Introduction Mental health conditions have effects regardless of race, color, gender, or identity. Anyone can experience the challenges of mental illness regardless of their background. Although we are similar, your experiences and how you understand and deal with these conditions may be different. Anyone can develop a mental health problem, but African Americans sometimes experience more severe forms of mental health conditions because of limited resources and other barriers. African Americans are twenty percent more likely to have severe psychological distress than Whites are. Also, African Americans and other minority communities are more likely to have similar experiences, such as barriers from health, educational, social, and economic resources because of cultural and societal factors. These may contribute to worse mental health outcomes. More than half of the people in the United States are being recognized with a mental illness in their lifetime; however, now not everybody will acquire the assistance they need. Even though mental illness is common and might affect everyone, there is still a stigma attached. This stigma creates shame in seeking help, especially in the African American community. The understanding of mental illnesses has come a far way from where it used to be, but improvements have to make. Mental illnesses should not be viewed any differently from physical diseases. I believe the two are very similar. When the mind is ill, it is not just the brain, but it has effects on the whole body and health overall. Substance abuse, self-damage, and suicide are widespread and dangerous in people with mental illness. The stigma connected to mental illness stops people from getting the assistance they need and causes them to cover their pain. Clinically trained social workers are the nation’s largest group of mental health service providers. (Staff, 2016). This is important to social work because social workers push the conversation of mental health forward. Many social workers in the field are first responders to most mental health claims. Also, the stigma of mental illness in the african american community has to change and social workers can be the driving force of a new outlook of mental health. To navigate towards a better views on mental health it is important to understand how we got to this point. Though this text it will discuss the following, what is mental illness, historical information of mental health in the African American community, barriers to mental health in the African American community, also the perspective African Americas have on mental health. Literature Review WHAT IS MENTAL ILLNESS Mental illness is a general term referring to all mental health conditions that involve changes in emotions, thinking, interaction with other people, and behavior in a person. The changes can be caused by different factors, such as genetics, daily habits, environment, biology, and life experiences (McNally, (2011).). Mental i ...

1. Introduction
Mental health conditions have effects regardless of race, color,
gender, or identity. Anyone can experience the challenges of
mental illness regardless of their background. Although we are
similar, your experiences and how you understand and deal with
these conditions may be different. Anyone can develop a mental
health problem, but African Americans sometimes experience
more severe forms of mental health conditions because of
limited resources and other barriers. African Americans are
twenty percent more likely to have severe psychological distress
than Whites are. Also, African Americans and other minority
communities are more likely to have similar experiences, such
as barriers from health, educational, social, and economic
resources because of cultural and societal factors. These may
contribute to worse mental health outcomes. More than half of
the people in the United States are being recognized with a
mental illness in their lifetime; however, now not everybody
will acquire the assistance they need. Even though mental
illness is common and might affect everyone, there is still a
stigma attached. This stigma creates shame in seeking help,
especially in the African American community. The
understanding of mental illnesses has come a far way from
where it used to be, but improvements have to make. Mental
illnesses should not be viewed any differently from physical
diseases. I believe the two are very similar. When the mind is
ill, it is not just the brain, but it has effects on the whole body
and health overall. Substance abuse, self-damage, and suicide
are widespread and dangerous in people with mental illness. The
stigma connected to mental illness stops people from getting the
assistance they need and causes them to cover their pain.
Clinically trained social workers are the nation’s largest group
of mental health service providers. (Staff, 2016). This is
important to social work because social workers push the
conversation of mental health forward. Many social workers in

2. the field are first responders to most mental health claims. Also,
the stigma of mental illness in the african american community
has to change and social workers can be the driving force of a
new outlook of mental health. To navigate towards a better
views on mental health it is important to understand how we got
to this point. Though this text it will discuss the following,
what is mental illness, historical information of mental health in
the African American community, barriers to mental health in
the African American community, also the perspective African
Americas have on mental health.
Literature Review
WHAT IS MENTAL ILLNESS
Mental illness is a general term referring to all mental health
conditions that involve changes in emotions, thinking,
interaction with other people, and behavior in a person. The
changes can be caused by different factors, such as genetics,
daily habits, environment, biology, and life experiences
(McNally, (2011).). Mental illness is diagnosed and treated like
any other physical disease. They often lead to significant
distress and can alter the ability of a person to function. For a
person to be considered as mentally ill, their social,
educational, or occupational functioning must have been
affected. Daily experiences where one encounters some
stressing moments should not be considered like mental illness.
When the effects or symptoms are prolonged, though, it has to
is treated as a mental illness case. Mental illness includes many
types of mental health problems. According to the American
Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, the following classes of mental illnesses are
found; bipolar and related disorders, neurodevelopmental
disorder, depression, schizophrenia spectrum, psychotic
disorders, trauma-related disorders, eating disorders, sexual
dysfunction, personality disorders, elimination disorders,
somatic symptom and related disorders, sleeping and waking
disorders, gender dysphoria, paraphilic disorders, substance-

