Sociological theories examine how social structure, institutions, and processes influence crime. Social structure theories view crime as resulting from one's position in society, while social process theories see crime as the product of socialization and group dynamics. Conflict theories argue crime stems from clashes between social classes. Subcultural theories emphasize how variably socialized cultural groups contribute to crime through norms that differ from the dominant culture. Societies with disorganized social structures or violent subcultures tend to have higher crime rates. Delinquents may use techniques like denying responsibility to neutralize feelings of guilt for violating social norms.

1. Social Process
Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society,
and social roles are the focus of criminological study

2. Social Process
Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup
relationships form the causal nexus from which crime develops

3. Social Process
The structure of society and its relative degree of organization
or disorganization are important factors contributing to the
prevalence of crime
The probability that a member of a given group will engage in a
specific type of crime can be estimated

4. Social Process
Sociological theories:
Examine institutional arrangements within society (social
structure) and the interaction between and among social
institutions, individuals, and groups (social processes) as they
affect socialization and have an impact on social behavior
(social life)

5. Social Process
Social structure theories: crime is the result of an individual’s
location within the structure of society
Social process/social development theories: crime is the end
product of various social processes.
Conflict theories: crime is the product of class struggle

6. Social Process

7. Social structure theories
Explain crime by reference to economic and social arrangements
of society
See the various formal and informal arrangements between
social groups as the root causes of crime and delinquency

8. Social Process
Culture Conflict Theory
Sees the root cause of crime in a class of values between
various socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper
behavior
Period: 1920s – present

9. Social Process
Primary conflict:
Results from a fundamental clash of cultures
Secondary conflict:
Arises when smaller cultures within the primary one clash

10. Social Process
Subculture:
A collection of values and preferences communicated to
participants through a process of socialization
Subcultural theory:
Sociological perspective emphasizing the contribution made by
variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime

11. Focal Concerns
Walter Miller (1858)
Lower class culture:
A long established, distinctively patterned tradition with
an integrity of its own
Behavior that upholds lower class norms may be seen by the
middle class as deliberately nonconforming

13. Focal Concerns
Trouble
Getting in, staying out, dealing with trouble
Toughness
Concern with masculinity
Smartness
Ability to outsmart or con others and avoid being duped

14. Focal Concerns
Excitement
Search for thrills
Fate
The concept of luck, being lucky
Autonomy
Taking care of oneself, not getting pushed around

15. Social Process
Sykes and Matza (1957)
Members of delinquent subcultures also participate in the larger
culture
Offenders use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate shame and guilt
associated with violating social norms

16. Techniques of Neutralization
Denying responsibility
“It’s not my fault”
Denying injury
“Everyone does it”; the victim can afford it
Denying the victim
Deny or justify the harm done; the victim “deserves it”

17. Techniques of Neutralization
Condemning the condemners
Authorities are corrupt; “They’re all on the take”
Appealing to higher loyalties
Defense of family honor, gang, neighborhood

19. Social Process
Delinquents tend to drift between crime and conventional action
– choose the most expedient
Use techniques of neutralization to keep from being alienated
from larger society

20. Violent Subcultures
Ferracuti and Wolfgang (1967)
Violence is a learned form of adaptation to problematic life
circumstances
Learning to be violent takes place within the context of a
subculture emphasizing violence over other forms of adaptation
For participants in violent subcultures, violence can be a way of
life

21. Violent Subcultures
Southern subculture of violence
Southerner, violence and weaponry
Certain violent crimes may be more acceptable in the South than
other parts of the US
Black subculture of violence
Created by generations of white-on-black violence
Seek status through ability to harm, intimidate, dominate others

22. Delinquent Subcultures
Criminal subcultures:
Criminal role models readily available
Conflict subcultures:
Status through violence
Retreatist subcultures:
Drug use and withdrawal from wider society

24. Types of lower Class Youth
Type I:
Desire entry into middle class by improving their
economic position
Type II:
Desire entry to middle class but not improvement in
economic position

