RESEARCH FROM McMASTER UNIVERSITY SHOWS THAT CANADIANS TEND TO.docx

RESEARCH FROM McMASTER UNIVERSITY SHOWS THAT
CANADIANS TEND TO MANAGE
STRESS BY PROBLEM-SOLVING, LOOKING ON THE
BRIGHT SIDE, TRYING TO RELAX,
TALKING TO OTHERS, BLAMING OURSELVES, IGNORING
STRESS, OR PRAYING. BUT ARE
MEN AND W OMEN DIFFERENT IN HOW THEY MANAGE
STRESS? YES, SAY PSYCHOLOGISTS. »
alive.com 35
heal t h
THE CAUSES OF STRESS
T h e p r im a ry so u rc e s of s tre s s for b o th m e n a n d
w o m en
a re w ork situ a tio n s, fin a n c ia l c o n c e rn s, h e a lth
scares,
a n d fam ily iss u e s. H ow ever, p sy c h o lo g is t R a n d y
K am e n
say s w o m en te n d to s tre s s m o re ab o u t th e ir re la
tio n s h ip s
a n d m e n te n d to s tr e s s m o re a b o u t w ork—b u t
she
b e lie v e s th is is slow ly sh iftin g . T h e e x a ct c a u se s
of s tre s s
d e p e n d o n o n e’s p e rso n a lity , physiology, g en e tic s,

h e a lth ,
en v iro n m en t, a n d em o tio n a l a n d s p iritu a l ap p ro
a ch to life.
P sy c h o lo g ist S teve O rm a a d d s th a t it’s im p o r ta n
t for
b o th m e n a n d w o m en to d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n n
o rm al,
sh o rt-te rm life s tr e s s a n d u n h e a lth y , c h ro n ic s
tre s s . “A
p e rs o n c a n ta k e o n a g o o d a m o u n t of sh o rt-te
rm s tre s s
a n d sh o w v e r y little to n o s tra in ,” h e says.
“H e o r sh e m ay e v e n th riv e on it, s u c h as a w ork
p ro je c t th a t is c h a lle n g in g a n d stim u la tin g . H ow
ever,
th e e m o tio n a l s ig n s of c h ro n ic s tr e s s in c lu d e
fee lin g
o v erw h elm ed , o v erlo ad ed , a n d an x io u s. P h y sica l
sy m p to m s m ig h t b e h e a d a c h e s , m u sc le te n sio n
, fatig u e,
a n d p o o r sleep .”
B etw een 75 a n d 9 0 p e rc e n t of all d o c to r’s office v is
its
a re for s tre s s -re la te d a ilm e n ts a n d co m p lain ts. T
hus, th e
k ey to h e a lth y liv in g is to m a n a g e b o th sh o rt- a n
d lo n g -
te rm s tr e s s b efo re it m a n a g e s you.
“ E v e r y o n e e x p e r i e n c e s
s t r e s s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s .
T h e k e y t o m a n a g i n g

s t r e s s a n d s t a y i n g h e a l t h y
i s t o k n o w y o u r s e l f . ”
“W e n e e d to d ea l w ith o u r s tre s s b e c a u s e it a
ffec ts o u r
m e n tal, p h y sical, a n d em o tio n a l h e a lth ,” say s K am
en.
“S tre ss ca n in c re a s e o u r r is k of h e a r t d ise a se , m
e tab o lic
d iso rd e rs, im m u n e p ro b lem s, a n d a w hole s p e c tr u
m of
p sy c h o lo g ic a l d iso rd e rs. It p lay s a role in h e a d a c
h e s , h ig h
b lo o d p re s s u re , h e a r t p ro b lem s, d ia b e te s, s k in
c o n d itio n s,
a s th m a , a r th ritis , a n d d ep re ssio n .” S tre ss ca n also
w re ak
h av o c o n o u r p e r s o n a l a n d p ro fe ssio n a l rela tio n
sh ip s.
E v ery o n e—m a n or w o m a n —e x p e rie n c e s s tr e s s
in w ays
th a t a re u n iq u e to e a c h in d iv id u a l. T he k ey to m
a n a g in g
s tre s s a n d s ta y in g h e a lth y is to k n o w y o u rself.
If y ou
le a rn w h en y o u r s tre s s lev el is to o h ig h o r la s tin
g to o
long, y o u m ig h t b e m o re lik ely to a d m in is te r y o u
rse lf
so m e TLC.
“O n e w ay to in c re a s e y o u r se lf-a w a re n ess is to
ask,
‘O n a scale of o n e to 10, w h ere is m y s tr e s s lev el?”’

says
O rm a. “A n u m b e r b e tw e e n o n e a n d five is a m a n a
g e a b le
a m o u n t of stre s s, b e c a u s e y o u c a n still fu n c tio n
w ell an d
feel g o o d . A n y th in g ab o v e th a t is to o m u c h s tr e
s s if it’s
s u s ta in e d for lo n g p erio d s.
“H ow ever, it’s o k ay to h a v e h ig h s tr e s s for a b rie f
p e rio d of tim e, s u c h as d u r in g a n in te n s e w orkout
or
ro lle r-co a ste r ride.”
SYMPTOMS OF STRESS
G e n e ra l s ig n s of s tr e s s in b o th m e n a n d w o m
en in c lu d e
> in s o m n ia
> h e a d a c h e s
> u p s e t sto m a c h
> low p ro d u c tiv ity
> a p p e tite c h a n g e s
> em o tio n a l o u tb u rs ts
> d ifficu lty c o n c e n tra tin g
> w ith d ra w in g
> irrita b ility
O th e r p h y sic a l s y m p to m s of s tr e s s —w h ic h m a y
b e
c a u s in g th o s e tr ip s to th e d o c to r’s o ffice—in c lu
d e ch e st
p a in , lo ss of se x u a l d e s ire o r ability, rin g in g in th e
ear, sw e a ty h a n d s a n d feet, d r y m o u th , jaw clen c
h in g ,
g r in d in g te e th , d ifficu lty sw allo w in g , sh allo w b re
a th in g ,

a n d low en erg y . >>
QUICK STRESS
RELEASE TIPS
> Take a deep bre a th and tell yo u rse lf
you have enough tim e , energy,
patience, and resources.
> R ejuvenate by placing ice o r heat
packs on y o u r neck and shoulders fo r
10 m inutes.
> Focus on so m e th in g in nature fo r tw o
to five m inutes.
> Rem ind yo u rs e lf o f w hat
really m atters.
> Play loud m usic and b o p around y o u r
hom e or office.
> Express g ra titu d e o fte n .
> Exercise to increase e ndorphins,
release c o rtis o l, b o o s t the im m une
system , and process y o u r em otions.
> C o n n ect w ith a frie n d o r loved one.
> Forgive.
36 m a r c h 2 0 1 5
S tress in w om en