3. related and addictive disorders, neurocognitive disorders, and
disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders. Some
definitions are found below:
Depression: has been one of the most common mental disorders.
It is estimated that about 300 million people in the world are
affected by depression. As compared to men, more women are
more prone to depression. A chronic type of depression is a
persistent depressive disorder, also known as dysthymia. A
person with this disorder might experience symptoms for up to
two years. In America, about 1.5 percent of adults are said to
experience dysthymia each year. Clinical depression, also called
major depressive disorder, is experienced through extreme
sadness, feelings, and hopelessness. People experiencing
clinical depression might think about or attempt to commit
suicide. Seven percent of Americans are said to experience at
least one major clinical depression episode per year. Depression
may be characterized by displeasure, sadness, guilty feelings,
and low self-worth, poor concentration, tiredness, disturbed
appetite, and disturbed sleep. Depression is treatable through
therapy and the use of antidepressants for severe cases.
Schizophrenia: is a psychosis mental disorder that affects how a
person perceives reality. It is characterized by distorted
thoughts, language, behavior, and sense of self. Everyday
experiences may include hallucinations whereby they hear, see,
and feel things that do not exist, and delusional with false
beliefs and suspicions firmly held on to when there is really
nothing. In the world, it affects 23 million people, while in
America, about 1 percent of the population is estimated to have
schizophrenic experiences. Persons experiencing schizophrenia
may experience stigma and discrimination hence resulting in a
lack of access to health or social services. They're also at high
risk of being exposed to human rights violations leading to
being confined in institutions for a longer time. It can begin
from as early as adolescence or in young adults. Schizophrenia
is treatable with appropriate medicines as well as psychosocial
support.

4. Bipolar affective disorder: is a mental illness that is
characterized by manic and depressive episodes with an in-
between of regular mood periods; a person with bipolar disorder
experiences episodes of manic highs, energetic, and depressive
lows. The person's energy levels are affected, elevated moods,
the pressure of speech, decreased need for sleep, inflated self-
esteem, and they cannot reason. Bipolar disorder causes
extremely severe mood swings, which are not comparable to the
small ups and downs experienced daily. Bipolar disorder affects
60 million people in the world, while in America, about 2.6
percent of the people are affected yearly. Medicines to stabilize
the moods are used for treatment during the acute phase and to
prevent relapse.
Development disorders: these include pervasive developmental
disorders such as autism and intellectual disability. They
usually begin during childhood but can continue into adulthood,
resulting in delayed functions in relation to the maturation of
the central nervous system. As compared to other mental health
illnesses, developmental disorders are characterized by
following a steady course as opposed to occurring in periods.
The primary characteristic is the impairment of skills in
developmental areas such as adaptive behavior and cognitive
functioning. In autism, there is impaired communication and
language, social behavior, and carrying out activities
repetitively. Persons affected by these disorders need the
support of family in setting up environments that they are
comfortable and setting daily routines that are not disrupted as
well as identifying where they can learn better.
Dementia: is the result of deterioration in cognitive function,
the processing of thoughts, which is more than what is expected
as one age normally. It usually affects one's ability to
comprehend, remember, calculate, learning, language, and
judging. These impairments lead to a lack of emotional control,
deteriorated social behavior, and motivation. Stroke can
contribute to dementia.
Anxiety disorder: is the type of disease that is more than usual