25. Types of lower Class Youth
Type III:
Desire wealth without entry to middle class
Type IV:
Dropouts who retreat from mainstream through drug and
alcohol use

26. Social Process
Social groups, social institutions, the arrangement of society,
and social roles are the focus of criminological study

27. Social Process
Group dynamics, group organization, and subgroup
relationships form the causal nexus from which crime develops

28. Social Process
The structure of society and its relative degree of organization
or disorganization are important factors contributing to the
prevalence of crime
The probability that a member of a given group will engage in a
specific type of crime can be estimated

29. Social Process
Sociological theories:

30. Examine institutional arrangements within society (social
structure) and the interaction between and among social
institutions, individuals, and groups (social processes) as they
affect socialization and have an impact on social behavior
(social life)

31. Social Process
Social structure theories: crime is the result of an individual’s
location within the structure of society
Social process/social development theories: crime is the end
product of various social processes.
Conflict theories: crime is the product of class struggle

32. Social Process
Social structure theories
Explain crime by reference to economic and social arrangements
of society
See the various formal and informal arrangements between
social groups as the root causes of crime and delinquency

33. Social Process
Culture Conflict Theory
Sees the root cause of crime in a class of values between
various socialized groups over what is acceptable or proper
behavior
Period: 1920s – present

34. Social Process
Primary conflict:
Results from a fundamental clash of cultures
Secondary conflict:
Arises when smaller cultures within the primary one clash

35. Social Process

36. Subculture:
A collection of values and preferences communicated to
participants through a process of socialization
Subcultural theory:
Sociological perspective emphasizing the contribution made by
variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime

37. Focal Concerns
Walter Miller (1858)
Lower class culture:
A long established, distinctively patterned tradition with
an integrity of its own
Behavior that upholds lower class norms may be seen by the
middle class as deliberately nonconforming

38. Focal Concerns
Trouble
Getting in, staying out, dealing with trouble
Toughness
Concern with masculinity
Smartness
Ability to outsmart or con others and avoid being duped

39. Focal Concerns
Excitement
Search for thrills
Fate
The concept of luck, being lucky
Autonomy
Taking care of oneself, not getting pushed around

40. Social Process
Sykes and Matza (1957)
Members of delinquent subcultures also participate in the larger
culture
Offenders use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate shame and guilt

41. associated with violating social norms

42. Techniques of Neutralization
Denying responsibility
“It’s not my fault”
Denying injury
“Everyone does it”; the victim can afford it
Denying the victim
Deny or justify the harm done; the victim “deserves it”

43. Techniques of Neutralization
Condemning the condemners
Authorities are corrupt; “They’re all on the take”
Appealing to higher loyalties
Defense of family honor, gang, neighborhood

44. Social Process
Delinquents tend to drift between crime and conventional action
– choose the most expedient
Use techniques of neutralization to keep from being alienated
from larger society

45. Violent Subcultures
Ferracuti and Wolfgang (1967)
Violence is a learned form of adaptation to problematic life
circumstances
Learning to be violent takes place within the context of a
subculture emphasizing violence over other forms of adaptation
For participants in violent subcultures, violence can be a way of
life

46. Violent Subcultures
Southern subculture of violence
Southerner, violence and weaponry
Certain violent crimes may be more acceptable in the South than

47. other parts of the US
Black subculture of violence
Created by generations of white-on-black violence
Seek status through ability to harm, intimidate, dominate others

48. Delinquent Subcultures
Criminal subcultures:
Criminal role models readily available
Conflict subcultures:
Status through violence
Retreatist subcultures:
Drug use and withdrawal from wider society

49. Types of lower Class Youth
Type I:
Desire entry into middle class by improving their
economic position
Type II:
Desire entry to middle class but not improvement in
economic position

50. Types of lower Class Youth
Type III:
Desire wealth without entry to middle class
Type IV:
Dropouts who retreat from mainstream through drug and
alcohol use