A cc o rd in g to K am en, w o m en are m o re lik ely to
e x p e rie n c e s tre s s th r o u g h p h y sic a l a n d em o
tio n a l
sy m p to m s su c h as h e a d a c h e s , in d ig e s tio n , a n d
c r y in g b o u ts.
W o m en a re also m o re lik ely to m a n a g e s tr e s s b y
" te n d in g a n d b e frie n d in g .” T en d in g in v o lv e s e
n g a g in g
in a c tiv itie s th a t p ro te c t a n d n u r tu r e th e se lf a n
d lo v ed
o n es, w hile b e frie n d in g is a b o u t c o n n e c tin g w ith
o th e rs
to g iv e a n d rec eiv e s u p p o rt.
SUPPLEMENTS TO
RELIEVE STRESS
The m o st e ffe c tiv e su p p lem e n ts to relieve stress
d e p e n d on th e cause and sym p to m s o f stress.
N a tu ro p a th ic d o c to r Je n n ife r Burns o ffe rs some
suggestions o f som e su p p lem e n ts th a t m ay reduce
stress’s s ym p to m s or severity. However,
be sure to ta lk to a health care p ra c titio n e r to
fin d th e b e st possible rem edies fo r y o u r sym p to m s
and lifestyle.
Magnesium catalyzes m any chem ical reactions,
synthesizes pro te in , tra n sm its nerve signals, relaxes
muscles, and pro d u ce s and tra n s p o rts adenosine
trip h o s p h a te (ATP) energy.
L-tyrosine is involved w ith th e synthesis o f brain
n e u ro tra n s m itte rs and is used fo r depression,
stress, and to help Im prove a th le tic p e rform ance.
Theanine, in studies, relaxes th e brain, im proves

sleep q u a lity, and increases m e m o ry and learning.
Thiam ine (vitam in B1) m e ta b o lize s carb o h yd ra te s.
It may help tre a t depression, insom nia, and anxiety.
Niacin (vitam in B3) can help m anage high
ch o le ste ro l levels. Low levels o f niacin are
associated w ith d ig e s tiv e upsets and p o o r m ental
health.
Cam om ile can help induce sleep and calm the
nervous system .
S tress in m en
M en, o n th e o th e r h a n d , a re m o re likely to re a c t to
s tre s s
w ith a “figh t-o r-flig h t” re sp o n se , w h ich rev o lv e s a
ro u n d
fig h tin g b ack , es ca p in g , or b o ttlin g it up. T h ey are
also
m o re lik ely to e x p e rie n c e s le e p le s s n e s s , irritab
ility ,
an g er, a n d b ac k ac h es.
W h y th e d ifferen ce? A s tr e s s e d w o m a n ’s b o d y
re le a se s
m o re e n d o r p h in s a n d o x y to c in —a n d e s tro g e n
—th a n a
s tr e s s e d m a n ’s. A m a n ’s b o d y r e le a s e s la rg e a
m o u n ts
of n o re p in e p h rin e a n d c o rtiso l w h en h e is s tr e s s
e d a n d
s m a lle r a m o u n ts of ox y to cin .
A u s tra lia n re s e a rc h s u g g e s ts th e d iffe re n t re s
p o n s e s

to s tr e s s m a y b o il d o w n to a sin g le g en e. T he
SRY g e n e
o n a m a n ’s Y c h ro m o so m e p la y s a n im p o r ta n t
role in th e
fight-or-flight re s p o n s e , n e u ra l activity, c a rd io v a s c
u la r
fu n ctio n , a n d m o v e m en t. W o m en d o n ’t h a v e th
is g ene,
w h ich m ay h e lp e x p la in th e d iffe re n t r e s p o n s e
s to stre s s.
UNHEALTHY WAYS TO COPE
A 2014 s u rv e y fo u n d th a t le ss t h a n h a lf of C a n a d
ia n s
ex e rcise to reliev e s tre s s , y e t we k n o w e x e rcise is a
“w in-w in” a c tiv ity th a t re d u c e s a n x ie ty a n d im p
ro v e s
o v era ll h ea lth .
“T h e w o rs t w ay to co p e w ith s tr e s s is to ig n o re it
or
av o id th e sy m p to m s,” sa y s O rm a. N o t d e a lin g w
ith s tr e s s
c a n tr ig g e r o r e x a c e rb a te o th e r p h y sic a l h e a
lth iss u e s
o v er tim e, s u c h a s ca rd ia c p ro b le m s a n d d e c re a
s e d
im m u n ity to d ise a se . A v o id an ce c a n also le ad to
e m o tio n a l h e a lth is s u e s su c h as d ep re ssio n ,
anxiety,
a n d h o p e le s s n e s s .
O v e re a tin g , u s in g alco h o l a n d d ru g s , re p re s s in
g
e m o tio n s, a n d g a m b lin g a re o th e r u n h e a lth y w
ay s of

d e a lin g w ith s tre s s . “M en s e e m to g ra v ita te m o
re to sex
a n d g am b lin g , w hile w o m en a re m o re lik e ly to e n
g a g e
in co m fo rt ea tin g ,” say s K am en. “But sex, g am b lin g ,
a n d o v e re a tin g a re co m m o n re a c tio n s to s tre s s
in b o th
g e n d e rs.” T h e se u n h e a lth y c o p in g m e c h a n is m
s m ay
alle v ia te em o tio n a l p a in in th e m o m en t, b u t cre a
te
s ig n ific a n t h e a lth a n d o th e r p ro b le m s in th e lo n
g ru n .
M a n o r w o m an , it’s im p o r ta n t to le a rn w h at m a k
es
y o u r s tr e s s lev els s k y ro c k e t a n d h ow y o u r b o d
y te lls
y o u it n e e d s so m e TLC. E x p e rim e n t w ith d ifferen t
p h y sical, sp iritu a l, e m o tio n a l, co g n itiv e , a n d so
cial
w ay s to m a n a g e s tre s s u n til y o u fin d w h at w orks
for you.
A n d m a k e o u r C a n a d ia n re s e a rc h e rs p ro u d b
y e x e rc isin g
as a p r im a ry w ay to reliev e stress! 3
L a u r i e P a w l i k - K i e n l e n i s a w r i t e r w h o m a
n a g e s s t r e s s b y h i k i n g
w i t h h e r d o g s i n t h e f o r e s t .
38 march 2015

