(LEA's communication series) Wicks, Jan LeBlanc - Media management _ a casebook approach-Lawrence Erlbaum (2004).pdf

Media
Management
Jan LeBlanc Wlci<s
George SyMe
C. Ann Hollifiekj
Stephen Lacy
Afdytn Broodrick Schn
Third Edition
A Casebook Approach

M E D I A M A N A G E M E N T
A C a s e b o o k A p p r o a c h

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M E D I A M A N A G E M E N T
A C a s e b o o k A p p r o a c h
Third Edition
Jan LeBlanc Wicks
University o f Arkansas
George Sylvie
University o f Texas at Austin
C. Ann Hollifield
University o f Georgia
Stephen Lacy
M ichigan State University
Ardyth Broadrick Sohn
Sam Houston State University
C ontributing A uthor:
Dr. Angela Powers
N orthern Illinois University
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M edia m anagem ent: a casebook approach/Jan L eBlanc W icks . . . [et al.].— 3rd ed.
p. cm . — (L E A ’s com m unication series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8058-4715-4
1. M ass m edia— M anagem ent— C ase studies. I. W icks, Jan L cBlanc. II. Scries.
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C o n t e n t s
A cknow ledgm ents vii
Preface ix
C h ap ter 1 M anagerial Decision M aking 1
Case 1.1 Looking at Past Decisions 24
Case 1.2 Using Individual and Group Decision Styles 25
Case 1.3 Improving the Web Site 25
C h ap ter 2 Leadership and the W orkforce 27
Case 2.1 Building a Team and a News Product 45
Case 2.2 Shutting Down and Moving On 49
C h ap ter 3 Motivation 51
Case 3.1 Charles and Mae 68
Case 3.2 Memo to a Motivator 70
Case 3.3 Spinning Motivation 71
Case 3.4 Producing Morale 72
C h ap ter 4 The Global Structure of M edia O rganizations 74
Case 4.1 Structural Analysis 94
Case 4.2 The Debt-Laden Company 95
Case 4.3 Digitizing the Newsroom 97
C h ap ter 5 T echnology and th e Future 99
Case 5.1 Convergence Blues 118
Case 5.2 The Case of the Technology of Choice 120
Case 5.3 Problems in PR 122
C h ap ter 6 Regulation and Self-Regulation 125
Case 6.1 Developing Counterterrorism Plans
and Procedures 149
Case 6.2 The Case of the Poorly Performing
Salesperson 151
v

vi C O N T E N T S
C ase 6.3 Privacy Analysis of a Web Site Directed
to Children (or Adults) 154
C ase 6.4 Reviewing and Analyzing Freedom
of Information Resources and Issues 157
C h a p te r 7 P lanning 159
C ase 7.1 Connecting Online and Traditional Media:
Not Always an Easy Planning Task 181
C h a p t e r s M ark et Analysis 186
C ase 8.1 A Market Analysis for McLauren
Communications 205
C ase 8.2 A Market Analysis for CPR Radio Group 212
C ase 8.3 Options for Conducting a Market Analysis 214
C h a p te r 9 M ark etin g an d R esearch 216
C ase 9.1 The Case of the Ratings Increase 245
C ase 9.2 Evaluating Contributors to Public TV 247
C ase 9.3 Developing a New Magazine 254
C ase 9.4 Developing an Online Media Kit 257
C ase 9.5 Dealing with Cable Customer Dissatisfaction 259
C h a p te r 10 B udgeting an d D ecision M aking 261
C ase 10.1 Analyzing the Performance
of a Media Company 279
C ase 10.2 Forecasting Advertising Sales 280
C ase 10.3 Forecasting to Purchase a Radio Station 281
C ase 10.4 Analyzing a Budget 282
C ase 10.5 Cutting the Budget at K H IT -F M 284
Extended C ase S tudies 284
C ase 1 The Case o f Change at a N ewspaper 285
C ase 2 The Case o f the Newsroom Restructuring 296
R eferences 301
A uthor Index 315
Subject Index 319

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s
Jan LeBlanc Wicks
T hanks to Rob and Ian for their support.
G eorge Sylvie
Thanks to K athy, Emily, and R yan for putting up with me during this.
T hanks also to m y students who have given me valuable feedback
on the material over the years.
C. A nn H ollifield
Dr. Lee B. Becker, D irector o f the Jam es M. Cox Jr. Center
for International M ass C om m unication Training and Research,
G rady C ollege o f Journalism & M ass C om m unication,
U niversity o f Georgia
G eorge Daniels, D epartm ent o f Journalism,
College o f C om m unication and Information Sciences,
University o f A labam a
Stephen L acy
T hanks to Leslie Lacy for all o f her help over the years.
A rdyth B roadrick Sohn
Professors Hugh Fullerton and Ruth Pate o f Sam Houston State U niversity
are thanked for their support and encouragem ent during the w riting o f
chapters. Journalism student Yvette K eener and administrative assistant
Sandy B aker o f Sam H ouston State University arc thanked for their
research and transcribing assistance.

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P r e f a c e
This volume marks an improved version o f the 1999 edition. All primary authors
from the second edition were involved in writing and revising the third edition.
The central approaches o f the book and chapters, as well as chapter order, are
unchanged because a user survey suggested all were appropriate. Each author re
viewed the relevant scholarly and trade literature to update the theories, research,
industry practice, trends, examples, and appropriate statistics in their chapters, as
well as to add information on the Internet and new media.
The author’s reviewed the cases accompanying their chapters to update or
change them if necessary. New extended cases were added as well. Our goal is to
give students practice in solving simple and complex problems and provide pro
fessors a variety of choices for assignments. Ardyth Broadrick Sohn noted our
reasons for using the case study approach in the second edition’s preface:
Case study . . . is ideal for students and management because it takes into account
flexibility, individuality, and creativity as students face realistic problems and op
portunities mirrored in the professional world. It provides practice in role playing,
leadership, communication, and decision making with consequences. All are valu
able intellectual and professional exercises. Students are encouraged to distinguish
among acts, activities, actors, meanings, relationships, and settings of importance.
By recognizing the components individually and collectively students can see the
options and choices more clearly. Discussion and debate are hard to avoid when
examining cases, and as students rccognizc themselves and their peers as part of
the issues surrounding media study, they will become more adept at finding their
own place within the media workforce.
Here is how each author revised or wrote each chapter to help you and your
students use the case method more effectively. Stephen Lacy revised chapter 1
(Managerial Decision Making) and chapter 10 (Budgeting and Decision Making),
updating research and examples to reflect the current state of the industry. Ardyth
Broadrick Sohn revised chapter 2 (Leadership and the Workforce) and chapter 7
(Planning), updating material on convergence, new media, and international as
pects as well as their influences on leadership and planning. George Sylvie re
vised chapter 3 (Motivation) and chapter 5 (Technology and the Future), updating
research and information about new media, the Internet, and their future implica
tions for media managers. Angela Powers revised chapter 4 (The Global Structure
o f Media Organizations), incorporating new material on the structure of Internet,
new media, converged, and international media organizations.

x PREFACE
Jan LeBlanc W icks revised chapter 6 (Media Regulation and Self-Regulation)
and chapter 9 (Marketing and Research). Updated Internet, new technology sec
tions, and online resource sections were added to chapter 6, and updated infor
mation and examples on data used by advertisers and media organizations were
added to chapter 9. Wicks wrote Extended Case 1 (The Case o f Change at a
Newspaper) to allow' students to conduct Internet and database research, analyze
it, and apply it when examining several major problems from a broad perspec
tive, incorporating all chapters in the book. (Sec the Introduction to the Extended
Cases.) C. Ann Hollifield revised chapter 8 (Market Analysis) and wrote Ex
tended Case 2 (The Case o f the Newsroom Restructuring). Chapter 8 incorpo
rates new media, international material, and the implications o f new technologies
and international markets in market analysis. Extended Case 2 involves planning
and decision making regarding cutbacks, layoffs, and restructuring a media orga
nization while maintaining product quality.
In summary, this new third edition retains its core content and approach while
incorporating new material and cases to reflect contemporary research and pro
fessional practice. Our method of using case studies enables students to learn the
importance and application of theory and research in real-life media settings. A
student who understands not only what occurred in a media management situa
tion, but why and how it happened, and what the consequences o f various solu
tions could be, is better prepared to face the complex, rapidly changing field of
media management.
— Jan LeBlanc Wicks

C H A P T E R
1
M a n a g e r i a l D e c i s i o n M a k i n g
Managers carry out a wide range o f organizational activities. They budget, evalu
ate employees, plan product changes, give raises, and more. All of these activities
require decisions, and managers need to know how to make good decisions if their
organizations are to achieve their goals. Simon (1960), the most noted scholar in
the area of decision making, equated the decision process with managing.
Decision m aking is so central to m anaging that most m anagers select am ong
options w ithout thinking about the process by w hich they decide. M aking deci
sions w ithout reflecting on the process can w ork reasonably well on a day-to-day
basis. H ow ever, decision m aking is a skill. To im prove that skill, m anagers must
think about the process they use to solve problems. The purpose of this chapter is
to help students understand how decisions are made so they can better benefit
from using the cases in this book. The cases following each chapter provide
decision-m aking practice in a num ber of m anagerial areas. This practice is more
effective if a person understands the decision-m aking process.
DEFINING DECISION MAKING
T here are m any definitions o f decision m a kin g . For exam ple, Sim on (1960)
wrote, “D ecision-m aking com prises three principle phases: finding occasions for
m aking decisions; finding possible courses of action; and choosing am ong the
courses o f action” (p. 1). H arrison (1987) defined a decision as
*. . . a moment, in an ongoing process of evaluating alternatives for meeting an
objective, at which expectations about a particular course of action impel the deci
sion maker to select the course of action most likely to result in obtaining the
objective.’ (p. 2)
M any of the traditional definitions o f decision m aking concentrate on the
process as a rational one that involves a person or group with com m on goals.
However, T aylor (1984) em phasized the role o f organizations’ sociopolitical
contexts and environm ents. This approach suggests that decisions are not as
1

