening
manner.
("I'm sorry, but I really need to use the restroom right
now." Or, "I want to talk about this, but I'm expecting a
phone call.")
3 Consider the other person's perspective.
(Did the person deliberately try to make you mad, or was
it inadvertent?)
4 Be forthright, but try to diffuse at the same time.
("I'm a little frustrated right now. Can we talk about this
later?")
5 Bite your tongue.
(Make sure you don't say something you will regret
later.)

6 Avoid direct challenges, making generalities, and placing
blame.
("What's your problem?" "You always do this!" "This is
all your fault.")
7 Use humor to release tension and diffuse the situation.
8 Try to identify solutions rather than focusing on the
problem.
Source: Adapted from Mayo Clinic (2011). Anger
management tips: 10 ways to tame your temper.
Retrieved from http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger-
management/MH00102
(http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/anger-
management/MH00102)
Empathy begins with understanding yourself and how you
interact with others. Employers, companies, or individual
employees can use the Myers-Briggs
personality inventory to assess how someone deals with
others, along dimensions including extraversion/introversion,
sensing or intuition, thinking or
feeling, and judging or perceiving (Myers and Briggs
Foundation, 2011). Next, being empathetic means
attempting to understand the background and point
of view of others. The adage of "walking a mile in the
other person's shoes" applies to communication. In sales,
the classic approach to dealing with an
unhappy customer is to �irst acknowledge that you
understand the person is upset, and to add something
along the lines of, "I can relate to how you feel."
The same approach has value in managerial communication
when conversing with a disgruntled employee or member
of the public. Many companies offer

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Creating quality communication requires the efforts of
the sender and
the receiver.
Active listening involves ignoring distractions that
interfere with
conversations.
sensitivity training programs and ethnic awareness forums
to help employees from
different backgrounds understand and better communicate
with one another.
Paying attention to nonverbal cues often takes practice.
Doing so may make you feel
awkward as you become aware of your gestures. It may
help to have a close friend
point out some of your tendencies, such as looking down
while you talk or slouching.
Some discover that their body language constantly signals
aggression, making them
less able to conduct a friendly discussion. Others portray

a lack of con�idence simply
by their posture. The elements of nonverbal communication
that can become
communication skills include the items displayed in Table
2.9.
Table 2.9: Nonverbal communication skills
Nonverbal Cues Communication Tactic
Body movements Hold still, don't shift weight, stillness
exudes con�idence
Gestures Stay calm, no nervous movements, gestures for
emphasis
Eye contact Know when to look and when to look away
so as to avoid appearing overly aggressive
Touch Firm handshake; know when a pat on the back is
acceptable
Facial expression Smile
Physical distance Avoid crowding a person, though do not
move too far away, which appears as if you lack trust in
the person
Tone of voice Not too loud, not too soft, not too much
in�lection which makes you appear overly emotional
Source: Adapted from Helpguide.org (2011) Nonverbal
communication: The power of nonverbal
communication and body language. Retrieved from
http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_communicatio
n.htm

(http://www.helpguide.org/mental/eq6_nonverbal_commun
ication.htm)
The question, "Do you understand?" summarizes
con�irmation of the message. Pay extra attention to make
sure the message was received as intended. It's
not unusual for a manager to ask an employee to restate
a directive, only for the purposes of making sure the
message was clearly understood.
Receiver Responsibilities
Receiver duties include listening carefully, known as active
listening, and not allowing
distractions to interfere with a conversation or
presentation. The mind works far
faster than the pace of a conversation. You can give
partial attention, seeking to get the
gist of what is being said, without focusing on the
interaction. Doing so signals
disinterest and can create a new communication barrier.
Multitasking during phone
calls is a bad idea. Listening carefully means clearing
away distractions and not adding
to them. Table 2.10 provides hints for effective active
listening.
To be an effective communicator, you must employ both
sender and receiver tactics
and behaviors at every point of the conversation.
Remember that the transaction
model of interpersonal communication suggests that a
conversation simulates a dance
between two persons. When a message is at all
misunderstood the sender or the
receiver must attempt to further clarify the message in the

conversation. Getting
clari�ication of a message means saying, for example, "I
don't understand" at the
appropriate times. Do not underestimate the importance of
active listening. A
substantial amount of attention is devoted to the ability to
listen effectively later in
this text.
Table 2.10:Effective active listening
Express support through attention, eye contact, and a
reassuring posture.
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Interpret both the words and the expressions.
Note gestures, tone of voice, and the speaker's posture.
Ask exploratory questions that con�irm accurate reception
of the message.
Don't put words into the speaker's mouth.
Avoid passing immediate judgment.