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Chapter 6 Ask Questions That Lead to Good Thinking
From what we have emphasized thus far, it should be clear that
to emulate the thinking of the best thinkers
· you must become interested in thinking.
· you must become a critic of your own thinking.
· you must be willing to establish new habits of thought.
· you must develop a passion for thinking well.
· you must study the interplay of thoughts, feelings, and desires.
· you must become interested in the role of thinking in your
life.
· you must routinely analyze thinking into its elements.
· you must routinely assess thinking for its strengths and
weaknesses.
· you must routinely assess your study (and learning) habits.
· you must learn how to think within diverse systems of
thought.
In this chapter, we shall explore the role of questions in
thinking to make explicit the questions the best thinkers ask.
The Importance of Questions in Thinking
It is not possible to become a good thinker and be a poor
questioner. Thinking is not driven by answers but, rather, by
questions. If those who laid the foundation for a field—for
example, physics or biology—asked no questions, the field
would not have been developed in the first place. Every
intellectual field is born out of a cluster of questions to which
answers are either needed or highly desirable. Furthermore,
every field stays alive only to the extent that fresh questions are

generated and taken seriously as the driving force in thinking.
To learn a subject is to learn to ask the questions the best
thinkers in the field routinely ask.
When a field of study is no longer pursuing answers to
questions, it becomes extinct. To think through or rethink
anything, one must ask questions that stimulate thought.
On the one hand, questions define tasks, express problems, and
delineate issues. Answers, on the other hand, often signal a full
stop in thought. Only when an answer generates further
questions does thought continue its life as such. This is why you
are really thinking and learning only when you have questions.
Moreover, the quality of the questions you ask determines the
quality of your thinking. When you have no questions, you are
not concerned with pursuing any answers.
For example, biologists and biochemists make progress when
they ask questions such as: “What are we made of? How do our
bodies work? What is life?” They make even more progress
when they take their questioning to the subcellular and
molecular level. They ask questions about isolated molecules
and events on the molecular level: “What are proteins? What are
enzymes? What are enzyme reactions? How do molecular events
underlie macroscopic phenomena?” (Jevons, 1964). By focusing
on these subcellular questions, they can move to important
questions such as: “How do vitamins interact with chemistry in
the body to produce healthier functioning? How do cancer cells
differ from normal cells? What kinds of foods interact with the
body’s chemistry to lessen the likelihood of the development of
cancerous cells?”
The best teachers are usually those who understand the
relationship between learning and asking questions. As Jevons
(1964) says of his students, “Those who asked questions helped
me most, but even those who merely looked puzzled helped a
little, by stimulating me to find more effective ways of making
myself understood.”
A field is alive only to the extent that there are live questions in
it.

Questioning Your Questions
When you meet a person for the first time, what questions
would you most like to answer about him or her? Another way
to put this question is to ask, “What information do you seek
about people when you first meet them?” What do these
questions (and the information you seek) tell you about your
values and concerns? What do they tell you, as well, about the
nature of the relationships you tend to form?
Consider the following types of questions based on the elements
of reasoning and intellectual standards.
· Questions of purpose force us to define our task.
· Questions of information force us to look at our sources of
information as well as the quality of our information.
· Questions of interpretation force us to examine how we are
organizing or giving meaning to information and to consider
alternative ways of giving meaning.
· Questions of assumption force us to examine what we are
taking forgranted.
· Questions of implication force us to follow where our thinking
is leading us.
· Questions of point of view force us to examine our point of
view and to consider other relevant points of view.
· Questions of relevance force us to differentiate what does and
does not bear on a question.
· Questions of accuracy force us to evaluate and test for truth
andcorrectness.
· Questions of precision force us to give details and be specific.
· Questions of consistency force us to examine our thinking for
contradictions.
· Questions of logic force us to consider how we are putting all
our thought together, to make sure that it all adds up and makes
sense within a reasonable system of some kind.
Think for Yourself 6.1 Questioning the Depth of Your
Questions
Write out your answers to these questions:
· Are any of the questions you are focused on in your life deep

questions?
· To what extent are you questioning your purposes and goals?
· Your assumptions? The implications of your thought and
action?
· Do you ever question your point of view?
· Do you ever wonder whether your point of view is keeping
you from seeing things from an opposing perspective? When?
· Do you ever question the consistency of your thought and
behavior?
· Do you question the logicalness of your thinking?
· What did answering these questions, and your reflection on
them, tell you about yourself and about your habits of
questioning?
Dead Questions Reflect Inert Minds
Most students ask virtually none of these thought-stimulating
types of questions. Most tend to stick to dead questions such as,
“Is this going to be on the test?” This sort of question usually
implies the desire not to think at all.
The best thinkers ask live questions that lead to knowledge and
further questions that lead to knowledge and yet further
questions.
We must continually remind ourselves that thinking begins
within some content only when questions are generated. No
questions (asked) equals no understanding (achieved).
Superficial questions equal superficial understanding; unclear
questions equal unclear understanding. If you sit in class in
silence, your mind probably will be silent as well. When this is
the case, you either will ask no questions or your questions will
tend to be superficial, ill-formed, and self-serving. You should
strive for a state of mind in which, even when you are
outwardly quiet, you are inwardly asking questions. You should
formulate questions that will lead you to productive learning.
Isaac Newton at age 19 drew up a list of questions under 45
headings. His goal was constantly to question the nature of
matter, place, time, and motion.
If you want to learn deeply and independently, you should