2 CHAPTER 1
deliberate as often assumed, but occur from interaction among people and groups
with som etim es conflicting goals.
The range of definitions for decision m aking suggests that defining this
process is som ew hat arbitrary. H owever, som e concepts are com m on to most def
initions. Decisions alm ost alw ays involve resources, they usually address goals
or objectives, they always involve people, and the environm ent in which these
people work alw ays affects decisions.
With these com m on concepts in mind, we define decision m aking as the allo
cation of scare resources by individuals or groups to achieve goals under condi
tions o f uncertainty and risk. This definition has six im portant terms. First,
allocation m eans that things have been distributed am ong alternatives. Just as a
family allocates its incom e for food, clothing, housing, transportation, and enter
tainment, m edia m anagers must decide how to distribute their resources.
Scare resources reflect that a m anager never has all of the resources she
w ould like. A vailable resources are peo ple’s time and m oney. T o a degree, these
two resources are interchangeable. If you have m oney, but need time, you
can hire others. If you have time, but need m oney, you can sell that time. C er
tainly, other forms o f resources are available, but all are related to time and
m oney. For exam ple, technology is a way of increasing the effectiveness and ef
ficiency of time and is acquired with m oney. O ther forms of resources are deriv
ative o f time and m oney, or they are w ays o f im proving the allocation o f time
and m oney.
The word scarce is equally important. If resources were not scarce, decision
m aking w ould not be central to m anagem ent. W ith a limitless supply o f m oney
and time, people simply could try every alternative until they found the one that
w orked best. Scarce resources limit the time and m oney spent on a decision.
The third term includes individuals and groups. Decisions can be m ade by
one person or by two or more people functioning as a unit. All other things being
equal, it takes less time for one person to decide than it docs a group. However,
case of decision is not the sam e as effectiveness o f decision. G roups make som e
decisions better than do individuals.
G oal is the fourth term. G oal m eans a decision has a purpose. The nature of
business goals is com plex and has been the subject of much debate and research.
The cases in this book may or may not state specific goals, but no decision can
be made adequately w ithout considering the goals o f that decision and the over
all goals of the organization.
In pursuing goals, m anagers can assum e they act in a strictly rational way or
they act with bounded rationality. M anagers act in a strictly rational way when
their goal is to m axim ize som e aspect o f business. Sim on (1957) defined a ratio
nal decision as occurring w hen a decision m aker confronted with alternatives se
lects the one that has the highest return. This definition of rationality is the basis
of classical econom ic theory and has resulted in the idea that business should
m axim ize som e goal, w hether it is profits, revenues, or sales.

MANAGERIAL DECISION M AK IN G 3
Acceptance o f the assum ption of rationality began to crum ble after W orld
W ar II, as scholars began to recognize the limits o f the “rational m an ” approach.
C yert and M arch (1963) said the profit m axim ization assum ption for businesses
was not realistic because people within organizations do not have single-m inded
purposes. People pursue a variety of goals. Cyert and M arch also added that
firms do not have the perfect know ledge necessary to m axim ize profits. M axi
mizing profits occurs w hen the cost of an additional unit of a product equals the
price a consum er pays. This m axim izing point is a theoretical idea because such
detailed price and cost data arc im possible to collect.
In place of this rational assum ption for decision m aking, Sim on (1957) sug
gested the principle o f bounded rationality. This principle recognizes that h u
mans cannot be rational in the strict, traditional sense, but Sim on w as not willing
to say people act random ly. Rather, he proposed that hum ans pursue goals in a
purposeful m anner, but this pursuit is limited by the nature o f people and the so
cial environm ent in w hich they live. As a result, people seek goals and m ake d e
cisions that w ork to satisfy instead of m axim ize their benefits from the decisions.
This satisficing approach m eans people adopt goals and decision outcom es that
are acceptable within the constraints faced by the organizations.
U ncertainty is the fifth term o f the definition that needs discussion. U ncer
tainty m eans all decisions are probabilistic. No decision outcom e is 100% cer
tain. Reducing uncertainty starts with a subjective estim ate of the probability that
an outcom e will occur. A graduating public relations major, for instance, might
estimate that she has a 50% chance of finding a job within a month. Part of
the estim ate is figuring out the factors that affect outcom es. O nce a person has
made such an estimate, the reasons behind the estimate can be used to reduce
uncertainty.
T hese estim ates of probability may be as crude as a statem ent that an outcom e
is more likely than not, or they may be as sophisticated as a derived m athem ati
cal statem ent of probability. For instance, a person m ight bet another person that
M ichigan State University will beat the University of Illinois in a football game.
This is a statem ent with subjective probability, as is the statem ent that there is a
60% chance of rain tom orrow.
H owever, all such subjective estim ates share two characteristics: (a) They are
based on analysis o f information, and (b) they are based on assum ptions about
m easurem ent and time that limit their objective nature. The accuracy o f the in
formation and quality o f analysis determ ine how well the subjective statem ent o f
probability predicts rain or the football gam e winner.
U ncertainty then rests on a continuum from 0% to 100% uncertainty about a
decision outcom e. This is show n in Fig. 1.1. Because perfect know ledge is im
possible, 0% uncertain decisions do not exist, and a 100% uncertain decision
w ould be a random solution. As Bass (1983) pointed out, in the absence of other
information, people fill in with their experience or that of their acquaintances. As
uncertainty increases, the difficulty o f m aking an effective decision increases.

4 CHAPTER 1
UNCERTAINTY
0% 100%
------------------------------------- ► D IFF IC U LT Y --------------------------------------►
RISK
SMALL GREAT
------------------------ ► IMPORTANCE OF D E C IS IO N ---------------------------
FIG. 1.1. The relationship between uncertainty and risk.
The word risk, the final term in the definition, is used differently here than in
traditional decision-m aking literature. Risk refers to the am ount o f resources
com m itted to accom plishing a goal and, therefore, the am ount o f resources that
might be lost. Risk also exists on a continuum show n in Fig. 1.1. The risk runs
from small to great. Small m eans few resources are allocated, w hereas great
m eans a large am ount of resources is involved. As with uncertainty, organiza
tions rarely operate at the ends o f the risk continuum.
Few organizations allocate a large percentage of their resources to a given pro
ject, much less a single decision. Risk is a relative term. Allocating $1 million
would be a huge proportion of resources at m ost w eekly new spapers, but a rela
tively small proportion o f resources at a large media corporation such as CBS or
Microsoft. The greater the risk, the more im portant the decision is for a com pany.
Figure 1.1 can be used to illustrate the im portance and difficulty of decisions
to a m edia organization. A decision that concerns a relatively great risk and a
high level of uncertainty is im portant and difficult. In fact such a venture might
not be undertaken. A decision that has little risk and uncertainty w ould be rela
tively unim portant and easy to make.
TYPES OF DECISIONS
D ecisions fall into two types: program m ed and nonprogram m ed (Sim on, 1960).
A program m ed decision sets up a rule that states an action will take place once a

certain condition has been reached. A nonprogram m ed decision is one that can
not be made by referring to a rule. Program m ed decisions tend to be highly struc
tured with established goals and channels of information. N onprogram m ed
decisions have poor structure, vague goals, and am biguous information. D eter
mining an em plo y ee’s pay every m onth is an exam ple of a program m ed deci
sion. Publishers at a new spaper do not have to decide how much money to pay
their em ployees at the end of each month. The am ount and form have been set up
in advance, usually on an annual basis, and m ost organizations have com puters
that issue the checks.
N onprogram m ed decisions occur at irregular intervals and require inform a
tion and analysis that is specific to a particular set of options. A new spaper’s d e
cision to provide free W eb-classified advertising w ould be a nonprogram m ed
decision if it were not a regularly occurring prom otion. Because nonprogram m ed
decisions— such as hiring a new news anchor on TV or starting a m agazine—
happen irregularly, an effective program m ed policy is difficult or im possible to
develop. Each time new information and analyses m ust be conducted for an ef
fective decision to be made.
The distinction between program m ed and nonprogram m ed decisions is an im
portant one. If a decision can be program m ed effectively, it is wise to do so. The
greater the num ber of program m ed decisions, the more time a m anager will have
to spend on more difficult nonprogram m ed decisions. W hether a decision can be
program m ed depends on the uncertainty and risk involved. The low er the uncer
tainty and risk, the more likely a program m ed decision will work.
The two types often occur in the same process. N ew s selection, for instance,
involves both program m ed and nonprogram m ed decisions. N ew s values are a
form of program m ed decisions. If an autom obile accident kills several people in a
city, it will be on the evening TV news in that city. It has the news values of prox
imity (it is local) and impact (extreme consequences). There is little debate be
cause applying the news values to such events has become programmed. The
difficulty com es in deciding w hether an event truly represents certain news values.
Proactive and Reactive Decisions
A nother way to categorize decisions has to do with the im pact o f external events
and trends on an organization. M anagers tend to react to changes in the business
environm ent with either proactive or reactive decisions (Ivancevich, Lorenzi,
Skinner, & Crosby, 1994). Proactive decisions are m ade in anticipation of exter
nal changes, w hereas reactive decisions are made as a result of external changes.
Exam ples o f these two types of decisions can be found in the reaction o f a
new spaper com pany to W eb sites that provide information about the new s
p ap er’s com m unity. If the new spaper went online in 1995 with a W eb site about
its com m unity, it is likely that m anagers made a proactive decision to establish

6 CHAPTER 1
a source of information before other companies did. If the newspaper managers
waited until competitors had already established a community Web site, say
1998, then they made a reactive decision.
Proactive decisions can work well when they promote solutions to problems be
fore they become particularly burdensome. Reactive decisions often occur after a
com pany’s competitor has gained a foothold in the market, which can put the react
ing company at a disadvantage. However, a company can be proactive to an imag
ined problem and end up wasting money solving a problem that docs not exist.
Successful proactive decisions require accurate predictions of future external trends
and events. Successful reactive decisions require that an organization not wait too
long in responding to changes in the business environment. Timing is crucial.
THE DECISION PROCESS
Despite variation in the names given to the steps in the decision process, most
decision-making models are similar. For example, Drucker (1983) gave six steps:
(a) classify the problem, (b) define the problem, (c) specify what the decision must
do, (d) seek the right decision, (e) build in the action to carry out the decision, and
(f) use feedback to test the decision’s effectiveness. Griffin and Moorhead (1986)
offered a model that incorporates the difference between programmed and non-
programmcd decisions and acknowledges the role of information at each step.
The model shown in Fig. 1.2 is called a decision wheel because it repre
sents the cyclical nature of the decision process. It differs from the Griffin and
FIG. 1.2. The decision wheel.