5. anxiety experienced on a daily basis. A person with this
condition tend to worry about many things, sometimes with no
reason to worry at all. People with this condition are often
afraid that things will never work out in their favor.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): is a mental illness that
results from one experiencing traumatic events in their lives.
These experiences can range from war or national disasters to
physical or verbal abuse.
Common signs of other mental illnesses may include: having
insomnia or too much sleep, depriving oneself of food or
overeating, feelings of fatigue without doing much, numbness,
experiences of unexplainable pains in the body, feelings of
hopelessness, indulging in drinking, smoking, or drug abuse,
feelings of confusion, irritability, anxiety, anger, and
forgetfulness. These symptoms help the physicians to come up
with a diagnosis so as to give the right treatment.
Mental illnesses treatments are aimed to reduce the symptoms
while making the condition to be manageable. It may include
medications such as antidepressants, anti-anxiety, mood-
stabilizing, and antipsychotic drugs. Psychotherapy,
hospitalized care, and lifestyle treatment is other forms of
treatment.
HISTORICAL INFORMATION OF MENTAL HEALTH THE
AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY
According to the 2014 U.S. Census, 13.2 percent of the U.S.
population is African Americans, which is roughly 45.7 million
people. However, these figures might not be accurate due to the
overrepresentation of people who are hard to find during the
census. Those who are homeless are many African Americans,
whereas some just decline is participating in the poll.
African Americans trace back their ancestry to the slave trade
from Africa. For a period of more than 200 years, millions of
them were purchased and brought to the west. When slavery
ended in the early 1800s, their economy activities relied heavily
on agriculture, with most of them being sick. They were

6. exploited and remained at the bottom of the economic ladder as
most African Americans were sharecropping. They continued to
live in poverty with meager incomes and little or no opportunity
for betterment. The African American community has tried to
make changes to the fights for social and economic justice, but
however, there still exist disparities in mental health issues.
African Americans suffer more increased rates of mental
illnesses. Historical adversities including slavery,
sharecropping, racial based exclusion from health services,
exclusion from education, and differences in social and
economic resources, which translates into disparities in the
socioeconomic status (Jones, (1998)). These differences
automatically turn into the causes of mental illnesses among
African Americans. Homeless people and those in prisons have
a higher chance of suffering from mental illnesses too. Racism
continues to impact mental health conditions and has done so
for generations, and it is yet to be addressed. Psychiatrists and
medical professionals have been engaging in misdiagnosis
through exploiting African Americans by specific mental
illnesses hence prolonging the problems. Some mental diseases
could be used to suggest that African Americans were inferior
compared to other races.
John Galt, a physician of the Eastern Lunatic Asylum in
Virginia in 1848, referred to African Americans as being
immune to mental illness because they do not own property,
engage in business, vote, or hold office. He assumed that in the
time when wealthy white men were being exposed to the
emotional stress of profit-making. Mental illness has been in
existence in a long time, but for African Americans, little about
the condition has been available. According to Dr. Benjamin
Rush, many of the people in slavery experienced abnormal
behaviors, one of which was "negritude," a desire by the
African Americans to become white. Drapetomania is another
mental health condition that caused slaves to run away from
their plantations. Dysesthesia, which is now depression was a
disease that caused dullness in the slaves. Severe beatings and

7. abuse were often used to treat both conditions, according to Dr.
Samuel Cartwright. He also believed that the slaves had to be
treated like children by their owners in order for them to remain
submissive. However, both physicians failed to recognize that it
was the emotional stress causing the conditions and therefore
offer the appropriate medication. Mental health facilities during
the pre-civil war barred slaves from receiving treatment. The
mental health experts believed that if the African Americans
were put together with the whites, they would affect the white's
healing process. The African Americans were therefore housed
outside near the institutions. Some child slaves were, however,
cared for in the yards of those asylums. They were, however,
misdiagnosed and often falsely accused of crimes, which led to
prolonged stays in the institutions. The distrust of the
healthcare system might have started here since the children
were regularly being subjected to child labor, which was being
praised by the authorities of the asylum. There is no way they
could carry out manual work if they were mentally ill. After the
Civil War led to the freedom of almost four million slaves,
there were increased cases of insanity and consumption, which
Dr. Powell of the Georgia Lunatic Asylum argued that it was
due to the freedom accorded to them that is why they could not
control their appetites or passions thus leading to increased
vices. Like other medical experts, he also failed to acknowledge
that socioeconomic factors such as poverty and racial
discrimination could be leading to those improved conditions.
Individuals with mental illnesses, and the inadequate faced
sterilization in the 1920s as they were seen as unfit for
reproduction. Eugenics movement is what resulted in this. They
only wanted people who had good genetic stock to give birth.
Sterilization focused on African Americans in the U.S., with
their populations decreasing due to the practice. States passed
laws for sterilization, even for the misdiagnosed individuals. In
the 1960s in North Carolina, sterilized African American
women were more than 85 percent of the legal sterilizations.
During the 1930s to 1960s, African Americans were victimized