always strive to study so that what you do stimulates your
thinking with questions that lead to further questions.
Think for Yourself 6.2, 6.3
Questioning As You Read
Read a chapter in one of your textbooks specifically to generate
questions. Only when you are asking questions as you read are
you reading critically. After reading each section, or every few
paragraphs, make a list of all the questions you have about what
you are reading. Then try to answer these questions—either by
looking in the textbook or by raising them in class.
Questioning Your Questioning Ability
At this point in your intellectual development, to what extent
would you call yourself a skilled or deep questioner? That is,
how would you rate the overall quality of the questions you are
asking (those that you share with others and those you keep to
yourself)? Do you know anyone who you would say is a deep
questioner? If so, what makes you think this person questions
deeply?
Three Categories of Questions
Before we go further in our discussion about how to question
deeply, we want to introduce a useful way of categorizing
questions. This way of classifying questions provides a
“jumpstart” in discovering the kind of reasoning a question calls
for.
The three categories of questions are:
1. Questions of fact. Questions with one right answer (Factual
questions fall into this category.)
· What is the boiling point of lead?
· What is the size of this room?
· What is the differential of this equation?
· How does the hard drive on a computer operate?
2. Questions of preference. Questions with as many answers as
there are different human preferences (a category in which mere
subjective opinion rules). These questions ask you to express a
preference.
· Which would you prefer, a vacation in the mountains or one at

the seashore?
· How do you like to wear your hair?
Exhibit 6.1
In approaching a question, it is useful to figure out what type it
is. Is it a question with one definitive answer? Is it a question
that calls for a subjective choice? Or does the question require
you to consider competing answers?
· Do you like to go to the opera?
· What is your favorite type of food?
3. Questions of judgment. Questions requiring reasoning but
with more than one defensible answer. These are questions that
make sense to debate, questions with better-or-worse answers
(well-reasoned or poorly reasoned answers). Here we are
seeking the best possible answer given the range of
possibilities.
· How can we best address the most basic and significant
economic problems of the nation today?
· What can be done to significantly reduce the number of people
who become addicted to illegal drugs?
· What is the best thing we can do to save the earth?
· Is abortion morally justifiable?
· Should capital punishment be abolished?
Only the second kind of question (a question of preference)
calls for sheer subjective opinion. The third kind is a matter of
reasoned judgment. We should rationally evaluate answers to
the question by using universal intellectual standards—such as
clarity, depth, consistency, and so forth. Some people think of
all judgments as either fact or subjective preference. They ask
questions that elicit either a factual response or an opinion. Yet,
the kind of judgment most important to educated people—and
the kind we most want to be good at—falls into the third, now
almost totally ignored, category: reasoned judgment.
A judge in a court of law is expected to engage in reasoned
judgment. He or she is expected to render a judgment and to
base that judgment on sound, relevant evidence and valid legal

reasoning. A judge is under the ethical and legal obligation not
to base his or her judgments on subjective preferences or on
personal opinions.
Judgment based on sound reasoning goes beyond, and is never
to be equated with, fact alone or mere opinion alone. Facts are
typically used in reasoning, but good reasoning does more than
state facts. Furthermore, a position that is well reasoned is not
to be described as simply “opinion.” Of course, we sometimes
call the judge’s verdict an “opinion,” but we not only expect but
demand that it be based on relevant and sound reasoning.
When questions that require reasoned judgment are treated as
matters of preference, counterfeit critical thinking occurs. In
that case, some people come to uncritically assume that
everyone’s subjective opinion is of equal value. Their capacity
to appreciate the importance of intellectual standards
diminishes, and we can expect to hear questions such as these:
What if I don’t like these standards? Why shouldn’t I use my
own standards? Don’t I have a right to my own opinion? What if
I’m just an emotional person? What if I like to follow my
intuition? What if I think spirituality is more important than
reason? What if I don’t believe in being “rational”? When
people reject questions that call for reasoned judgment and deep
thought, they fail to see the difference between offering
legitimate reasons and evidence in support of a view and simply
asserting the view as true.
Intellectually responsible people, by contrast, recognize
questions of judgment for what they are: questions that require
the consideration of alternative ways of reasoning. Put another
way, intellectually responsible people recognize when a
question calls for good reasoning, and they behave in
accordance with that responsibility. This means that they realize
when a question can be answered in more than one reasonable
way. Moreover, they appreciate the responsibility they have to
consider alternative ways of looking at the problem, of entering
in good faith viewpoints that oppose their own before coming to
final judgments.

To summarize, we all need to recognize that questions call on
us to do one of three things:
1. To express a subjective preference
2. To establish an objective fact (within a well-defined system)
3. To come up with the best of competing answers (generated by
competing systems)
We do not fully understand the task we are faced with until we
know which of these three is called for in our thinking. Is the
question calling for a subjective or personal choice? If so, let’s
make that choice in terms of our personal preferences. If not, is
there a way to come up with one correct answer to this question
(a definite system in which to find the answer)? Or, finally, are
we dealing with a question that could reasonably be answered
differently within different points of view? In other words, is it
debatable? If the last, what is the best answer to the question,
all things considered?
Think for Yourself 6.4 Distinguishing Types of Questions 1
Make a random list of clear and precise questions. Then decide
which questions are factual (with a definite right or wrong
answer), which questions are matters of subjective preference,
and which questions require reasoning and judgment (within
multiple perspectives). To make these determinations, you
might think through each question in the following way:
1. Ask, “Are there any facts that a reasonable person would
have to consider to answer this question?” (If there are some
facts you need to consider, the question is not purely a matter of
subjective preference.)
2. If any facts are relevant to the question, would all reasonable
persons interpret the fact in the same way? If so, it is a question
of fact. If not, the facts presumably can be rationally interpreted
differently from competing, reasonable perspectives. It is
therefore a question of judgment.
As you study a subject, distinguish among the three types of
questions. Look for the questions that have definitive or correct
answers. These will be matters settled by definition or fixed,
established, and recognized procedures. Identify those questions