M oorhead (1986) model in two ways. First, it does not include the idea of pro
gram m ed versus nonprogram m ed decisions. Program m ed decisions, although
im portant, are not the basis of the case study approach. A lthough creating a pol
icy may be the solution to a case, this solution results from a nonprogram m ed
decision process.
A second difference between the decision w heel and other m odels is the cen
tral placem ent of the collection and analysis of information. Just as decision
m aking is the heart of m anagem ent, the collection and appropriate analysis of in
formation are the hubs o f decision m aking. All steps of the decision-m aking
process m ust involve the collection o f information and its appropriate evaluation.
A nalysis, w hich breaks dow n the inform ation and then exam ines and classifies it
so it can be used, is a key to effective decisions. C orrect analysis with little infor
mation often is more useful than poor analysis with abundant information.
Defining the Problem
The first step is defining the problem to be solved. It involves the collection of
information about som e form o f behavior, either inside or outside the organiza
tion, that is a problem for the m edia firm. This information must be analyzed in a
w ay that allows the m anagers to frame the problem appropriately. For exam ple, a
TV news departm ent that is losing audience has a problem. To define the pro b
lem behind this decline in ratings, m anagem ent must develop a list of possible
causes and collect information about them. T hen the information about the p o
tential causes must be analyzed to decide w hat the cause may be. Perhaps the au
dience does not like the hard-new s focus of the news shows or they m ay not like
the anchors. Each problem holds several possible causes; in m ost cases, pro b
lems m ay have m ore than one cause. The ability to reverse the sliding ratings,
how ever, depends on m an age m ent’s ability to define the problem in a w ay that
the causes can be identified correctly.
Specifying Goals
After the problem is defined, the next step is to specify the goals o f the decision.
The goals need to be concrete. V ague statem ents about reversing a trend does not
allow for effective decision making. The goals should be as specific as the prob
lem and available data allow. Usually the decision process addresses multiple
goals. All goals should have a time frame for accom plishing them.
In the free W eb-classified ads decision mentioned earlier, the new spaper pub
lisher decided the new spaper needed to draw more visitors to its W eb site, specifi
cally to its classified ads page. The goal could be to generate an additional
200 visitors a day within a month, generate 400 new visits a day within 3 months,

8 CHAPTER 1
and to retain at least 200 of those visitors w hen the prom otion ends after 3
months. These specific goals allow better monitoring and force m anagers to use
detailed data analysis. M anagers can set up several goals at various times. For
exam ple, the publisher could have a goal of 200 new visitors at 1 month, 300 at 2
m onths and 400 at 3 m onths, and a perm anent increase o f 200 visitors at 6
months, which w ould be 3 m onths after the prom otion ended. The crucial ele
ment o f goal setting is degree of specificity and a time for m eeting the goal.
Developing Solutions
The third step in the decision wheel is developing alternative solutions. This step
should yield as m any viable alternatives as possible. Inadequate solutions can al
ways be rejected, hut a solution that has not been considered can never be selected.
A weeding out process follows the listing of the solutions. Here the obviously
unsuitable solution can be dropped, leaving those that have some possibilities for
accom plishing the goals.
As with all steps, the narrowing process requires the acquisition of inform a
tion and its analysis. T w o questions for developing this short list are: (a) Will the
solutions actually accom plish the goals? (b) W ill the costs o f the solution out
w eigh the gains to the organization? If the answ er to the first question is no, the
solution should be dropped. If the answ er to the second question is yes, the solu
tion should be dropped.
If a new spaper decided it needed to increase visitors to its W eb site, the m an
agers might list the follow ing options:
1. Partner with a local TV station and stream news video.
2. Hire a reporter to write just for the W eb site.
3. Set up live W eb cams around town to stream live video from popular c o m
munity locations such as malls and parks.
4. Partner with local news/talk radio stations and stream news audio.
5. Give away free W eb-classified advertisem ents for 3 months.
6. A cquire additional news services to load online.
These are just som e of the possible solutions. Only a few of these will get serious
consideration, but exam ining all possible alternatives will help m anagers identify
plausible ones.
The two-question test can be applied to eliminate som e o f the listed alterna
tives. For exam ple, acquiring additional news services such as The N ew York
Tim es service probably will not attract more visitors because m any sites already
provide these new s services. In addition, Solutions 1 and 3 might require an in
vestm ent in live video-stream ing technology and em ployees to use the technol
ogy. The investm ent might exceed the increased revenue from additional W eb
site visitors.

Selecting a Solution
W ith a short list o f solutions, a m anager m oves to Step 4, w hich involves select
ing one solution to the problem . The solution m ay be a com bination o f more than
one alternative solution, but the next step requires a decision to pursue a specific
solution.
The collection and analysis o f information are crucial at this point. W hen one
solution is selected, the alternate solutions should not be forgotten, however.
Often the original solution does not w ork as well as m anagem ent would like. As
a result, managers have to return to the problem and either generate new solu
tions or choose one o f the solutions dropped in Step 4. It is a good idea to priori
tize the solutions not used based on the information and analysis in Step 4. This
m ay save time if the chosen solution fails.
Selecting solutions is always a matter of costs and benefits. Often more than
one solution will w ork so the correct option involves one that balances costs with
the benefits. O ne solution may generate more visits than another, but the costs
w ould be so high as to consum e the entire increase in revenues from getting
m ore visits. At the sam e time, a solution may be inexpensive, but the results will
not reach the specified goals.
Returning to the problem o f increasing visits to the new spaper W eb site, we
find the m anagers considering three options not elim inated by a quick two-
question test. T hey reject O ption 4 because the new spaper exists in a m ediu m
sized m arket that does not have a com m ercial new s/talk station.
The two remaining solutions involve either investing in new employees, which
will increase expenses, or allowing free classified ads, which will reduce revenue
because some of the people using the free ads would have paid for ads. Both of the
solutions would result in a reduction of profits in the short run to increase profits in
the long run. O ver time the goal of increasing visits will allow the new spaper to
charge higher prices for online advertising, particularly for online classified ads.
Com paring the two options, the m anagers realize that hiring an online re
porter may be a good idea, but it will require a perm anent increase in the num ber
of em ployees and a continuing increase in the budget. Giving away free ads for
3 m onths will reduce revenues only temporarily. The m anagers also realize giv
ing free online classifieds will bring people w ho arc looking at classified, and it
will possibly bring the advertisers results that will encourage them to buy classi
fied ads in the future. This is a double benefit that m ight not derive from the ex
clusive online reporter.
Implementing the Solution
O nce the solution has been selected, it m ust be im plem ented. This is the fifth
step in the decision wheel. The solution m eans nothing unless it is applied

10 CHAPTER 1
correctly. This requires a detailed plan of action with a timetable for specific ac
tions, a budget, and a breakdow n of w ho has responsibility for carrying out the
changes. The details should be as specific as possible.
Therefore, the decision to provide free online classified ads is just the beginning
of a string of decisions. To accomplish the goals, the free ads must be promoted,
the process by which ads will be taken must be planned, and the m anagers must
decide how to m easure the impact on visits. Prom otion can occur through the
print edition o f the new spaper, on the W eb site, and even through other media
such as radio ad spots. The prom otion will m ost likely involve a variety o f activ
ities, but the cost will have to reflect w hat the m anagers think the return will be.
It is likely that the existing classified ads staff will place the free ads, but the
new spaper might have to hire tem porary help. Finally, the m anagers m ust decide
how to m easure the im pact, which w ould involve m easuring a baseline o f visits
over several w eeks before the free ads are offered so that any change in num ber
of visits can be com pared with this baseline.
Monitoring the Solution
The final step is monitoring the im plem entation in light of the goals. This m oni
toring should provide feedback on a regular basis to judge progress toward the
goals and be part o f the im plem entation plan. For exam ple, the new spaper
W eb m anager would exam ine the data from W eb site visits w eekly, with special
attention to visits on the classified ad pages. Every 2 w eeks or so, the managers
would discuss the results to see if they need to change the prom otion that draws
people to the free ads. O f course they might have to deal with problem s from
having a larger num ber of free ads than were anticipated. A rush for free ads
could increase the expenses more than anticipated, w hich w ould generate new
problems.
Crucial to the monitoring system is a timetable. A solution that is not w orking
should be given an adequate test period, but a m edia organization should not
rem ain com m itted to a solution once it becom es obvious that it will not work.
Tim es should be established during the im plem entation process at w hich the
m anagers m ust decide to continue or end the plan.
This monitoring process m akes the entire decision process cyclical. If the so
lution is not working, this becom es a problem that starts a new cycle o f decision
making. The sam e steps are taken in a new cycle, but som e may take less time
and effort because the previous decision process already provides relevant infor
mation. H ow ever, m anagers must always be careful not to assum e that they have
all the information they need. An effective m anager continues to acquire infor
mation until the cost o f additional information outw eighs the probable benefit
from having that information.