8. through psychosurgery, which is a surgical process of removing
a part of the brain (lobotomy) in order to treat mental illnesses.
The reasons for performing this procedure were, however, ruled
to be socio-political rather than medical. Brain dysfunction was
believed to be the cause of widespread violence in urban places
and the inner city, hence psychosurgery was viewed as the
treatment. Social scientists, however, saw the urban violence as
reactions due to poverty, oppression, discrimination, and police
brutality against African Americans (Fink, & Tasman, (1991)).
The doctors argued that the brain disorder could be treated
surgically hence promoting their agenda in trying to end the
political unrest in that period. The procedures were performed
on children who were even five years when they show
aggressive behaviors. Two New York psychiatrists identified a
condition known as protest psychosis in 1968. The situation was
said to drive "Negro men" to insanity. They believed that
African American liberation caused delusions and hallucinations
in African American men. Later, they identified protest
psychosis like schizophrenia, and today African American men
are the ones diagnosed with schizophrenia mostly. Psychology
and science show that African Americans were exploited
through medical experiments. In the 1800s, a physician by the
name Marion Sims carried out surgical experiments on female
African slaves and infants without using anesthesia on them.
They were used to carry out medical research and mostly died
from the tests. From 1932 to 1972, African American men were
used in the Tuskegee Experiment by the U.S. Public Health
Service. They were made to believe that they were being treated
for free, but they were being experimented on to study how
untreated syphilis progresses. It resulted in most of them dying
from the disease and passing it on to their unborn children.
These historical traumas have impacted the mental health in the
African American community.
BARRIERS TO MENTAL ILLNESS IN THE AFRICAN
AMERICAN COMMUNITY

9. Several barriers contribute to mental illnesses in the African
American community. Racial bias plays a significant role since
they are always perceived as violent, and therefore, when they
get involved in criminal activities, no one really cares to help
them. When a white person is involved in illegal activities such
as mass shootings, there is speculation that he is mentally ill.
Mental illness doesn't discriminate; it affects all people despite
their color. Mental illnesses can affect African Americans more
severely because of unmet needs and the other barriers they
face. They face cultural barriers, religious barriers, and
language barriers. When they deal with these barriers, they are
denied their right to treatment since mental illnesses are
diseases like any other physical disease. Some of the issues they
are facing in dealing with mental illnesses are.
Misunderstanding of mental illness
African American community does not understand what mental
health is and does not talk about the topic. Coping with mental
illnesses like depression is considered a spiritual or moral
weakness due to negative stereotypes and attitudes of rejection.
The lack of knowledge might lead some to believe that mental
illness is a punishment from God. Therefore, the shame and
stigma associated with mental illnesses might make some of
them not to seek treatment. The signs and symptoms associated
with mental illnesses might not be clear to all of them. Hence it
can go unrecognized. Some of them refer to depression as "the
blues," and they think that it is something they can control. The
lack of information makes them not aware of when to seek help.
Studies show that 63 percent of African Americans believe that
depression is a personal weakness, with only 32 percent finding
that it is a health problem. Six percent believe that it is normal
in aging for one to be depressed. Forty percent believe it is
normal for a partner to get depressed for more than a year after
losing their spouse to death, while 45 percent believe that it is
normal for a mother to get depressed after giving birth for at
least two weeks.
Reluctance for treatment