Do not give false reassurance.
Source: Adapted from Cohen, A. R., & Fink, S.
L. (1988). Effective behavior in organizations.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
For Review
Explain the duties of the sender and receiver in
overcoming the barriers to inter personal
communication.
ns/fm#)
Senders should be aware of potential barriers,
exhibit empathy, pay careful attention to
nonverbal cues,and seek con�irmation of the
message.
Receivers should engage in active listening and
seek clari�ication of unclear messages.
Concept Check
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2.4 International and Intercultural Interpersonal Communication
Learning Objective # 4: What additional challenges
are present in international and intercultural
interpersonal
communication?
Conducting business in today's modern business
environment presents exciting opportunities for businesses
and individuals. Markets and sales expand as
new social contacts are made and undiscovered cultures
are explored, both within a nation's boundaries and with
potential customers in other countries.
Many U.S. companies recognize the existence of two
distinct potential advantages present due to cultural
differences within the nation's borders. First, a rich
pool of new employees with diverse perspectives and
interests infuses energy into a company's operations.
Second, many cultural groups, including
Hispanics and Asian Americans, offer valuable target
market segments that may be reached.
International business programs often begin with expansion
into countries with many of the same cultural conditions,
such as a Canadian �irm selling
products in the United States. Soon, however, an
international program can move into countries with
different languages and cultures. In both circumstances,
effective business communication involves understanding
of—and adaptation to—cultural nuances and differences.
Cultural Dimensions
To understand individual communication while accounting
for cultural differences, take note of the primary types of
cultural differences. For years, the most

widely-cited dimensions of culture have been those
proposed by Geert Hofstede, as displayed in Table 2.11.
(More detail can be found at:
http://www.geert-hofstede.com (http://www.geert-
hofstede.com) .)
Table 2.11:Hofstede's value dimensions of
culture
Power Distance Distance between leaders and followers;
authoritarian versus collaborative relationships
Individualism or Collectivism Value of personal status
versus loyalty to the group
Masculinity-Femininity Male-dominated society versus more
equal status between genders
Uncertainty Avoidance Risk-taking versus risk-avoidance
societies
Short- or Long-Term Orientation Immediate versus
long-term, strategic outcomes
Power distance affects communication patterns between
individuals and in group settings. A culture exhibiting
high power distance is one in which
managers are far less approachable by low-ranking
employees. In such a culture, rank affects patterns of
collaboration. Use of formal language becomes
more likely in higher power distance cultural settings.
Conversely, in low power distance cultures, leaders are
seen more as peers and patterns of
collaboration are more affable and informal.
Individualism/collectivism affects communication in terms

of how language is used as well as how it is transmitted.
In individualistic cultures, personal
pronouns (I, my) are more likely; collective cultures
exhibit greater reference to "we," "us," and "our
group/organization." Individualistic cultures favor one-
on-one interactions; collective cultures more likely feature
groups, teams, and meetings.
Masculine cultures hold much in common with higher
power distance circumstances. Males dominate family
matters, business discussions, and other
aspects of society. Women in those settings play
submissive roles. Femininity associates with more caring,
interpersonal connections among all members of
society, which in turn is re�lected in the ways people
and employees communicate with one another.
Uncertainty avoidance affects word choice. Cultures with
high levels of uncertainty avoidance exhibit words that
indicate con�idence in judgments regarding
various outcomes. More disparaging language focuses on
risky situations.
Short-/long-term orientation affects the types of
communication messages sent as well as the content of
those messages. A company in a longer-term
orientation culture is most inclined to develop strategic
plans with a farther-reaching time horizon. Inspirational
language re�lects the desire to build the
long-term future of the organization. Short-term orientation
results in more immediate planning processes, greater
levels of contingency thinking and
planning, and language focused on the here and now.
Hofstede's dimensions remain widely used in a number of
contexts, including business communication, although