MANAGERIAL DECISION M AK IN G 1 1
CONSTRAINTS ON THE DECISION PROCESS
T he decision w heel is an ideal. It is a blueprint that is seldom follow ed exactly
because of practical constraints that fall into two types: (a) w ho m akes the deci
sion, and (b) time available for the decision.
Decision Makers
Both individuals and groups m ake decisions. W hether a group or individual
m akes the decision influences the efficiency and effectiveness of the decision. In
som e cases, individuals may decide best. In other cases, group decisions work
better. H uber (1980) listed three advantages and four disadvantages of group d e
cisions, w hereas Harrison (1987) gave nine strengths and four weaknesses.
Griffin and M oorhead (1986) presented six advantages of group decision m aking
and three advantages of individual decision making. Table 1.1 sum m arizes the
advantages and disadvantages of group decision making and categorizes them
under the headings o f tim ing, uncertainty, and goals.
TABLE 1.1
Advantages and Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
Advantages Disadvantages
Timing
Slower decision process Slower decision process
Division of labor for complex task Disagreement over goals may result in no
decisions
Uncertainty
Larger amounts of information Political behavior of group members
and knowledge generated reduces acceptance of information from
others
Fewer errors in analyzing information Groupthink— The tendency of group
members to think the group is infallible
More alternatives generated
Goals
Groups can clarify goal understanding Groups sometimes act in ways inconsistent
with goals
Participation increases acceptance Groupthink
of group goals

12 CHAPTER 1
Interestingly, w eaknesses o f group decision m aking can also be strengths. For
exam ple, one of the advantages and disadvantages of group decision m aking is
its slow process. G roup decision m aking usually increases the time needed for a
decision because of problem s in organizing m eetings and in the long process of
forming consensus am ong people with conflicting positions. An individual deci
sion m aker does not have these timing problem s. W hether the time elem ent is an
advantage or a disadvantage depends on the decision. If timing is crucial, indi
viduals make quicker decisions. If timing is not crucial and risk and uncertainty
are high, a slower process has advantages.
D eadlines exem plify the timing im portance in news departm ents. N ew s sto
ries do not get used if they are not ready by the printing or broadcast deadlines.
So individuals make most decisions about w hat stories will run. H ow ever, im
portant stories are exceptions to this rule. An exam ple of a group decision in
volving a news story is the case of the Pentagon Papers. The Pentagon Papers
were a secret report about the history o f the V ietnam War. T hey were prepared in
the late 1960s for Secretary of D efense Robert S. M cN am ara, w ho served for
President Lyndon Johnson. The N ew York Tim es got the report from Daniel
Ellsberg, w ho helped prepare it. After four installm ents o f the Papers ran in The
N ew York Tim es in June 1971, a federal court issued a restraining order. M ea n
while The W ashington P ost had obtained a copy o f the report. A group o f 10
managers at the P ost met for 12 hours to discuss w hether they should publish
parts o f the report. T hey published (W itcover, 1971).
The inherent lack o f speed in group decisions is not the only advantage or dis
advantage o f groups. W hen com plex tasks are involved, groups have the ad van
tage of division of labor. D ividing tasks am ong group m em bers actually can
speed up the process because no one person must learn the wide range of c o m
plex information required for com plex decisions. B uying a new com puter system
for a new spaper is an exam ple. Because such system s often serve multiple
departm ents, it w ould m ake sense to include som eone from each of these depart
ments in the decision-m aking process. It is easier to have people from each d e
partm ent w ho know the departm ents’ com puter needs than it is to have one or
two people learn about the com puter needs of all the departments.
Advantages and disadvantages of group decisions also fall under the heading
o f uncertainty. G roup decision m aking can reduce uncertainty in three ways.
First, having more than one person increases the am ount of information and
know ledge brought to the process. Second, it can decrease the num ber of errors.
The cliché “two heads are better than one” applies here. H aving more people
also can reduce information errors because people can evaluate each oth er’s in
formation and analysis. Third, groups generate more alternative solutions. The
ability to com pare alternatives with each other can result in better solutions.
Although uncertainty will decline with som e groups, it can increase with oth
ers. The probabilities that develop from the satisficing approach are subjective.
The attitudes and perceptions of other group m em bers influence this subjectivity.

MANAGERIAL DECISION MAKING 13
Political behavior among group members can create doubt as to appropriate goals
and desirability of solutions. For instance, when a city editor and sports editor
try to persuade other group members that each department is key to improving
quality, the process of persuasion can cast doubt on either department being ef
fective at attracting readers. The result is uncertainty of actions.
Just as dangerous as political behavior, which can divide, is the phenomenon
of groupthink. G roupthink occurs when group members are so set on sustaining
unanimity that they fail to properly appraise the alternative solutions (Janis,
1982). Although the group feels it has reduced uncertainty because it agreed on
the best alternative, it actually decreased the probability that any one solution
will work. The solution does not get an adequate evaluation.
The final heading in Table 1.1 is goals. Because o f the number of people in
volved, groups often develop a better understanding of the organization’s and
decision group’s goals. Reading a statement of goals adopted by an organization
does not mean automatically that the employees understand those goals. Hearing
others discuss the goals can help clarify them.
Another advantage is that participation in group decision making will increase
acceptance of the goals and solutions that are adopted. Increased acceptance can
translate into increased effort in accomplishing the goals. People tend to accept
more readily those decisions in which they participated.
A disadvantage of group decisions with respect to goals is the tendency of
some groups to develop their own goals that may be inconsistent with the organi
zation’s goals. For example, a group set up within a media organization to
develop ways to cut costs may decide that cost cutting is not a proper goal. The
result is a conflict of goals between management and the decision group. Result
ing decisions are less likely to accomplish the aims of management.
The many advantages and disadvantages of group decisions create problems for
deciding when groups or individuals should make decisions. Vroom and Yetton
(1973) said that individual managers arc likely to make décisions when the prob
lem is well structured, information is plentiful, a previously succcssful solution to a
similar problem is available, and time constrains require a quick decision.
Individual Decision-Making Styles
As with all human skills, managers vary in the style of decision making they use.
A decision-making style has to do with comm on patterns of reaching decisions.
Most managers exhibit more than one style, but often a particular style emerges
under pressure.
Driver, Brousseau, and Hunsaker (1993) identified decision style by the way
managers use information and how they focus on solutions. Use o f information in
volved either satisficing or maximizing. As mentioned earlier, satisficing requires
collecting information to reach a satisfactory conclusion that may not result in as

14 CHAPTER 1
good a result as possible. Maximizing involves collecting information until a deci
sion maker has enough to reach what he feels is the best decision. The difference is
related to how long the decision makers will collect information before acting.
Solution fo cu s concerns the use of data to identify possible solutions. U nifo
cus people collect information and identify one solution they think is best,
whereas m ultifocus people collect information and provide a variety of solutions
to a problem.
These two dimensions were combined to produce the following five decision
styles:
Decisive Style. This style involves people who are satisficers and are unifocus
with respect to solutions. These people collect a limited amount of infor
mation and act quickly. Once they identify their solution, they are un
wavering in their support of that solution.
Flexible Style. Flexible decision makers are satisficers who have multifocus on
solutions. They also act on limited information, but they show more flexi
bility in using solutions. If one solution fails to work, they turn to another.
H ierarchical Style. This style involves maximizing and unifocus. These deci
sion makers act slowly bccausc they collcct large amounts of information
to select the one best solution, which is pursued using a detailed plan.
Integrative Style. People using this style arc maximizers with multifocus solu
tions. They tend to take their time in collecting and evaluating information,
but unlike the hierarchical style, these people consider more than one solu
tion to the problem.
System ic Style. This style incorporates both the integrative and hierarchical
styles in a two-step process. The first step involves using the integrative
style of evaluating large amounts of information and dealing with multiple
solutions. The second step is more hierarchical in that the solutions are pri
oritized with one or more criteria being considered the best. This style is
more contemplative than the hierarchical style, but involves more orga
nized and active solutions than the integrative style.
These types of decision-maker classifications can be useful in understanding
decision making, but care must be taken. Often managers exhibit a combination
of these styles with individual decisions and in decisions across time. The useful
ness of the classification is its emphasis on types of goals (satisficing and maxi
mizing) and nature of focus (unifocus or multifocus).
Types for Group Decisions
Just as individual decision makers exhibit different styles, so do groups.
M cEwan (1997) listed 10 ways that groups can reach decisions; they vary by
the degree the entire group participates and the quality (how effectively the

decisions result in reaching goals) of the resulting decisions. The group decision
styles are:
D ecision by A uthority W ithout G roup D iscussion. This is not really a group
decision, although it may be presented as such, because one person m akes
the decision for the group. It yields a fast decision, but the group does not
becom e involved.
D ecision by D efault. A group failing to make a decision can be a form of d e
cision. G roup inactivity results in either som eone else m aking the decision
or the problem going away.
Self-A uthorized D ecisions. O ne or m ore m em bers assum e they have the au
thority to m ake a decision w hen they do not. Such decisions have little
support from m em bers left out of the process.
D ecision by C lique. A few individuals form a subgroup to make decisions and
then im pose that decision. This breaks the decision-m aking group into
com peting factions, w hich reduces quality o f decisions.
D ecision by E xpert. A person within a group m akes the decision, but how the
expert is selected can create internal disagreem ents.
D ecision by A veraging Individuals' O pinions. M em b ers’ opinions arc asked
separately, and the results arc averaged. G roup m em bers have no actual
part of the decision bccausc group interaction is missing.
D ecision by A uthority A fter G roup D iscussions. G roup m em bers advise the
person w ho has authority to m ake the decision. This can result in com peti
tion for authority’s attention or telling authority w hat the group m em bers
believe will please her.
D ecision by M inority. A subgroup is given the authority to m ake decisions.
This makes other m em bers w onder why they were put in the group.
D ecision by M ajority Vote. The group does as the majority wants. The effec
tiveness depends on everyone’s com m itm ent to this method, w hether they
are in the majority or minority.
D ecision by C onsensus. The group reaches a decision that everyone can sup
port, but it can be tim e-consum ing. This may be the best m ethod if time
allows because it results in high-quality conclusions.
All o f these types o f divisions have advantages and disadvantages depending
on the decision’s goal. It is helpful for groups to understand how they are making
decisions because it allows them to analyze the w eaknesses of these decisions.
Suppose a m agazine com pany appoints a com m ittee to plan a long-term strategy
for incorporating the W orld W ide W eb in its product strategy. M em bers should
represent the various departm ents in the com pany, as well as a variety of W eb
experience and technological know ledge. The group m ight be tem pted to let the
person with the most technological know ledge (decision by expert) m ake the d e
cisions, but that person might not know how advertisers and viewers want to in
teract with the W eb. The co m p a n y ’s chief operating officer (C E O ) might make