10. Only a quarter of African Americans, which accounts for about
30 percent of adults, willingly seek treatment for mental
illnesses as compared to about 40 percent of whites who receive
treatment in America per year. The barrier to treatment is due to
factors such as denial when one does not accept that they might
be dealing with a mental health condition. Another factor is
some don't want help. Some people might feel embarrassed or
ashamed, and since they fear to be labeled as weak in the
community, they decide not to seek advice concerning the
conditions. Lack of money or insurance is another factor why
some cannot receive treatment. Hopelessness also can contribute
to one being reluctant to seek help. African Americans distrust
the health system due to past misdiagnoses. They are negatively
affected by discrimination in the system hence receiving the
inadequate treatment most times. The lack of cultural
competency prevents many of them from staying without
treatment. Studies also show that medications are metabolized
slowly in African Americans, and since they receive high doses,
the adverse side effects are more, therefore, discouraging them
from continuing with medication.
Inability to access mental health services
Many African Americans are not able to access mental health
care due to a lack of health insurance or money. Eleven percent
of African Americans lack any form of health insurance as of
2017. The percentage of people who are unable to get treatment
or prescribed medicine is high for people with no health
insurance. In the poor working category, the most significant
representation is African Americans, and they do not qualify for
public coverage, and the jobs they work in do not offer private
coverage. Poverty is also a contributor since it increases the
chances of being mentally ill. The people experiencing hunger,
homelessness, and lacking basic needs are more prone to mental
health disorders such as depression and even engaging in the
use of drugs. According to the U.S. Census Bureau of 2014, the
poverty rate for African Americans was 26.2 percent. Poverty
contributes highly to mental health issues.

11. Faith, spirituality, and community
In the African American community, religion, family, and
community are the most significant sources of support. At least
85 percent of African Americans consider themselves religious.
Research shows that they rely on faith, social communities, and
families for emotional support, with most commonly turning to
prayer to deal with stressful moments instead of seeking health
care, which most times is necessary (Taylor, Chatters, & Levin,
(2003)). As much as these spiritual beliefs are excellent sources
of support, it can be a hindrance to receiving professional
treatment or therapy. Faith, family, and community can help in
the process of recovery, but it should be accompanied by other
treatment forms. Since spirituality is an integral part of their
lives, they can actively help in the treatment plan. If they lack
information about mental illnesses, though, they can be a source
of stigma instead of support.
Racism
Racism continues to impact the mental health of African
Americans. There have been several historical instances of
adverse treatments leading to mistrust. In the slavery era, if one
displayed mental illness signs, they would receive more
beatings, which led them to hide or disguise any psychological
issue they might have. Myths have, therefore, been created
about mental health conditions. African Americans also believe
that if their people made it through slavery, they can make it
through anything, hence no need to take their problems to some
stranger/psychiatrist.
Provider bias and lack of cultural competency
Lack of cultural competence in providers leads to misdiagnosis
and poor quality of treatment for African Americans. In African
American women, physical symptoms such as body aches and
pains are mentioned as part of the depression, but since the
provider is not competent with the culture might not recognize
it as a mental illness symptom hence leading to misdiagnosis
(Metzl, (2010)). African Americans only make up 3.7 percent of
members in the American Psychiatric Association, with only 1.5

12. percent of members in the American Psychological Association.
Violence
African Americans witness or are victims of abuse and crimes.
The exposure to violence increases their chances of being prone
to suffering from PTSD, anxiety, and depression. Children who
are exposed to violence experience long term effects of mental
illnesses.
THE PERSPECTIVE AFRICAN AMERICANSHAVE ON
MENTAL ILLNESS
Mental illnesses can affect anyone, regardless of color, race, or
gender. The experiences and concerns, though, might differ.
African Americans sometimes experience mental illnesses more
severely because of the barriers they experience and are 20
percent more likely to develop severe problems of mental
illnesses than other populations, as stated by Health and Human
Services Office of Minority healthy. African American adults
are three times more likely to get severe psychological distress
as compared to those living above poverty (Breland-Noble, Al-
Mateen, & Singh, (2016)). They are also more likely to
experience sadness, feelings, worthlessness, and hopelessness as
compared to white adults. African American teenagers commit
suicides at a higher rate than white teenagers. Since African
Americans are more prone to exposure to violence and crimes,
they are more likely to be diagnosed with post-traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) throughout their lives. These statistics show
that mental illnesses are more amongst the African American
community, and it is essential for them to acknowledge the
same in order to get treatment. Ward, Wiltshire, Detry, and
Brown in 2013 conducted a study that shows that African
American communities have several attitudes towards mental
illnesses. African Americans believe that mental health is a
stigma that leads to non-openness about the same. For example,
they do not seek help, which leads to their behavior is affected.
In the study, those who participated were reluctant to
acknowledge mental health problems and not sure about seeking