increasing criticisms have emerged.
Hofstede collected the data in the late 1960s and, while
culture is normally slow to change, the numbers predate
the introduction of the personal computer,
the Internet, the fall of communism, and many other
signi�icant global events (Rapp, Bernardi, & Bosco,
2011). At the same time, the dimensions do provide
important considerations when examining the challenges
associated with communicating with people from other
cultures.
For Review
http://www.geert-hofstede.com/
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Name and de�ine Hofstede's �ive main dimensions
of culture.
Power distance is the distance between leaders
and followers and authoritarian versus collaborative
relationships. Individualism or collectivism
is the value of personal status versus loyalty
to the group. Masculinity/femininity re�lects
whether a male-dominated society exists or
if thereis
more equal status between genders. Uncertainty

avoidance explains risk-taking versus risk-
avoidance societies. Short- or long-term orientation
identi�ies differences in immediate versus
long-term, strategic outcomes.
Cultural Differences and Nuances That Affect
Communication
Several key areas require consideration and adaptation
when communicating in international settings as well as
for interactions between people from
different cultures in the same country (de Mooji, 2010).
Hofstede's dimensions do not clearly spell out all of
these. For example, older persons may be highly
respected in one culture and disrespected in another. Even
asking questions about a person's age can make the
receiver uncomfortable in Western cultures.
Further, cultural gender equality and inequality strongly
affects patterns of communication between males and
females internationally. Percentages of a
population that are well-educated vary widely across
countries, thereby affecting status levels. Personalities are
in�luenced by cultural surroundings as well.
The most common areas in which communication in
international and intercultural settings requires examination
include:
language and slang
greetings
directness of address
speaking versus silence
eye contact
ethnocentrism
stereotyping
differences in the meanings of nonverbal cues

personal space issues
use of symbols and cultural icons
cultural context
For Review
What communication issues are present in
international and intercultural settings?
Issues include language and slang, greetings,
directness of address, speaking versus silence,
eye contact, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences
in the meanings of nonver bal cues,personal space
issues, use of symbols and cultural icons,
and cultural context.
Language and Slang
Language and slang differ among cultures. In the United
States, the most prominent language is, of course, English;
however, residents speak a variety of
additional languages. In terms of business communication,
many employers now list job openings in both English
and Spanish, and training programs have
been adapted to accommodate those whose primary
language is Spanish. Company advertisements and other
communication messages have been similarly
modi�ied.
The same holds true for international communication. An
individual who only speaks Spanish is likely to experience
dif�iculties when a business partner
speaks only Russian, even when a translator is present.

Some languages, such as Mandarin, are written using
characters rather than letters, which add
additional complications. Also, some printed languages are
read from right to left; whereas English and others are
read from left to right.
Slang within both languages can further complicate
communication. The phrase "our business is red hot"
serves as an example. Although it may seem
strange, international buyers could misunderstand the
meaning of this phrase and think that it literally means
that the business is on �ire. Always choose
words carefully. In the Philippines, referring to a woman
as a "hostess" translates into calling her a prostitute. A
Filipino immigrant would likely feel insulted
in a similar manner when engaged in a conversation in
his or her new country.
In many business conversations, the person speaking has
only partial knowledge of a language. This can lead to
misspoken ideas or words or poor grammar,
especially in areas such as singular/plural or noun-verb
agreement. The person may appreciate a friendly
correction, although normally at least some
familiarity with the person is advisable before doing so.
The attempt to speak in a foreign language, even if only
for the purposes of greeting a potential business partner,
often builds rapport with that person.
Greetings
ions/fm/books/AUBUS600.12.2/sections/fm/books/AUBUS600.
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Greetings, gestures, and othermethods of
communication vary by
culture.
Knowing how to greet someone can be a valuable
business asset. Cultures such as the
United States often exhibit informal methods of greeting,
including phrases such as
"Hey," "Hi," or "Howdy." Many immigrants within U.S.
borders quickly adapt to such
differences; however, others may not. In business
communication, a wise course of
action is to be aware of potential differences in greetings
when dealing with someone
from a different culture but the same country. For
example, many Muslim groups
forbid handshakes between a man and a woman.
More dramatic differences appear in international business
communication. For
example, while it is common knowledge that, in Asia
people bow and in Western