16 CHAPTER 1
the decision after hearing all sides (decision by authority after group discussion),
but the techies and nontechies might form subgroups and com pete for the
C E O 's support.
The best type of group decision m aking depends on a variety o f factors about
the problem and the people involved. O ne of the most im portant factors is timing
of decisions.
Time and Decision Making
In addition to classifying decisions by type of decision-m aking style, decisions
can be broken down on the basis of time available. Three general timing patterns
seem appropriate. N onprogram m ed decisions can be classified as immediate,
short term, or long term. Immediate decisions must be made quickly. The time
that is available between Steps l and 5 in the decision wheel is m easured in hours
or even minutes. Story decisions on deadline are the prime examples in media.
As a result o f deadlines, it is com m on to find individuals m aking content deci
sions at new spapers, magazines, and TV new s departments. H ow ever, the dead
line pressure hides the danger that individuals will begin m aking a ll decisions
quickly and alone out o f habit. No decision should be m ade before time requires
it. If a decision need not be m ade im m ediately, participation of others should
be sought.
Short-term decisions are ones that need not be made immediately, but they must
be made within a reasonable period of time. At a newspaper, the plans for a break
down of news and advertising space for the com ing week would be short term.
Small groups usually make these decisions even if one person has responsibil
ity. For exam ple, the publisher, w ho has final authority for space in a new spaper,
m ay meet with the advertising m anager and editor to determ ine news holes for a
week. Often the publisher has determ ined a breakdow n for the year between
news and advertising space. The m eetings arc m onitoring sessions by w hich the
three m anagers discuss news-editorial needs in light o f the y ear’s goal, previous
use of space, and the n ew sro o m ’s space needs for the week.
Long-term decisions are those that affect the organization over a period o f
years and, therefore, w arrant a longer decision-m aking process. This type of deci
sion includes selecting network news anchors and format changes at a magazine
or new spaper. Because of their com plexity, these decisions require participation
by a large num ber of people in groups and as individuals. In effect, a long-term
decision, such as w hat next y ear’s budget should be, requires hundreds or thou
sands o f sm aller decisions.
Overall, time acts as a constraint on the process shown in the decision wheel
by limiting the time available for each o f the six steps. These limits determ ine
how much information can be collected, how m uch analysis can be conducted,
and how m any people can participate in the decision. Im m ediate decisions allow

MANAGERIAL DECISION M AK IN G 1 7
little time for each step and for information collection and analysis. Long-term
decisions should include adequate time for each step.
The timing of various types of decisions places a prem ium on different types
of managers. W hen an im m ediate decision is needed, a satisfactory solution is
more im portant than an optimal solution. So the person w ho has com m and o f a
great deal o f information in an area and who can analyze quickly will perform
best. This person need not be as good at w orking with people as a m anager who
deals with short- and long-term problems. Decisive and flexible decision styles
w ork well here.
A m anager faced with short-term decisions needs both people skills and the
ability to reach decisions within a reasonable time. In contrast, m anagers who
must make long-term decisions are better served by skills that allow them to
work with people and exam ine a problem from several angles. This person
should be good at analysis, but it is analysis with a different time frame. This
m anager m ust be good at developing m any alternatives and evaluating them
against each other. The variation o f needed skills explains why som e people
make better upper level m anagers, such as editor, than low er level managers,
such as assistant city editor. Long-term decisions that involve high risk and u n
certainty w ork best with integrative or systemic styles for decision makers.
The key to effective decision m aking is to put people in positions w here their
abilities serve them best and then train them in the areas where they are weakest.
The ability to understand and handle time constraints is essential if a person is to
be prom oted within the m edia organization.
TOOLS OF MANAGEMENT
Just as time constrains décision making, so docs the quality o f information and
analysis, w hich relate directly to the skills of the decision maker. As with all
skills, collccting and analyzing information can be im proved through learning.
This section briefly addresses the sources o f inform ation and som e o f the tools
of analysis.
Sources of Information
Because information plays so im portant a role in all six steps, it is useful to ex
amine w here one gets information. Basically, information com es either from
o ne’s own efforts or the efforts o f others. The efforts can take various forms, ho w
ever, and those forms can affect the quality o f information. The two main types of
efforts are experience and research. Experience involves participating in events
or processes, and research is the application of generally accepted systematic

18 CHAPTER 1
m ethods o f exam ining events or processes. Som eone w ho w orks at a news m ag a
zine has experience in m agazine journalism . S om eone w ho conducts a survey of
news m agazine reporters is conducting research about m agazine journalism . E x
perience differs from research in that it does not have accepted standards for ana
lyzing data. Experience is inseparable from the person having the experience.
Y et a researcher, if conducting research properly, should have a limited impact
on the events or processes being studied.
Research should be more objective and systematic than cxpcricncc. Should be
are im portant w ords because quality of research depends on the researcher’s
skills, just as quality o f experience depends on the w isdom o f the person experi
encing the event. A m anager can analyze experience systematically and som e
w hat objectively, just as a researcher inadvertently can alter the result o f his
research through poor use of methods.
M anagers have roughly four sources o f information: their own experiences,
the experiences of others, their research, and the research o f others. The ten
dency am ong m edia m anagers is to depend on their experiences and the experi
ences of trusted colleagues. Experience has the characteristic o f being specific to
a particular situation. This can be an advantage w hen a decision m ust be made
about a situation similar to previous events. H ow ever, using o n e ’s experience be
com es a liability w hen that experience is applied to a problem that differs from
the original experience. The result in such situations is often a poor decision.
M anagers should know the value of all forms of information and seek m any
diverse sources o f information, especially in the monitoring step. A successful
m anager analyzes past decisions so the next decision can be made more effec
tive. The results of every decision should becom e information for future deci
sions, but the usefulness of this information depends on the ability to use tools
of analysis.
Cost-Benefit Analysis
A m anager with few analytical skills or little know ledge and experience will end
up depending on others to judge the reliability and validity o f information. This
can be a problem. M anagers who understand analysis are in a better position to
select information appropriate for decisions. A nalysis involves w ays o f process
ing information. Several different types o f analysis, which vary in complexity,
are available.
Perhaps the most recognized analytical tool is cost-benefit analysis, w hich is
an attem pt to estim ate the costs and benefits that w ould result from alternative
actions. M cK ean (1975) listed five steps: (a) identifying benefits to be achieved,
(b) identifying alternatives that will reach the goal, (c) identifying costs for the
alternative methods, (d) developing a m odel or set of relationships that explain
the im pact of alternatives on the costs and benefits, and (e) a criterion involving

both costs and benefits for selecting the preferred alternative. T hese steps sound
fam iliar because they correspond to steps o f the decision wheel.
The traditional approach to cost-benefit analysis is to place a m onetary value
on all costs and benefits and com pare the resulting differences (H uber, 1980).
Because this is difficult to do with m any types of costs, cost-benefit analysis
may include the “dollar-equivalency technique” (H uber, 1980, p. 80), w hich is
the developm ent of m oney equivalents for costs that are difficult to m easure in
dollars. O bviously this becom es problematic w hen costs and benefits involve
hum an behavior.
T w o concepts are useful in dealing with the nonmonetary aspects of cost-benefit
analysis: opportunity costs and intangibles. O pportunity costs are the expenses
that accrue from giving up alternative actions. It is equivalent to the old saying:
“There is no free lunch.” For every alternative selected, a person loses what she
would have gained from another alternative. For exam ple, a m anager is hiring a
reporter and must pick from two candidates. The first is stronger at writing and
the second at reporting. If the first is hired, an opportunity cost is the reporting
ability that will be lost from not hiring the second. If the second is hired, an o p
portunity cost is the writing skill that will be lost from not hiring the first.
Intangibles are the things that cannot be m easured well. This may be leader
ship in a m anager or the ability of som e people to raise morale in an organiza
tion. W hatever the attribute, a dollar am ount cannot be assigned adequately.
T hese intangibles are often ignored in formal tools o f analysis because they
cannot be m easured well.
O pportunity costs and intangibles are the A chilles heel of cost-benefit analy
sis and most other types of formal analysis. T hese two concepts relate to all deci
sions, although som etim es they are more im portant than at other times. Despite
these two problem s, cost-benefit analysis can be useful even if it simply allows a
m anager to think more clearly. The following exam ple dem onstrates the poten
tial use o f cost-benefit analysis in a situation w here quantification is difficult.
The Tim es-Leader recently conductcd a readership survey in which 48% o f the
readers said they would like to have more in-depth local coverage. M anaging Edi
tor, Jane Smith, has been assigned to com e up with a plan for doing this. Her first
observation is that it can be done either by hiring a new reporter or using existing
staff. She com es up with the benefits and advantages presented in Table 1.2.
The m onetary benefits for either alternative are equal in T able 1.2 and am ount
to $54,000 per year. T hese benefits are based on retaining 250 readers a year and
attracting 250 more readers annually as a result of increased in-depth coverage.
T w o main areas o f m onetary benefits are saving $4,000 from not having to re
place the 250 readers and m aking 350,000 in advertising revenue that w ould be
lost if the 500 readers w ere not taking the newspaper.
Both approaches also have intangible benefits in the form o f staff morale and
the prom otional advantage o f having in-depth coverage that will generate recog
nition o f the new spap er’s journalistic efforts. The use o f existing staff has an