13. treatment for the same. The African American community relies
on religious teachings, including pastoral guidance and prayer
to cope with mental illnesses, and cultural lessons on the
origins of mental health and the nature in which mental
illnesses appear. Beliefs in a person about psychological
diseases can influence their willingness to seek treatment or
not. Therefore, cultural opinions on mental disorders are
essential. Mental illnesses are viewed as:
Taboos
The stigma around mental illness in the African American
community is a major taboo. Depression and anxiety, which can
lead to suicide, are still treated as a taboo hence leading to no
health treatment sought by those affected by the conditions.
Stigma
Stigma results when a person who has a mental illness is
negatively evaluated by those surrounding them. In most cases,
this is what happens in African American communities. The
whole society suffers from perceived stigma where they view
people with mental illnesses in a certain way. A common belief
is that mental illness is one's fault. Mental illness stigma
generally develops from a lack of knowledge about mental
health. The son believes of causes of mental illnesses being
biological leads to passing down of misinformation from one
generation to the other hence the continued lack of information
concerning psychological disorders in the African American
communities. Due to this misinformation, it might not be
evident when one needs to find the required help.
Weakness and instability
The National Mental Health Association conducted a national
survey in 1998, which indicated that 63 percent of African
Americans believe that mental illnesses such as depression are
an indication of personal weakness. Another study showed that
some men believe that it is a lack of being motivated. African
American adults who are older think that depression is a sign of
weakness and one's lack of inner strength. Clinical depression is
not a personal weakness; however, but a medical illness that

14. needs to be treated. Knowledge of mental illnesses needs to be
increased so that the exposure can open up the African
Americans' minds on the issues of mental health.
Myths
Depression in African American communities is perceived as
the "blues," which means referring to life's ups and downs.
However, that is not the case because there are several moments
of happiness and sadness in a person's life (Neighbors, (1996)).
It is normal to feel sadness during bad times, such as mourning,
or when one is getting through a divorce, financial problems, or
when sick. However, if the "blues" are prolonged, that is a sign
of clinical depression that might go untreated if the myth is not
changed. Another myth about depression is that some groups of
African Americans are expected to undergo depression, for
example, new mothers, teenagers, older people, women
experiencing menopause, or the ones having chronic illnesses.
The mindset that they can survive anything.
African Americans, especially women, are expected to be active
as identified in the idea of "strong black woman" and persevere
anything they are going through. The concept of African
American women being strong suggests that African American
women are expected to go through all kinds of hardship without
them breaking down, whether physically or mentally. The
people believe that if their ancestors made it through slavery,
they could also make it through anything, and they should take
it to God in prayer instead of telling strangers/psychiatrists
their problems. The mindset makes one seem as spiritually weak
if they say that they are feeling sadness or anxiety. African
Americans also believe that it doesn't exist amongst them, or
those are not their type of concerns. A study conducted for 18
months showed that African Americans emphasized on non-
biomedical interpretations of signs and symptoms of mental
illnesses. The psychiatric medication was viewed as frustrating
due to the professionals' medication focus. These cultural
stereotypes lead to African Americans to denying emotional
problems.

15. Methodology
Mental health stigma is a negative evaluation for people with
mental health illness and/or mental health treatment. It can be
received in specific categories, such as perceived stigma and
personal stigma. Perceived stigma is a mental health stigma
where one believes that society has a particular perception of
mental health patients. Its stigma is an individual's belief in
people with mental illness. Stigma mental health in the African
American community is built on the grounds of personal stigma
where an individual focuses on their own beliefs on mental
health. These categories of individuals with mental health are
never willing to undergo any procedural treatment. In most
cases, personal stigma denounces the thought of getting treated
until the disorder nearly incapacitates. Within the African
American regions, the problem is pronounced by the fact that
members of a particular ethnic minority group are less likely to
seek health treatment. (Corrigan, 2015). Getting to the task to
understand the effect of prevalent stigma helps determine the
dangers of the illness. Some individuals never recover due to
their own fault. Most of the African American beliefs can result
in an assortment of negative results for those with health
illness. Such effects include; inadequate and unsafe housing,
low employment, and even a reduction in the utilization of
mental health care. People with personal stigma play a more
significant role in the development of mental health stigma in
the African American communities. One of the most researched
health topics associates some factors to health stigma in relation
to ethnic minorities is lack of knowledge. Different
misinformation on the illness has led to varying levels of
stigmatization. Few African Americans believe in the genetic
sources as a psychiatric source of the problem. The biological
causes are related to beliefs whose probability will not add up
for an individual with any kind of mental health illness and is
an African American. It is, however, researched that culture
among the Latino population has lessened the effect of stigma.