that are ultimately a matter of personal choice. And, most
important, identify those questions that can be legitimately, or
at least arguably, approached from more than one point of view.
These latter will arise most commonly when there are
competing traditions or schools or theories within the
discipline. For example, psychology incorporates many
competing schools: Freudian, Jungian, Adlerian, rational–
emotive, Gestalt, and so on. Many issues in psychology will be
reasoned through differently, depending on the reasoner’s
academic allegiance. These issues will call for considering
argumentation from a variety of perspectives and will result in
different reasoned judgments.
Think for Yourself 6.5 Distinguishing Types of Questions 2
Identify at least one subject you have studied in school that
involves competing traditions or schools of thought. Then
identify some questions that would be answered differently,
depending on the school of thought used to think through the
question. Which of the schools of thought do you best
understand or most identify with? How might this school of
thought be questioned from the perspective of a competing
school of thought?
Become a Socratic Questioner
Now that you are beginning to understand how to categorize
questions, let us discuss how we can approach questions in
general so our questions will lead us to better thinking. As
critical thinkers, we want to go beyond questions that are
undisciplined, questions that go in multiple directions with
neither rhyme nor reason. Therefore, we turn from merely
questioning to what might be termed Socratic questioning. The
word Socratic adds systematicity, depth, and a keen interest in
assessing the truth or plausibility of things to ordinary
questioning.
One of the primary goals of critical thinking is to establish a
disciplined, “executive” component of thinking in our thinking,
a powerful inner voice of reason, to monitor, assess, and
repair—in a more rational direction—our thinking, feelings, and

action. Socratic questioning provides that inner voice. Here are
some of the fundamentals of Socratic questioning, followed by
examples of questions you might ask in Socratic dialogue to
probe deeply the thinking of another person.
· Seek to understand—when possible—the ultimate foundations
for what is said or believed and follow the implications of those
foundations through further questions. (You might ask, for
example, “On what do you base your beliefs? Could you explain
your reasoning to me in more detail so I can more fully
understand your position?”)
· Recognize that any thought can exist fully only in a network
of connected thoughts. Therefore, treat all assertions as
connecting points to further thoughts. Pursue those connections.
(You might ask, for example, “If what you say is true, wouldn’t
X or Y also be so?”)
· Treat all thoughts as in need of development. (You might ask:
“Could you elaborate on what you are saying so I can
understand you better?”)
· Recognize that all questions presuppose prior questions, and
all thinking presupposes prior thinking. When raising questions,
be open to the questions they presuppose. (You might ask, for
example, “To answer this complex question, what other
questions do we need to answer?”)
Think for Yourself 6.6 Practicing Socratic Questioning
When you become a Socratic questioner, a systematic
questioner, you can question anyone about anything—
effectively! Try out your questioning skills by questioning
someone you know as systematically and as deeply as you can
about something he or she deeply believes. Record the
discussion. Follow the suggestions given here. When finished,
replay the tape and analyze your Socratic questioning abilities.
Did you probe beneath the surface of the other person’s
thinking? Did you ask for elaboration when needed? Did you
pursue connections? Overall, how you would rate yourself as a
Socratic questioner?
Exhibit 6.2

Socratic thinking is an integrated, disciplined approach to
thinking.
To take your thinking to the level of disciplined questioning, to
think or question Socratically, you can go in several directions:
1. You can focus your questions on types of question (fact,
preference, or judgment).
2. You can focus your questions on assessment by targeting
intellectualstandards.
3. You can focus your questions on analysis by targeting the
elements ofreasoning.
4. You can learn to “unpack” complex questions by developing
questions one would have to answer prior to answering the lead
question.
5. You can learn to determine the domains of questions inherent
in a complex question.
In the following discussion, we will elaborate on these forms of
Socratic questioning. Of course, the questions you would ask in
a given situation will be determined by the context within which
you are thinking. When you become skilled at using these
questions, you will see the powerful role they can play in your
thinking. With practice, they eventually will become intuitive to
you. You will naturally ask questions of clarification when you
are unclear and ask questions focused on information when the
data seem to be inaccurate or otherwise questionable. You will
recognize intuitively when people are mistakenly answering
questions of judgment with their subjective preference, and so
on. Again, intuitive ability comes only after a lot of practice.
Focus Your Thinking on the Type of Question Being Asked
As discussed earlier in this chapter, when you approach
questions systematically, you are able to recognize that all
thought has three possible functions: to express a subjective
preference, to establish an objective fact (within a well-defined
system), or to come up with the best of competing answers
(generated by competing systems). Assume that you do not fully
understand thinking until you know which type of thinking the

question is focused on.
In pursuing questions, Charles Darwin relied on perseverance
and continual reflection: “I have never been able to remember
for more than a few days a single date or line of poetry.”
Here are questions you can ask that focus on getting at the type
of question you are dealing with:
· Is the question calling for a subjective or personal choice? If
so, let’s make that choice in terms of our personal preferences.
· If not, is this a question that has one correct answer or a
definite system in which to find the answer?
· Or are we dealing with a question that would be answered
differently within different points of view?
Exhibit 6.3
Here are five ways to generate questions that lead to disciplined
thinking.
· If so, what is the best answer to the question, all things
considered?
· Is this person treating a question of judgment as a question of
preference by saying he doesn’t have to give reasoning for his
answer when the question implies that he does?
· Is this person treating a question of judgment as a question for
which there is one right answer?
Focus Your Questions on Universal Intellectual Standards for
Thought
When you approach questions systematically, you recognize
when people are failing to use the universal intellectual
standards in their thinking. You also recognize when you are
failing to use these standards in your thinking. And you ask
questions, specifically targeting the intellectual standards, that
upgrade thinking.
From discussions in previous chapters, the guidelines are as
follows.
1. Recognize that thinking is always more or less clear. Assume
that you do not fully understand a thought except to the extent
you can elaborate, illustrate, and exemplify it. Questions that