20 CHAPTER 1
TABLE 1.2
Cost-Bcnefit Analysis of Increasing In-Dcpth Reporting at the Times-Leader
A lternatives
C osts H iring a R eporter U sing E xisting S ta ff
M onetary $30,000 a year salary $10,000 a year additional overtim e
$5,000 a year expense for $5,000 a year expenses for
travel & research travel & research
$13,000 for 26 additional pages $13,000 for 26 additional pages at
at cost of $500 per page cost of $500 per page
O pportunity D issatisfaction am ong existing Use of staff for in-depth reporting
staff because they will not be will reduce time for day-to-day
allowed to do in-depth work reporting
Editing time lost on day-to-day Editing time lost on day-to-day
coverage due to increased coverage due to increased editing
editing needs o f day-to-day
coverage
needs o f day-to-day coverage
Intangible Possible negative im pact o f new A dded effort needed to balance
reporter in the new sroom in-depth reporting
Benefits
M onetary Save $4,000 needed to gain Save $4,000 needed to gain 250 lost
250 lost readers readers
Save $50,000 in advertising Save $50,000 in advertising revenue
revenue that could be lost with that could be lost with decline
decline o f 500 readers o f 500 readers
Intangible Increased m orale am ong staff Increased m orale am ong staff from
from increased quality increased quality o f the
o f the new spaper new spaper
Prom otional value o f expected Prom otional value o f expected
recognition from in-depth recognition from in-depth
coverage coverage
Increased staff m orale for those
w ho do in-depth reporting
Note: The goal is to increase the amount of in-depth coverage by one page every 2 weeks.
'Benefits are based on an estimated retention of 250 readers and attracting 250 new readers as a re
sult of increased in-depth coverage.
added advantage in that it will increase morale of the staff because they will be
allowed to spend time on more lengthy projects.
M onetary costs of hiring an additional reporter are about $20,000 more a year
because the new reporter would earn $30,000 a year, w hereas overtime needed to
use existing staff would only am ount to $10,000. Both alternatives have opportu
nity costs. Each alternative would require about the sam e am ount o f additional

editing, w hich w ould have to com e from the time spent on editing of day-to-day
stories.
T w o opportunity costs and two intangible costs stand out as im portant factors.
First, hiring a new reporter could create dissatisfaction am ong the existing staff
m em bers w ho w ould like to pursue in-depth reporting. Reporters usually look on
in-depth work as a kind of reward because it is more satisfying and interesting
than most day-to-day coverage. H ow ever, taking time from day-to-day coverage
has the opportunity cost of reducing the am ount of space and effort spent on
everyday reporting. This could negatively affect circulation.
The intangible costs also involve the staff’s reaction to a new plan. If a new
reporter is hired, he or she m ay alter the chem istry am ong people in the n ew s
room . This impact, com bined with the possible resentm ent, may have negative
consequences. Yet a new reporter m ight add to the new sroom chemistry.
W hether this becom es a cost would depend on w ho is hired as the new reporter.
The use of existing staff m eans an added cost for the editors because they must
ensure that the in-depth assignm ents are distributed fairly. O therw ise staff re
sentm ent could develop.
By exam ining T able 1.2, a m anager could see that the question o f w hich ap
proach to take com es dow n to w hether the additional $20,000 cost o f a new re
porter and the potential new sroom disruption exceeds the im pact of reducing the
day-to-day coverage in the new spaper. This, in turn, is related to the adequacy of
the current staff. If the new sroom already is understaffed, expanding the w ork re
quired could be disastrous. M ore readers might drop the paper because of poor
day-to-day coverage than would take the paper because of increased in-depth re
porting. To make an appropriate selection, a m anager needs to have an under
standing of the nature of the reporters currently w orking and an aw areness o f the
inform al organizational setting in the new sroom .
An im portant point of this illustration is that many of the costs and benefits
arc not quantifiable, but this should not lead to these costs and benefits being ig
nored. A second point is that the analysis is only as good as the information that
goes into it. The m onetary costs and benefits should be accurate, but the k now l
edge of the people in the new sroom needs to be just as reliable and valid.
Evaluating Information
As the decision wheel illustrates, information and its analysis lie at the center o f
effective decision making. The invention and developm ent of com puters, and
personal com puters in particular, have generated a flood o f information that can
help or hurt m anagers in m aking decisions. C om puters have created this infor
mation flood for two reasons. First, they allow for the faster collection and m a
nipulation o f data about all types of hum an behavior. From sales information to
surfing on the Internet, com puters collect data in minutes what w ould have taken

2 2 CHAPTER 1
days or m onths before com puters. As com puters have grow n faster and smaller,
more data can be processed more quickly. Second, com puters allow the instanta
neous distribution of large am ounts of information anyw here in the world. M ulti
ple em ployees of an organization can share the same inform ation at the sam e
time, so group decisions can be made in a more timely fashion. This allows deci
sion m akers to live in different parts of the world and still make group decisions.
O f course com puters also have reshaped the w ay m edia organizations distrib
ute information to consum ers, but this im pact defines the type o f décisions for
media com panies more than the decision process. M edia com panies experience
the same im pact of com puters on the decision process as all organizations. Infor
mation is more accessible now than it has ever been, but accessibility is not the
sam e as accuracy. A ccessibility concerns how easily a given piece o f inform a
tion is to obtain. The Internet and other information distribution system s have
made information much more accessible. However, this availability may be a
Trojan horse— allowing information into the decision process that could lower
the effectiveness o f decisions.
A ccuracy o f information concerns w hether the depiction of hum an behavior
in num bers or w ords is a valid representation for that behavior. For exam ple, if a
readership survey supposedly represents what readers think about a magazine,
the issue of accuracy addresses w hether it truly does. C om puters certainly make
information more accessible, but w hether information becom es more accurate
depends on by w hom and how the information was generated. A lthough an ex
cellent researcher can use com puters to generate even more accurate inform a
tion, an incom petent one will only provide more inaccurate information.
Before using information for decisions, m anagers need to be able to deter
mine w hether the accuracy of that inform ation is sufficient enough to m ake ef
fective decisions. The accuracy level o f information involves probability. Little
information used for m aking decisions is 100% accurate if for no other reason
than decisions involve future actions and the future is always uncertain. H o w
ever, som e information is more accurate than other information, and managers
need to determ ine w hether any given information m eets that test. B ecause the
only true test o f inform ation’s accuracy is how well it can predict future behavior
and events, accuracy can only be estim ated. The following steps can be useful in
evaluating inform ation’s accuracy.
1. D ecide w hether the material under consideration is information or opinion.
Information is a description o f behavior or phenom ena, w hereas opinion is
a person’s belief about the behavior or phenom ena. An exam ple of infor
mation would be the evaluation of accounting data that show publicly
ow ned new spapers are m ore likely to have a sm aller percentage of rev
enues devoted to the new sroom budget than do privately ow ned n ew s
papers. An opinion w ould be a statem ent from a critic that publicly ow ned
new spapers do not spend enough m oney on their new sroom budgets. The

information is a statem ent about budgeting behavior, and the opinion is a
statem ent about w hether the budgeting behavior is good or bad.
Opinion often can m asquerade as information. A person not trained in
data analysis might interpret the accounting data incorrectly. W ithout
proper training on how to analyze data, the conclusions from the data will
be no better than opinions and can even lead to ineffective decisions b e
cause the m anager mistook the opinion for information.
2. K now acccptcd procedure for creating information. The process of creating
accurate information has certain procedures that arc acccptcd as appropriate
by scientists and scholars w ho create know ledge and information. Scholars
use the scientific m ethod or critical m ethod to generate information.
W hether the information is considered valid depends on the procedure
used by the scholars. Journalists also have generally accepted rules for re
porting and writing stories. H ow ever, the two processes differ because
scholars m ust report their m ethod as part o f their scholarship, w hereas
journalists are not expected to do so.
M anagers, w ho use information to m ake decisions, should understand
research procedures considered appropriate by the com m unity of scholars
and scientists. K now ing the m ethods for creating information allows deci
sion m akers the ability to evaluate its accuracy. M edia m anagers should
understand how surveys and content analysis are conducted so they can
evaluate the research m ethods and ask researchers intelligent questions if
they doubt the accuracy of information they are supplied.
3. K now w ho created the information you use. Even if m anagers understand
research methods, and especially if they do not, it is a good idea that the
sources of information be identified and evaluated. As m entioned, not all
researchers and journalists are equal in their ability to generate accurate in
formation. W hen acquiring information for decisions, a m anager should
know the source of the information. This is w hy com panies often have
their own research division; if they do not, they tend to use a research
com pany proved to produce information that has resulted in effective deci
sions. One of the great problem s of the Internet is that sources and method
of information are often absent.
SUMMARY
Decision m aking is the heart o f managing. D ecisions are either p ro g ra m m ed ,
w hich m eans the solutions take effect under prescribed conditions, or nonpro
gra m m ed , w hich requires attention to the individual problem s that must be
solved. N onprogram m ed decisions are more difficult to make. All program m ed
decisions originally were set up by nonprogram m ed decisions.