cultures individuals shake hands as a form of greeting,
other key differences remain. In
Korea, a person touches his elbow while shaking hands as
a sign of respect. In Japan, a
90-degree bow often accompanies a handshake for the
same reason. Women do not
shake hands with each other in Pakistan. Greeting a
business contact with a kiss on
the cheek is a common gesture in certain European
countries.
Care must be given to an initial contact. For example, in
Germany if someone greets
you as, "Good morning, Mr. Jones," it will probably be a
bad idea to say, "Oh please, call
me Jack." Germans prefer more formal relationships with
business partners.
Further, following an initial introduction, in some
countries, the partners immediately move on to the
purpose of the meeting. In Finland, for example, a
popular saying is suoraan liiketoimintaa, which means
"straight to business." In other countries, doing so is
considered rude. First, take time to establish a
relationship with the new business partner. Businesspeople
in China greatly value the concept of trust, and any
Western businessperson seeking to conduct
business in China must �irst work to establish
relationships, not only between companies, but also
between people. Company representatives must
understand that the relationships begin before business
deals are made and continue well after any speci�ic
transaction takes place (Baack, Harris, & Baack,
2012).
Even so, asking a personal question may be considered

impolite. Asking about someone's family or children may
be inappropriate in certain, more reserved
cultures with higher levels of power distance.
Directness of Address
Directness of address is culturally based. Language and
conversation can vary drastically from culture to culture.
Such differences appear in the United
States. Language and conversations are often more direct
in the East and more conversational in the Deep South.
In Asia, someone's persona likely includes the concept of
"face," which essentially refers to one's sense of honor,
self-respect, respect from others, and
standing in a social setting. In that context, language that
avoids directly challenging a person or making that
individual look bad, or seem disrespected (e.g.,
lose face) is common. Disagreement is expressed in the
most modest terms possible. Instead of saying, "We can't
meet your price," the vendor uses
terminology such as "I am afraid that trying to meet your
price will be very dif�icult for our company."
In nations such as Holland, the opposite is true. Unless
the person uses strong, direct language, he or she may be
viewed as weak or not reliable.
Speaking Versus Silence
In the United States, most view silence as uncomfortable.
At the same time, some U.S. subcultures embrace greater
degrees of silence. When asked a
question, an employee might encourage a degree of silence
when told, "Take your time," before answering.

Similar differences take place internationally. In Japan,
executives take time to consider a proposal, believing it
signals sincerity. Buyers in Sweden tend to be
comfortable with pauses and silence during negotiations.
Impatience at this time potentially displays a lack of
respect or impoliteness. Many cultures have
varying perspectives on the meaning of silence during a
conversation or negotiation. At the opposite extreme, a
noisy house in Taiwan indicates a happy,
healthy environment.
Eye Contact
Eye contact may be closely related to directness of
address. In some cultures, such as in the United States
and Canada, the failure to make eye contact makes
a person seem suspicious and untrustworthy. These patterns
tend to run nationwide. In other countries, such as Japan,
looking away displays deference and
respect.
Gender plays a signi�icant role in eye contact as well. In
many Middle Eastern cultures, a male does not make eye
contact with or comment on the color of a
woman's eyes, unless she is a family member. This holds
true whether the individual lives in Saudi Arabia or
immigrates to San Francisco. While men make
direct eye-to-eye contact, a man does not do so when
conversing with a woman.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism, the belief that one's culture is inherently
superior, may cause either the sender or receiver to
convey a sense of feeling superior. It would
not be surprising that misunderstandings, con�licts, and

confrontations may emerge when someone expresses such a
view.
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©Celia Peterson/arabianEye/Corbis
Cultural views of personal space and physical
contact vary widely.
Ethnocentrism often affects management communication.
When a multinational company has a home-base country, it
is not unusual for managers to believe
their country's style of leadership is "best." Transmitting
such an attitude to persons in other nations frequently
meets with some resistance or resentment.
A variation of ethnocentrism takes place when a person
from a culture within a country implies that his or her
culture is superior to other cultural
backgrounds from the same country. Some of the racial
tension between African Americans and Caucasians in the
United States indicates this type of belief
in a culture's superiority (e.g., "acting white" as an insult
or racially charged references by Caucasians), even though
these ideas are not tied to international
business.
For Review