focus on clarity in thinking are:
· Could you elaborate on what you are saying?
· Could you give me an example or illustration of your point?
· I hear you saying “X.” Am I hearing you correctly, or have I
misunderstood you?
2. Recognize that thinking is always more or less precise.
Assume that you do not fully understand it except to the extent
that you can specify it in detail. Questions that focus on
precision in thinking are:
· Could you give me more details about that?
· Could you be more specific?
· Could you specify your allegations more fully?
3. Recognize that thinking is always more or less accurate.
Assume that you have not fully assessed it except to the extent
that you have checked to determine whether it represents things
as they really are. Questions that focus on accuracy in thinking
are:
· How could we check that to see whether it is true?
· How could we verify these alleged facts?
· Can we trust the accuracy of these data given the questionable
source from which they come?
4. Recognize that thinking is always capable of straying from
the task, question, problem, or issue under consideration.
Assume that you have not fully assessed thinking except to the
extent that you have ensured that all considerations used in
addressing it are genuinely relevant to it. Questions that focus
on relevance in thinking are:
· I don’t see how what you said bears on the question. Could
you show me how it is relevant?
· Could you explain what you think the connection is between
your question and the question we have focused on?
5. Recognize that thinking can either function at the surface of
things or probe beneath that surface to deeper matters and
issues. Assume that you have not fully assessed a line of
thinking except to the extent that you have determined the depth
required for the task at hand (and compared that with the depth

that actually has been achieved). (To figure out whether a
question is deep, we need to determine whether it involves
complexities that must be considered.) Questions that focus on
depth in thinking are:
· Is this question simple or complex? Is it easy or difficult to
answer?
· What makes this a complex question?
· How are we dealing with the complexities inherent in the
question?
6. Recognize that thinking can be more or less broad-minded (or
narrow-minded) and that breadth of thinking requires the
thinker to think insightfully within morethan one point of view
or frame of reference. Assume that you have not fully assessed
a line of thinking except to the extent that you have determined
how much breadth of thinking is required (and how much has
actually been exercised). Questions that focus on breadth in
thinking are:
· What points of view are relevant to this issue?
· What relevant points of view have I ignored thus far?
· Am I failing to consider this issue from an opposing viewpoint
because I don’t want to change my view?
· Have I entered the opposing views in good faith or only
enough to find flaws in them?
· I have looked at the question from an economic point of view.
What is the moral point of view?
· I have considered a liberal position on the issue. What would
conservatives say?
Think for Yourself 6.7 Focusing Your Questions on Intellectual
Standards
For each of the categories of questions focusing on intellectual
standards (see the previous section), try to come up with one
situation in which your failure to use intellectual standards had
negative consequences. This might be a situation in which you
should have asked a question of clarification and didn’t or
should have asked a question focusing on precision and didn’t,
and so on. State what happened as a result of each failure. For

example, you might recall a time when you asked for directions
to someone’s house but got lost because you failed to ask
questions focused on important details.
Focus Your Questions on the Elements of Thought
Another powerful way to discipline your questions is to focus
on the elements or parts of thinking. As you formulate your
questions, recall the following guidelines:
1. All thought reflects an agenda or purpose. Assume that you
do not fully understand someone’s thought (including your own)
until you understand the agenda behind it. Questions that focus
on purpose in thinking include:
· What are you trying to accomplish in saying this?
· What is your central aim in this line of thought?
· What is the purpose of this meeting?
· What is the purpose of this chapter?
· What is the purpose of our relationship?
· What is my purpose for being in college?
2. All thoughts presuppose an information base. Assume that
you do not fully understand the thought until you understand the
background information (facts, data, experiences) that supports
or informs it. Questions that focus on information in thinking
include:
· On what information are you basing that comment?
· What experience convinced you of this? Could the way you
are experiencing the situation be based in distorted views?
· How do we know this information is accurate?
· Have we left out any important information that we need to
consider?
3. All thought requires making inferences, drawing conclusions,
creating meaning. Assume that you do not fully understand a
thought until you understand the inferences that have shaped it.
Questions that focus on inferences in thinking include:
· How did you reach that conclusion?
· Could you explain your reasoning?
· Is there an alternative plausible conclusion?
· Given all the facts, what is the best possible conclusion?

4. All thought involves the application of concepts. Assume that
you do not fully understand a thought until you understand the
concepts that define and shape it. Questions that focus on
concepts in thinking include:
· What is the main idea you are using in your reasoning?
· Could you explain that idea?
· Are we using our concepts justifiably?
5. All thought rests upon other thoughts, which are taken for
granted or assumed. Assume that you do not fully understand a
thought until you understand what it takes for granted.
Questions that focus on assumptions in thinking include:
· What exactly are you taking for granted here?
· Why are you assuming that?
· Should I question the assumptions I am using about my
roommate, my friends, my intimate other, my parents, my
instructors, my country?
6. All thought is headed in a direction. It not only rests upon
something (assumptions) but also is going somewhere
(implications and consequences). Assume that you do not fully
understand a thought unless you know the implications and
consequences that follow from it. Questions that focus on
implications in thinking include:
· What are you implying when you say that?
· What is likely to happen if we do this versus that?
· Are you implying that . . .?
7. All thought takes place within a point of view or frame of
reference. Assume that you do not fully understand a thought
until you understand the point of view or frame of reference that
places it on an intellectual map. Questions that focus on point
of view in thinking include:
· From what point of view are you looking at this?
· Is there another point of view we should consider?
· Which of these possible viewpoints makes the most sense
given the situation?
8. All thought is responsive to a question. Assume that you do
not fully understand the thought until you understand the

question that gives rise to it. Questions that focus on questions
in thinking include:
· I am not sure exactly what question you are raising. Could you
explain it?
· Is this question the best one to focus on at this point, or is
there a more pressing question we need to address?
· The question in my mind is this: How do you see the question?
· How is your question related to the question we have been
reasoning through?
Think for Yourself 6.8 Focusing Your Questions on the
Elements of Reasoning
From each of the eight categories we just outlined, ask yourself
at least one question about your view of marriage (or family).
For example, you might begin with the question, “In my view,
what is the basic purpose or goal of marriage?” (Answer each
question after you ask it.)
Afterward, question a friend about his or her views, using the
same questions (you should feel free to ask additional questions
as they occur to you). Write out an analysis of your questioning
process. Do you notice yourself beginning to think at a deeper
level—given the questions you are now asking? Did you focus
on all eight elements?
Focus Your Questions on Prior Questions
Whenever we are dealing with complex questions, another tool
that is useful in disciplining our thinking is to construct prior
questions—questions we need to answer before we can answer a
more complex question. Hence, to answer the question, “What is
multiculturalism?” we should be able first to settle the question,
“What is culture?” To settle that question, we should settle the
question, “What are the factors about a person that determine
what culture he or she belongs to?” When you learn to
formulate and pursue prior questions, you have another
important “idea” you can use to develop your ability to learn in
any context.
To construct a list of prior questions, simply write down the
main question upon which you are going to focus your