16. There is more will and power to attend any institution of health
in order to check for the issue of mental health as for the
acculturated individuals. Stigma reduction may be due to
information and acquisition of knowledge on disorders related
to mental health. Creating familiarity with different causes of
mental health treatment reduces mental health stigma among
African Americans by a high percentage. The ECA
(Epidemiologic Catchment Area) of the 1980s sampled citizens
of Baltimore, St. Louis, Durham-Piedmont, Los Angeles, and
New Haven and assessed both the community at large and
institutions which includes mental health hospitals, jails,
residential drug or alcohol treatment facilities, and nursing
homes (Robins & Regier, 1991). Overall, it included 4,638
African Americans, 12,944 whites, and 1,600 Hispanics. A
current look at the NCS (National Comorbidity Survey),
covered a representative sample of people residing inside the
network that protected 666 African Americans, 4,498 whites,
and 713 additional U.S. Citizens (Kessler et al., 1994).
Participants of both studies discussed whether or not they had
signs of frequently diagnosed mental disorders within the past
month, year, or at any time in the course of their lives. Results
for certain disorders are provided in Figure 1. After analyzing
demographic differences among African Americans and whites,
the ECA discovered that African Americans have been much
less probable to be depressed and more likely to be affected by
phobia than have been whites (Zhang & Snowden, 1999). The
NCS findings additionally suggest that African Americans were
less likely than whites to be affected by the main despair.
Figure 1: Results of the ECA and NCS Studies of Mental
Health Care for African Americans.
Source: Mental Health: Culture, Race, and Ethnicity: A
Supplement to Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General.
Office of the Surgeon General (US); Center for Mental Health
Services (US); National Institute of Mental Health (US).

17. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration (US); 2001 Aug.
The studies displayed gender differences in rates of mental
illness. Anxiety disorder, prevalence rates of depression, and
phobia were found to higher in African American women than
in African American men. These differences paralleled those
found for white women and men. Lack of knowledge creates
anxiety and further frustrates the situation, thus worsening.
Individuals in such a case usually experience interpersonal
stress, and this means that individuals who are suffering from
this medical condition experience a lot of fear of anxiety on
mental illness. (Thompson, 2004). Ethnic bias manifests and
maintains the alarms by putting up a belief that one group is
superior to another or otherwise and, therefore, should not meet
or instead collaborate. Racial biases have increased anxiety and
thereby increasing the mental health problem occurrences
amongst African Americans. African Americans are usually less
willing to treat medical conditions. People with anxiety often
have less affinity to relationships due to established myths and
concerns, thereby leading to mistrust. Within the American
states, the fears are much developed by the fact that mental
health is associated with the term crazy or somewhat illegal
drug use. Research shows that the minority ethnic groups were
reported to be visiting a psychotherapist but with fewer results
due to the already formed opinions: discrimination,
unwillingness, and the inability to comprehend life
circumstances and not based on color.
One of our primary theoretical framework in this course is the

18. concept of Intersectionality, which states that we should not
view identity as 'either/or' but rather 'both/and' across different
categories, such as race, social class, and gender. From this
point of view, we must work hard analytically to understand an
individual's 'Standpoint' on the basis of their relationship to
their intersecting categories of identity. Selecting at least two of
the major categories of your own identity, discuss how those
categories have intersected to shape your own life experiences,
and how your experiences may be similar or different from
others on the basis of one or both of those categories. A good
example is Sojourner Truth's speech "Ain't I a Woman," in
which she points out that her status as a woman of color means
she is not included in many of the conversations her fellow
white feminists were having at the time.
600 words