Metabolism, Absorption and Transport of Nutrients

1. Human Anatomy and
Physiology
Assignment 2: Metabolism, Absorption and Transport of Nutrients

2. Table of Contents
SECTION 1 – The Digestive System
• Digestive System Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6-8
• Organs of the Digestive System ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9-26
• Digestion of Large Food Molecules ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 27
• Role of Enzymes in Digestion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
• Physical and Chemical Digestion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29-30
• Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31-33
• Digestive System Reference Pages ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34-35
2

3. Table of Contents
SECTION 2 – The Circulatory System
• Circulatory System Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36-37
• Structure and Function of Blood Vessels …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38-41
• Pathway of Blood Through the Heart ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42-45
• Composition of Blood ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46-52
• Erythrocyte Structure and Function …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
• Open and Closed Circulatory Systems ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
• Variations of the Circulatory System ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
• Sickle Cell Disease ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
• Physiology of Circulation (thermoregulation) ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57
• Flight-or-Fight Response ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58
• Circulatory System Reference Pages ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 59-60
3

4. Table of Contents
SECTION 3 – The Respiratory System
• Respiratory System Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61-62
• Alveoli …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 63
• Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in the Blood ……………………………………………………………………………………. 64-66
• The Path of Oxygen Into the Bloodstream …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 67-69
• Inhalation and Exhalation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 70-72
• Asthma ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 73-74
• Respiratory System Reference Pages …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75-76
4

5. Table of Contents
SECTION 4 – The Excretory System
• Excretory System Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 77-78
• The Nephron …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 80-84
• Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, and Excretion ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 85-87
• Osmoregulation of pH …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 88
• Urinary Tract Infection ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 89-90
• Excretory System Reference Pages ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 91-92
• How body Systems are Connected ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….... 93-94
5

6. The Digestive System

7. Digestive System
• The digestive system’s function is to
break food down into molecules the
body can absorb
• Allows us to absorb nutrients and use
food as fuel for ATP production
7

8. Organs of the Digestive System
Alimentary Canal Organs
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Rectum
• Anus
Accessory Organs
• Salivary glands
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
8

9. Alimentary Organs
• Organs in the alimentary canal include
the mouth, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and anus
• The alimentary organs form the
alimentary canal, which extends from
the mouth to the anus
• Food passes through organs in the
alimentary canal
9

10. Accessory Organs
• Includes the salivary glands, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas
• The accessory organs of the digestive
system are not a part of the alimentary
canal (food does not pass through
them), but they assist the alimentary
organs in the process of digestion
10

11. The Mouth
• The first portion of the alimentary canal
• The mouth is surrounded by the lips,
cheeks, tongue, and palate
• Receives food and begins digestion by
mechanically breaking up solid particles
into smaller pieces and mixing them
with saliva (mastication)
11

12. Salivary Glands
• The salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens food particles, helps bind
them, and begins the chemical digestion of carbohydrates
• Saliva is also a solvent, dissolving foods so that they can be tasted
• Saliva helps cleanse the mouth and teeth
12

13. Major Salivary Glands
• The three major salivary glands are the parotid
glands, the submandibular glands, and the
sublingual glands
• Parotid glands – the largest of the major
salivary glands, located anterior to the
ear
• Submandibular glands – located in the
floor of the mouth on the inside surface
of the lower jaw
• Sublingual glands – the smallest of the
major salivary glands, located on the
floor of the mouth inferior to the tongue
13

14. Pharynx
• The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the larynx and esophagus
• The muscular walls of the pharynx and esophagus function in swallowing
• The pharynx can be divided into three parts
• Nasopharynx – located superior to the soft palate, provides a passageway for air during
breathing
• Oropharynx – posterior to the mouth, the oropharynx is a passageway for food moving
downward from the mouth and for air moving to and from the nasal cavity
• Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) – located inferior to the oropharynx, a passageway to the
esophagus
14

15. Esophagus
• A straight, collapsible tube about 25 centimeters long
• Provides a passageway for food
• Its muscular wall propels food from the pharynx to the stomach
• Penetrates the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus, and is continuous with the stomach
• The esophagus contains mucous glands which secrete mucous to moisten and lubricate the
inner lining of the tube
• Muscle fibers at the entrance to the stomach remain contracted to prevent regurgitation of
stomach contents into the esophagus. These muscle fibers relax briefly to allow swallowed
food to enter the stomach.
15

16. Stomach
• The stomach is a pouch-like organ with
a capacity of about one liter
• Receives food from the esophagus,
mixes it with gastric juice
• Initiates the digestion of proteins,
carries on limited nutrient absorption,
and moves food into the small intestine
16

17. Pancreas
• Made primary of creatic acinar cells, cells that produce pancreatic juice
• Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and
nucleic acids
• Pancreatic amylase – splits molecules of starch or glycogen into disaccharides
• Pancreatic lipase – breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and
monoglycerides
• Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase – each splits the bonds between
particular combinations of amino acids in proteins
• Nucleases – break down nucleic acid molecules into nucleotides
17

18. Pancreas
• The hormone secretin stimulates the
pancreas to secrete a large quantity of
fluid
• Pancreatic juice has a high
concentration of bicarbonate ions that
neutralizes acidic materials arriving
from the stomach
• The alkalinity created by the
bicarbonate ions also provides a
favorable environment for the digestive
enzymes
18