discussion and then formulate as many questions as you can
think of that you would have to answer before you could answer
the first. Then determine from this list what question you would
have to answer to answer these questions. Continue following
the same procedure for every new set of questions on your list.
As you construct your list, keep your attention focused on the
first question on the list as well as on the last. If you do this
well, you should end up with a list of questions that probe the
logic of the first question. As an example of how to construct
logically prior questions, consider this list of questions we
would need to answer to address the larger question, “What is
history?”
· What do historians write about?
· What is “the past”?
· Is it possible to include all of the past in a history book?
· How many of the events during a given time period are left out
in a history of that time period?
· Is more left out than is included?
· How does a historian know what to emphasize?
· Do historians make value judgments in deciding what to
include and what to leave out?
· Is it possible simply to list facts in a history book, or does all
history writing involve interpretations as well as facts?
· Is it possible to decide what to include and exclude and how to
interpret facts without adopting a historical point of view?
· How can we begin to judge a historical interpretation?
· How can we begin to judge a historical point of view?
The best questions are those that keep us focused on achieving
our mostsignificant goals andpurposes.
When you have practiced formulating prior questions to
complex questions, you will begin to develop a Socratic
questioning tool you can use whenever you need to answer a
complicated question. You will notice your mind coming up
with questions that are inherent in other questions. You are
unpacking questions to answer them better. You should also
then begin to recognize when others are failing to consider the

complexities in a question.
Think for Yourself 6.9 Constructing a List of Prior Questions
Formulate a complex question to which you would like to find
an answer. Then use the procedure of constructing prior
questions until you have a list of at least 10 questions.
Afterward, see if you have gained insight into how the first
question has to be thought through in light of the prior
questions you formulated.
Focus Your Questions on Domains of Thinking
When you are addressing a complex question that covers more
than one domain of thought, you can target your prior questions
by figuring out the domains of thinking inherent in the question.
Does the complex question, for example, include an economic
dimension? Does it include a biological, sociological, cultural,
political, ethical, psychological, religious, historical, or some
other dimension? For each dimension of thinking inherent in the
question, you can formulate questions that force you to consider
complexities you otherwise may miss. Consider the following
question, some of the domains imbedded in the question, and
some of the questions imbedded in those domains.
Complex question: What can be done about the number of
people who abuse illegal drugs?
Domains inherent in the question, along with some questions we
would have to address within each domain before we could
answer our complex question, are:
1. Economic
· What economic forces support drug use?
· What can be done to minimize the influence of money
involved in drug sales?
2. Political
· What possible solutions to drug abuse are politically
unacceptable?
· Are there any realistic solutions that the power structure
would accept?
· To what extent does the political structure exacerbate the
problem?

3. Social/Sociological
· What social structures and practices support drug abuse?
· How does gang membership contribute to drug abuse?
· How does membership within any group contribute to the
problem or, conversely, insulate group members from abusing
drugs?
4. Psychological
· How do factors such as stress, individual personality
differences, and childhood traumas support drug abuse?
· What role, if any, does human irrationality play in drug abuse?
Exhibit 6.4
Complex questions have multiple domains.
5. Biological
· How do genetics play a role in drug abuse?
· What biological changes in the body resulting from drug abuse
contribute to the problem?
6. Educational
· What role are educational institutions now playing to support
or diminish the problem?
7. Religious
· What can religious institutions do to reduce the incidence of
drug abuse?
· What role are they now playing in regard to drug abuse?
8. Cultural
· What cultural beliefs support the drug-abuse problem?
· What can we learn from cultures that have a low incidence of
drug abuse?
Think for Yourself 6.10 Formulating Questions Within Domains
of Thinking
Focus on the question: What can be done to significantly
improve the health of the ecosystems on Earth? Using the
preceding model, figure out the domains within the question
that you would have to think within to address the complexities
in the question. Then formulate as many questions as you can
within each domain. (The question you are originally addressing

determines the domains within which you need to think.)
When we can approach questions to target the domains inherent
in them, we are able to ask questions such as:
· What domains of questions are inherent in this complex
question?
· Is this person dealing with all the relevant domains within the
question?
· Am I leaving out some important domains when reasoning
through this issue?
Conclusion
Questions play an important role in the minds of the best
thinkers. Three important types of questions are questions of
fact, questions of preference, and questions of judgment. The
best thinkers differentiate these forms of questions because the
form of the question determines the kind of thinking the
question calls for. The ability to ask questions is not enough in
and of itself for the best thinkers. It is necessary to ask
important questions relevant to the purposes we are pursuing
(including questions that lead us to scrutinize our purposes).
Socratic or systematic questioning is a means to disciplined
thinking. One method of approaching Socratic questioning is to
develop prior questions.
Because there is a sense in which “you think only as well as the
questions you ask,” you want to force yourself, as a developing
thinker, to focus on the role that questions play in your
thinking. To what extent are you asking significant questions?
To what extent are you able to figure out whether a question is
asking for a factual answer, preference, or reasoned judgment?
To what extent are you asking questions that follow a
disciplined path, leading to rationally defensible answers? To
what extent are you able to take apart complex questions, to
figure out questions you would have to answer prior to
answering those questions? When you are practicing the
fundamental questioning steps we have explored in this chapter,
you will find yourself progressing as a questioner—and as a
thinker.