24 CHAPTER 1
Decisions can also be classified as proactive and reactive. Proactive decisions
anticipate changes in the environment that will affect the organization, and reac
tive decisions are made as a result of environmental changes.
Reaching decisions has an abstract form presented here as a decision wheel.
The steps in this wheel occur to some degree in all effective decisions, although
the time and effort devoted to the individual steps varies with the conditions sur
rounding the individual problem.
Just as decision making is at the heart of management, so analysis and infor
mation collection arc the hubs of decisions. Both lack of information and poor
analysis of information account for a high percentage of decisions that fail to
achieve their goals. Several tools are available to improve analysis and informa
tion collecting, including social science theories and cost-benefit analysis.
As with the majority of human endeavors, management can be made better
with thought and practice. The remainder of this book is designed to facilitate
thought and provide practice through cases. Each chapter also presents back
ground to help explore the cases. The principles, theories, and research presented
in the early part of the chapter should be used to analyze the information that is
either provided with the case or needs to be collected from outside sources. In all
cases, the decision process applies.
Case 1.1
Looking at Past Decisions
People often make important decisions without properly preparing or fully ex
amining the decision process. The purpose of this assignment is to have you
think about your decision-making process by concentrating on a specific deci
sion. Select an important decision (choosing a college or college major, moving
in with someone, etc.) that you made during the past few years that has disap
pointed you. Think about how you made that decision and why you were disap
pointed. Using the decision wheel from chapter 1, try to rem ember the actions
you took that would have fit into the various steps in the wheel.
ASSIGNMENT
Write a brief summary of the decision and then answer the following questions:
1. Did you take all of the steps in the decision wheel? If not, which ones were
not taken and why?
2. Did you complete each step as thoroughly as you should have? If not,
which ones were not completed thoroughly and why?

3. If you could make that decision over again, what would you do differently
to im prove your decision?
Case 1.2
Using Individual and Group Decision Styles
Dan Smith, publisher of the Lincoln D aily C hronicle, sat at his desk thinking
about the e-m ails he had just received from one of his reporters, Susan Kelley,
and from the director of advertising, Jane Seym ore. Both m essages concerned
the W eb site for W Z Z Y , the local CBS-affiliated TV station. The W eb site was
not new. Yet unlike the other local TV station sites, W Z Z Y had just added a sec
tion of classified advertising.
Kelley had e-mailed Smith bccausc she found the site while buying a set of used
golf clubs. Seymore had seen an advertisement that W Z ZY wanted to run in the
D aily Chronicle. Smith has to make two decisions. First, he has to decide whether
the newspaper will run the advertisements for the classified advertising on W Z Z Y ’s
W eb site. After all, W ZZY is now a competitor with the D aily C hronicle for classi
fied advertising. Second, he has to decide what to do in response to this new com pe
tition for classified advertising. Currently, about 35% of the D aily C hronicle's total
revenues came from classified advertising. Before the W eb, the cost of delivering
classified ads to consumers had kept down competition for this lucrative market.
ASSIGNMENT
Using the material in this chapter, answ er the following questions:
1. W hat type o f individual decision-m aking style w ould w ork best for decid
ing w hether to run W Z Z Y ’s advertisem ent for its classified W eb page?
W hy w ould it be best?
2. Should Smith use group decision m aking to decide how to react to the
threat to the n ew spaper’s classified advertising revenue? W hy?
3. A ssum ing a group will be used to make the decision, w hich o f the 10
group decision types w ould w ork best? W hy?
Case 1.3
Improving the W eb Site
Y our new spaper, The D aily B ugle, currently places its staff-produced content on
its W eb site. In addition, it has recently added a reporter to produce daily copy
just for the site. H ow ever, the publisher is still not convinced that these efforts

26 CHAPTER 1
will build the visits that are necessary to sell more online advertising. She knows
that local businesses are skeptical that enough people visit the B ugle's W eb site
to make advertising effective. Currently, the site is pretty much an electronic
version of the print newspaper.
ASSIGNMENT
Generate ideas for how to draw more users to the Web site and make them visit
regularly. Develop additional methods of generating content for the site, priori
tize them as to how likely they are to generate repeat users of the site, and pro
vide information to support the priorities you assign.
Use the W eb to identify particular elements of Web sites that might be attrac
tive to people in a community and find research that explains how people cur
rently use such elements. The research may be available online, in databases
such as Lexis/Nexis or in newspapers and magazines found in the library.

C H A P T E R
2
L e a d e r s h i p
a n d t h e W o r k f o r c e
Managers oversee and assess llie work of others, design plans for their unit, are
responsible for specific timely actions, adhere to a budget, and guide their subor
dinates to contribute to the overall success of the organization. Recently media
managers have faced harsh economic climates requiring worker layoffs and
réévaluation of staffing needs. Converging technology has altered product and
service expectations, and unstable global diplomacy has affected workplace con
ditions. The best managers handle the routine as well as the unexpected, but also
are outstanding leaders. This chapter focuses on the importance of leadership in
media management.
Leaders are nimble reactors as well as alert predictors. They know how to ad
just to challenges and respond enthusiastically to opportunities. Yet even more
important, they have a vision of where their organization should be headed and
arc d e a r about their accountability in the proccss. Leaders, not just managers,
arc needed in the next dccadc, which promises to be challenging for media com
panies. This chaptcr identifies the characteristics, behaviors, and theoretical as
sumptions for positive leadership by media managers.
THE ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN MANAGEMENT
One of A m erica’s best-known leaders, M ayor Rudy Giuliani, became a symbol
of pragmatic action after the September 11, 2001, attack on New York City. Giu
liani, in a keynote address to the University of Colorado at Denver Business
School in May 2002, said there arc at least two characteristics shared by all great
leaders: having a vision and being accountable. “There is no such thing as a
leader without a philosophy . . . it is the power of their (leaders’) ideas that capti
vates the people,” Giuliani (2002) said.
In a recent Columbia Journalism Review survey, media employees said they
expect managers to take responsibility and share their visions with employees,
27

2 8 CHAPTER 2
punctuating G iuliani’s em phasis on accountability and vision. “M anagers should
make the mission clear, and make it a mission we can succeed w ith,” said one re
spondent, w hereas another said, “Definitive, creative, and attentive L E A D E R
SH IP (read m anagem ent) that dem ands the best, yet is accountable and idea/ideal
driven— that’s w hat we need badly” (Hickey, 2001, p. 38). M edia com panies are
interested in exploring several m odels of leadership.
For instance, when Julia W allace w as nam ed the new m anaging editor at
the A tlanta Journal-C onstitution , she began her editorship by talking with her
new staff about how the new spaper could make the leap from good to better.
These conversations led to a new com pany vision that w as backed up by action.
“ . . . Layers o f editors were thinned, beats re-thought, and 20 percent o f the staff
applied for 108 new or newly configured new sroom positions” (C unningham ,
2001, p. 36).
W allace’s b o tto m -u p strategy for designing a co m p an y ’s vision, w hich relies
on consultation with staff m em bers, does not follow traditional bureaucratic
models, but it is consistent with m anagem ent m odels described by Jim Collins
who wrote G ood to G reat (2001b). Collins found that leaders who did not begin
by setting a new vision and strategy ran great com panies. “W e found instead that
they first got the right people on the bus, the w rong people off the bus, and the
right people in the right seats— and then they figured out w here to drive it”
(Collins, 2001a, p. 13). C ollins’ research empirically dem onstrates that am b i
tious leaders— but ones w ho are more ambitious for the co m p an y ’s success than
their ow n— m anage great companies. Leaders of great com panies focus on find
ing the right people for the right positions and then trust those people to create
the vision. “They deflected attention aw ay from them selves, shunned the lim e
light and quietly focused on the tasks at hand. O ne described him self as, ‘more
plow horse than show horse,’ an apt description of all the good-to-great leaders
we studied,” Collins (2001) said (p. 1).
Although Collins did not include a media com pany in his final list of 11 great
companies, he did single out one media leader, Katherine Graham, for recognition.
When Graham bccamc president of the Washington Post, she did not position her
self as the great leader or savior. In her own words, she was “terrified.” . . . If you
were to interpret Katherine Graham's genuine personal humility as a sign of weak
ness, you would be terribly mistaken . . . she pinned the newspaper’s success prin
cipally on other people, the enduring core values of the Post, and good luck.
(Collins, 2001a, p. 1)
Leadership Roots
Guiliani, W allace, G raham , and Collins are exam ples o f leaders who d em o n
strate firm com m itm ents to vision-directed m anagem ent as well as personal
accountability. Such m odels have been part of the em pirical leadership literature

LEADERSHIP AND THE WORKFORCE 29
for at least four decades. However, there is frank admission that media managers
are often uninformed and poorly trained.
Management training for newsroom editors has been mostly an afterthought. Edi
tors, who typically rise from the reporting ranks, learn to manage by being man
aged . . . . In the early 1990s, newsrooms began to open up a bit. The first wave of
Generation X journalists—the 23 to 38-year-olds who currently make up 80 percent
of all new hires in any industry—joined the field, with their less patient, more tran
sient view of the job. (Cunningham. 2001, p. 36)
Whether a new generation of workers or competitive forces triggered the change,
it is clear that today’s managers are interested and attentive to leadership theory and
method. Although it is not possible to thoroughly cover leadership theory here,
among the most significant research of the past four decades was the Michigan
Leadership Studies (Likert, 1961), which involved interviews with managers and
subordinates to determine effective leadership behaviors. The studies isolated and
identified at least two major supervisor orientations. They were: (a) job-centered or
task-oriented behavior, and (b) employee-centered or relations-based managerial
behavior. Researchers assumed the two types of managerial orientations were ex
clusive and represented two ends of a continuum, with managers being either one or
the other, but not both. However, later studies have refined the model that shows
that outstanding managers alternate styles as circumstances change.
Media Leadership Challenges
Communication theorists and historians agree there are significant professional
differences between media workers and suggest such differences can be traced to
the early origins of each medium. For instance, advertising theory and practice
grew out of understanding and adherence to principles tied to profit margins, the
radio and TV industry developed from entertainment interests, and newspapers
began as partisan tools during the Colonial period. T oday’s media manager bal
ances not only historical expectations, but also internal tensions between and
among departments, which may have different functions or missions (i.e., adver
tising vs. news content).
Looking at just one set of workers (journalists), Powers and Lacy (1992) out
lined a model to illustrate how: (a) factors within journalists (i.e., individual vari
ables), (b) leadership characteristics, (c) organizational settings, and (d) market
factors affect a local TV newsroom. All four factors affect the perception of goal
accomplishment or effectiveness, which in turn affects job satisfaction.
Powers and Lacy found that employees are more satisfied with democratic-
oriented leadership than with leadership that is autocratic in nature. They said, "this
does not mean news directors cannot make their own decisions, but rather that
many, if not most, decisions should also include participation by the journalists”