De�ine ethnocentrism and explain how it creates a
barrier to interpersonal communication.
Ethnocentrism, the belief that one'sculture is
inherently superior, may cause either the sender
or receiver to convey a sense of feeling
superior.
The misunderstanding that results and the con�lict or
confrontation that might emerge would not be
surprising.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping exists when a person assumes things about
another based on that person's race, gender, or national
heritage. Stereotyping occurs within
national boundaries based on many cultural values and
elements. In the United States, stereotyping of religions,
political af�iliations, and regional heritage
affects communication as well. For example, assuming
someone who looks Hispanic actually speaks Spanish is
stereotyping, as is assuming all members of a
religion, such as Islam, have common (and negative)
characteristics.
In international settings, cultural stereotyping takes place
between countries. Believing all Germans are rigid,
structured, rational thinkers lumps them into a
group that undoubtedly does not truly exist. Corresponding
methods of speaking are affected by such an assumption.
Many times women are the victims of
stereotyping, even though the nature of the stereotyping
differs in various cultures. Typically femininity has been

associated with nurturing and support,
where masculinity re�lects aggression and dominance by
males, even though these characteristics are not true of
many men and women.
For Review
De�ine stereotyping and explain how it creates a
barrier to interpersonal communication.
Stereotyping exists when a person assumes
things about another based on that
person's race, gender, or national heritage. It
can disrupt
conversations between people of differ ent
cultures within a country or with those
from another country.
Nonverbal Cues
Nonverbal cues vary widely by culture. Nodding "yes" in
one country means "no" in
others. In many Middle Eastern nations, the act of
crossing one's legs is a sign of
disrespect and males holding hands as part of a business
relationship indicates trust.
Gestures also vary widely. What may have a benign
meaning in one country may be an
obscene gesture in another. Examples include the "V for
victory" with two �ingers sign
and use of the middle �inger to point. In Indonesia,
pounding your �ist into the palm of
your hand may be considered an obscene gesture.

Personal Space
Personal space is the distance between two persons in a
conversation. Standing two to
three feet away from another person may be the norm in
one culture such as France,
Spain, or the United States where greater personal space
exists. That same distance
may indicate shiftiness or distrust in Central Africa and
the Middle East. As an
extension of personal distance, in the culture of Japan a
business partner might �ind a
pat on the back to be disconcerting, as the Japanese tend
to not make physical contact
in business relationships, other than a handshake with a
Western partner.
Symbols and Cultural Icons
Not long ago, Pepsi began to lose market share to Coke
in Southeast Asia. The management team discovered that
changing the outside color of vending
machines from a dark regal blue to light blue was the
problem. In that region, light blue is associated with
death and mourning (Henderson, 2011).

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Comstock/Thinkstock
Time, timeliness, and tardiness have different
meanings in various
cultures.
Cultural symbols include religious items, superstitions,
colors, objects, animals, and an endless variety of items.
A white horse symbolizes death in some
cultures; a black horse in others. Various �lowers have
different meanings, depending on the culture involved.
Knowledge of the beliefs and associations of a
culture help you avoid doing something that would make
a person uncomfortable or that has a different meaning to
the other person than it does to you.
The left hand has meaning in many cultures. Malaysians
consider the left hand unclean. In India, the left hand is
considered less important, and dignitaries
perform actions with the right hand for ceremonies such
as a ribbon-cutting, even if the person is left-handed.
Higher- and Lower-Context Cultures
Different cultures place varying levels of emphasis on the
actual words involved in communication. The terms higher-
and lower-context are applied to these
cultural differences in language usage.

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