Asking Questions Worksheet
HUM/115 Version 7
1
University of Phoenix Material
Asking Questions Worksheet
Directions:
In this assignment, you work with the categories of questions
discussed in Ch. 6 of your text to gain understanding about
different points of view.
1. List the three categories of questions identified in this week’s
reading.
1.
2.
3.
2. Create a question of your own that represents each category
you listed above. Be sure to indicate what category the question
represents. (10 to 25 words for each question; 30 to 75 words
total)
1.
2.
3.
3. Ch. 6, pp. 130-132 discusses the concept of Socratic
questioning. Review that material and provide a definition of
Socratic questioning. (15 to 25 words)

4. Discuss how Socratic questions contribute to sound critical
thinking. (25 to 50 words)
5. In Week 2, you identified two different viewpoints about the
topic you selected. Locate those viewpoints, and in the space
below, write one Socratic question you could ask to gain a
deeper understanding about each viewpoint. (10 to 25 words for
each question; 20 to 50 words total)
Socratic Question for Viewpoint #1
Socratic Question for Viewpoint #2
Copyright © 2017 by University of Phoenix. All rights
reserved.
MANAGING YOURSELF
How to Deal with
Unfamiliar Situations
by Srini Pillay
MARCH 13, 2014
Have you recently switched jobs or positions and wondered
“What’s going on here?” Have you been
given a new task or a new technology that’s completely
unfamiliar? Are you working with people
who come from different backgrounds and not really sure if

you’re all on the same page? Dealing with
unfamiliar situations and people is challenging, of course,
because we don’t yet have everything
figured out. Over time, we adjust. But how can we get better at
dealing with the new and unfamiliar—
from the start?
Brain science tells us a lot about the answer to this question.
The biological challenge is that we are
wired to recognize and process familiar people and situations
from a young age. For example,
children “know” when a face is their own race versus a different
one at a very early stage because
their brains are wired to detect this. In addition, the brain of a
mother is wired to respond specifically
to the familiarity of her own infant as compared to that of
another. In fact, for all adults it takes only
200 milliseconds to register whether a face is familiar or not
and recent research shows us that we
process familiar faces with almost double the efficiency than
unfamiliar faces. Furthermore, the brain
treats “threat” in the same way if you or someone familiar to
you is threatened, but responds
differently if the person who is threatened is unfamiliar. These
differences apply not just to
unfamiliar people, but to unfamiliar processes as well. Thus,
when someone or something is
unfamiliar, the brain is less engaged and empathic and has to
use greater effort as well. This is clearly
an advantage when it comes to protecting one’s “own” or
responding with speed in familiar
situations, but what can we do when the people around us or
situations in which we find ourselves
are constantly changing and unfamiliar as in the current
business environment?

First, building up trust and focusing specifically on steps
related to this can override the discomfort
of unfamiliarity. How do we know this? A recent study
demonstrated that when men are given
oxytocin—a “trust” hormone—unfamiliar female faces will
appear to be more attractive because the
2COPYRIGHT © 2014 HARVARD BUSINESS SCHOOL
PUBLISHING CORPORATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23731287
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03064530130
03454
trust that oxytocin creates activates the brain’s reward center
and overrides the anxiety of
unfamiliarity. Many other studies have also shown that oxytocin
does in fact enhance trust, possibly
because it enhances the distinction between self and other and
increases the positive evaluation of
others. Thus, trust actually changes how the brain perceives
other people.
This implies that when a person or situation is unfamiliar,
setting up structures and processes that
enhance trust will increase engagement. What are some of these
things? Clear communication, being
on time, delivering on promises, and fulfilling contractual
obligations are good ways to create a
climate of trust when things are unfamiliar. And speaking of
contracts, in today’s more casual
business environment, you may be more inclined to ignore the

contractual elements of a business
relationship, or even overlook a mutual non-disclosure
agreement. It is probably best not to do this
for the obvious reasons—and you miss an opportunity to build
trust.
Second, stress also plays a role in how we handle unfamiliar
situations or people. Stress makes the
brain less “friendly” toward novelty—we tend to want what
we’re used to even more rather than
having to deal with something new when we’re stressed. If you
have just entered an unfamiliar
situation or find things changing all the time, be aware that your
brain will try to slam on the brakes
and make a U-turn to old ways of doing things. Hence it is
critical that when we are in unfamiliar
situations, we must check in with ourselves to deliberately
reduce our stress levels. If not, we will be
prone to making habitual decisions that were relevant to the
past and not the present or future. This
has been recognized as a particular vulnerability of leaders,
even good ones and is a bias we may
completely ignore.
Finally, on a different note, a recent study revealed that when
we’ re moved by art, even when it is
unfamiliar, it activates brain networks associated with the self.
That is, art evokes an emotional
experience that connects us with ourselves despite being
unfamiliar. We may be moved by intangible
elements of the art that connect with corresponding intangible
aspects of ourselves. This overrides
the otherwise unfamiliar art and make us feel known. Thus,
when you find yourself in a culturally
unfamiliar environment, look for shared subjective
characteristics rather than differences only. As a

start, you could connect on vision, mission or intent in a way
that expresses your subjective intention
and voice, which will help to transcend any existing differences
in how you look or behave. Also,
elevating a relationship to an art form by producing beautiful
and not just timely work will enhance
resonance and connection when you are unfamiliar.
Unfamiliar situations can cause a brain-jam if we do not
approach them with a conscious sense of
how to be. Building up structures that enhance trust, decrease
stress and creating an emotional
connection with people or a project can help the brain navigate
its way to your goals.
Srini Pillay, M.D. is the CEO of NeuroBusiness Group and
award-winning author of numerous books, including Life
Unlocked: 7 Revolutionary Lessons to Overcome Fear, as well
as Your Brain and Business: The Neuroscience of Great
Leaders. He is also Assistant Clinical Professor at Harvard
Medical School and teaches in the Executive Education
Program at Harvard Business School.
3COPYRIGHT © 2014 HARVARD BUSINESS SCHOOL
PUBLISHING CORPORATION. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S03064530130
02990
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797543/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3797543/
https://hbr.org/2009/02/why-good-leaders-make-bad-
decisions/ar/1
http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/10.3389/fnins.2013.00258/
abstract
http://www.neurobusinessgroup.com/
http://www.amazon.com/Life-Unlocked-Revolutionary-Lessons-

Overcome/dp/1605298522/
http://www.amazon.com/Life-Unlocked-Revolutionary-Lessons-
Overcome/dp/1605298522/
http://www.amazon.com/Your-Brain-Business-Neuroscience-
Leaders/dp/0137064446/
http://www.amazon.com/Your-Brain-Business-Neuroscience-
Leaders/dp/0137064446/
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RESEARCH FROM McMASTER UNIVERSITY SHOWS THAT CANADIANS TEND TO.docx

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