3 0 CHAPTER 2
(p. 18). This is how W allace approached her quest for a better new spaper. The
im portant lesson in the Pow ers and Lacy study is that em ployees from different
media have different expectations, and the wise m anager understands that when
a corporation ow ns several properties (e.g., radio, TV , new spapers, ad agencies,
book publishers, public relations firms, Internet sites, film com panies, etc.), not
all em ployees will respond equally well to the sam e stimuli.
Communication and Leadership
C om m unication is key to the efficient and effective m anagem ent of a w ork force.
M anagers who are adept at com m unicating can unite, com m it, and motivate em
ployees to cooperate successfully for a com m on goal. M anagers w ho are poor
com m unicators can alienate, distract, and destroy em ployee m om entum and en
ergy. M anagers com m unicate informally and formally with staff and intend for
m essages to be heard and understood. H ow ever, they should be aware that m is
understandings are to be expected, and feedback with quick correction should be
built into any corporate com m unication system.
Traditional theory w as built on the assum ption that leaders are rule givers
w ho tell em ployees what to do and w hen to do it, act as disciplinarians, and p u n
ish those w ho do not obey com pany procedures (Barge, 1994). A lthough media
managers do share som e o f these responsibilities, they most often supervise em
ployees who are com fortable with autonom y and limited supervision. In addi
tion, the media are change oriented and technology driven so that w ork systems
have to be constantly reconfigured to m eet custom er needs for new and better
products, markets, and better delivery systems.
Leaders, according to Schein (1985), have the ability to communicate organiza
tional messages in at least five different ways: (a) by focusing on and measuring
and controlling variables; (b) by how they rcact to crises or other important events;
(c) by coaching and teaching; (d) by reward and status conferring; and (c) by pro
motion, recruitment, and excommunication. If leaders arc consistent in actions sup
porting these five criteria and if they embellish these actions with stories, myths, and
formal statements, the culture can be managed and maintained quite effectively.
Basically, leaders rem ind staff “w ho we are” and “w hat we do.” Confusion,
and even anarchy, can occur w hen m anagem ent has unclear or dysfunctional
com m unication. Therefore, it is im portant that leaders explore all the options
they have to com m unicate.
Assessment Reviews
Discussions should occur on a regularly scheduled formal basis with all e m ploy
ees about the quality and quantity o f work. This can occur on a monthly,

LEADERSHIP A N D THE WORKFORCE 31
sem i-annual, or annual basis. T hese reviews provide m anagers with the opportu
nity to discuss problem s, recognize outstanding perform ance, and motivate
w orkers w ho m ay need support or encouragem ent. H ow ever, informal enco un
ters are also im portant and should be scheduled so that m anagers can observe
and notice behaviors and com plaints that need m inim al and im m ediate attention
before they build into major problem s.
A reporter w ho now works on a large metropolitan daily in the southw est pro
vides one exam ple of effective com m unication. The best leader she ever knew
w as her editor/publisher on a small fam ily-ow ned publication in W ashington.
He actually treated everyone on the staff differently. I mean, he knew exactly what
button to push on everyone. He told me— everyday— that he couldn’t believe how
productive 1 was, which just made me work that much harder . . . but he told an
other reporter, “I understand you’re just so stressed out,” and he would be so gentle
and understanding with her, which would have driven me up the wall. . . . But, you
know, she needed it . . . and he was just perfect at doing that. (Personal interview,
October 2001)
In formal scheduled settings, em ployees have the opportunity to self-report
about their w ork-related successes and com plaints; in the informal settings, m an
agers have the opportunity to observe how em ployees are w orking. The m anager
should record both formal and informal conversations. A lthough the best c o m
munication is face-to-face com m unication and all formal perform ance review
sessions are conducted in this w ay, m uch can be accom plished by casual conver
sation or even phone and e-mail.
Group Discussion
M eetings arc the com m unication m echanism of choice for many m anagers. In a
study of m eetings from 1981 to 1995, it w as found that the average num ber of
m eetings jum p ed from 7 to about 10 a w eek for all business professionals
(A rm our, 1997). Unfortunately, m any m eetings arc simply a time drain rather
than a productive event.
A study by 3M M eeting Netw ork, an online resource, says that managers
spend betw een 25% and 60% o f their time in meetings, but as much as 50% of
that time is unproductive (A rm our, 1997). Studies even show that m eetings can
trigger stress in em ployees unless they foster creativity, reach collective agree
ment, or gain consensus. All m eetings should have an agenda, time limit (20 to
40 minutes is ideal), and provide follow-up information about decisions made
during or follow ing the meeting.
In the United States, business m eetings tend to have action as the focus. In
Japan m eetings may be called to gather information or analyze data, w hereas
in Italy m eetings may provide a way for m anagers to assert authority. Such

3 2 CHAPTER 2
exam ples serve to rem ind us that even strategies for com m unication in a meeting
m ust be considered within the context of w orker values and expectations that
m ay be tied to national, professional, or personal orientations.
CULTURAL CHALLENGES
As media com panies adjust their organizational structures to accom m odate co m
petitive challenges, converging and em erging technology, a dcm ographically di
verse w orkforce, and expanded global arenas, m anagers are required to respond
to various dim ensions of cultural analysis. That is, sym bols, language, task defin
itions, and acceptable behaviors vary am ong w orkers, countries, and even differ
ent media. Hence, a m anager balances personal style or preference with complex
situational variables in m aking decisions about the best way to lead.
Culture is a construct that underlies behavior and beliefs within a com pany
and the society in which it operates. It guides, explains, and predicts processes
and products o f a m edia com pany. O rganizational culture can be observed
through categorizing and noting patterns of behavior, styles o f dress, back
grounds o f those hired and prom oted, and so forth. Likew ise leaders often signal
changes in m anagem ent philosophy by altering all or som e o f these indicators.
H ow ever, when an organization m oves from a hierarchical to a participative
model, there is nothing subtle about the cultural changes or required staff adjust
ments. An exam ple of this is the trend toward shared m anagem ent that requires
the restructuring of departm ents into teams.
Team Leadership
The purpose of a team is to w ork efficiently and effectively to identify opportu
nities and problem s, w hich m ay seem short term, but in reality may have long
term implications. For instance, the decision to try out a new m edia product (e.g.,
a new spaper zone edition, “sm art” T V , or a W eb site) requires a team effort to
research, develop, produce, distribute, and assess its viability. This kind of team
w ould be task oriented, with a specific product as its goal. In contrast, decision
team s m ight define goals, prepare budgets, or study changing political and eco
nomic climates to determ ine long-term com pany strategies.
For team s to succeed, the com m itm ent m ust first be strongly supported by
m anagem ent— particularly top levels. This means that mission statements m en
tion it, and at least one top corporate officer is assigned to develop and provide
resources for teams. Second, criteria for m easuring and rew arding team efforts
must be clear. Pay or salary need not be the rew ard for progress, but som ething
of significant value (to team m em bers) m ust be offered.

LEADERSHIP A N D THE WORKFORCE 33
Third, resources (usually time and m oney) are allocated. Finally, the purpose
of the team w ork is clear, with specific questions and problem s identified. Most
media com panies converting to team m anagem ent also hire a consultant to guide
managers in the early stages of conversion.
If the team is w orking well, the goals are strong and clear to everyone (i.e.,
everyone in the group can independently state objectives that match w hat others
say and think). Everyone on the team understands their role and know s how that
role contributes to the goals. The w ork climate is positive and supportive, and
trust is high am ong team m em bers. People willingly com m unicatc in open and
direct w ays sharing data, information, and opinions. W hen differences occur,
they are recognized and resolved through negotiation and consensus. Everyone
participates in decisions w ithout regard to title or power. Everyone agrees to fol
low decisions m ade by the team (Dyer, 1995).
A m anager must know how to select and coach a team o f em ployees as well
as train them to work as a self-directed entity. Team m em bers may have different
backgrounds, levels o f education, expertise, experience, and com pany titles.
Team m em bers also might have different professional needs for achievem ent,
power, or affiliation. M aking a diverse group of em ployees into a productive
team is not an easy task.
T eam s spend considerable time agreeing on a com m on set of goals or a
shared vision of what they want to accom plish. Next, they identify the resources
o f the team, which are the skills, backgrounds, cultures, expertise, and experi
ences o f team m em bers.
Team leaders can be appointed or one person can organize, train, and facili
tate the team but not directly influence its work. The team can also select its own
leader, rotate leadership, or even operate without a leader (com m ittee of the
whole). The team also has flexibility in terms of how often and how long it
meets. For some teams, sharing information by e-m ail or phone is satisfactory,
but other types o f team s might require a higher level of interaction.
A team w orking on a new magazine m ight meet once to agree on content,
time frame, and style rules. E-mail or phone conversations handle questions or
changes ordered by the publisher, but m ost of the team w ork w ould be acco m
plished independently. H owever, a news team putting out a special edition on a
hurricane w ould w ork closely, conferring every few minutes about new inform a
tion, pictures or film that were available, interviews that had been completed,
and overall presentation choices.
A team requires com m itm ent from all its m em bers; when som e m em bers are
passive or conform simply to avoid controversy or debate, the whole team is
hurt. Artificial agreem ent or passive com pliance occurs som etim es when team
m em bers are dependent or im m ature or w hen team m em bers have learned over
time that conform ity is the least stressful option w hen dealing with particular
team m em bers.

(LEA's communication series) Wicks, Jan LeBlanc - Media management _ a casebook approach-Lawrence Erlbaum (2004).pdf

(LEA's communication series) Wicks, Jan LeBlanc - Media management _ a casebook approach-Lawrence Erlbaum (2004).pdf

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