19. Liver
• The liver has many functions, including:
• Storing glycogen, iron, vitamins A, D, and
B12
• Removing toxic substances from the
blood
• Maintaining iron homeostasis
• Synthesizing lipoproteins, phospholipids,
and cholesterol
• Converting carbohydrate molecules into
fat
• The liver’s function in the digestive system is
to secrete bile, a yellowish green liquid
19

20. Liver
• Bile secreted by the liver is made up of water, bile salts, bile pigments,
cholesterol, and electrolytes
• Bile salts aid digestive enzymes
• They reduce surface tension and break fat globules (molecules of fats
clumped together) into droplets, a process called emulsification
• Allows lipases to digest fat molecules more effectively
• Enhance absorption of fatty acids and cholesterol
• Allows for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K
20

21. Gallbladder
• Stores bile between meals
• Concentrates bile by reabsorbing water
• Contracts to release bile into the
duodenum when stimulated
21

22. Small Intestine
• Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver
• Completes digestion of nutrients in the substance arriving from the stomach
• Absorbs the products of digestion
• Transports the remaining residues into the large intestine
22

23. Small Intestine
• Parts of the small intestine include:
• Duodenum – the shortest and
most fixed portion of the small
intestine
• Jejunum – the diameter of the
jejunum is greater than that of the
ilium, and its wall is thicker and
more active
• Ilium – has a higher bacterial
population than the jejunum
23

24. Enzymes in the Small Intestine
• Digestive enzymes found in the small intestine break down food molecules
before absorption takes place. These enzymes include:
• Peptidases – split peptides into amino acids
• Sucrase – splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and fructose
• Maltase – splits disaccharide maltose into two glucose molecules
• Lactase – splits disaccharide lactose into glucose and galactose
• Intestinal lipase – splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol
24

25. Large Intestine, Rectum, and Anus
• The large intestine absorbs ingested
water and electrolytes remaining in
the alimentary canal
• Reabsorbs and recycles water and
remnants of digestive secretions
• Forms and stores feces
Parts of the Large Intestine
• Cecum – the beginning of the large intestine,
connected to the appendix
• Ascending colon – begins at the cecum and
extends upwards
• Transverse colon – longest, most movable
part of the large intestine
• Descending colon – the transverse colon
turns abruptly downward to become the
descending colon
• Sigmoid colon – the descending colon makes
an S-shaped curve, where it becomes the
sigmoid colon
25

26. Rectum and Anus
• The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid colon. It is attached to the sacrum,
and becomes the anal canal about five centimeters inferior to the tip of the
coccyx bone
• At the distal end of the anal canal is the anus, which is where the anal canal
opens to the outside of the body, the exit for feces
26

27. Digestion of Large Food Molecules
• It is important to be able to break down the food we eat into small molecules
that can be used by the body
• Ex: the body must convert starches into glucose before it can be used as an
energy source, proteins must be broken down into amino acids, and fats
must be broken down into their glycerol and fatty acid components
• Molecules must be small enough to travel through the wall of the small
intestine by diffusion, facilitated diffusion, or active transport. Food molecules
must be broken down for nutrient absorption to take place.
27

28. Role of Enzymes in Digestion
• Enzymes in the digestive system are proteins molecules that break down a specific substance
• The enzymes mentioned under the description of the pancreas and small intestine are important in breaking
down specific components of the human diet (carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
• In addition to the enzymes previously mentioned, enzymes involved in digestion include:
• Salivary amylase – breaks down starch in the mouth
• Pepsin – breaks down proteins in the stomach
• Gastric lipase – breaks down fats in the stomach
• Trypsin and erepsin – break down wholly and partially digested proteins into amino acids in the
duodenum
• Without enzymes, we would not be able to break down food into smaller subunits, and therefore would be
unable to absorb nutrients
28

29. Physical Vs. Chemical Digestion
Physical Digestion
• The breakdown of food by physical means, no
chemical reactions involved
• Physical digestion can separate food molecules,
but cannot break down the molecules
• Chewing food, using smooth muscle to move
food down the digestive tract, and the churning
of food within the stomach are all examples of
physical digestion
Chemical Digestion
• The breakdown of food by chemical means,
requiring chemical reactions (enzymes)
• Breaks individual molecules apart
• Breaking down protein, carbohydrate, and fat
molecules are all examples of chemical digestion
• Chemical digestion is needed to:
• Make molecules small enough to pass through a cell
membrane
• Make nutrients soluble in water (blood)
• Changes food into a form that is usable by the body
29

30. Physical and Chemical Digestion
• Though physical and chemical digestion differ on a molecular level, the
principles are the same.
• In both physical and chemical digestion, food is broken down into smaller
pieces to allow for more efficient digestion
• Physical digestion – breaks apart food particles to increase the surface
area for chemical digestion
• Chemical digestion – breaks food molecules into smaller molecules to
allow for nutrient absorption into the bloodstream and ultimately into
body cells
30

31. Carbohydrate Digestion
• Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth when the salivary glands
secrete the enzyme salivary amylase
• Majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small intestine. As food
moves into the duodenum, pancreatic amylase is released into the small
intestine.
• Breaks down starch into disaccharides
• The small intestine also contains sucrase, maltase, and lactase
• Break the disaccharides into monosaccharides, which then enter the
bloodstream and are transported to body cells
31

32. Protein Digestion
• Digestion of protein begins in the stomach when the stomach secretes gastric juices containing pepsinogen
• As pepsinogen comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, it is converted into an active enzyme called pepsin
• When protein reaches the duodenum, a hormone called cholecytokinin is released from the intestinal walls,
stimulating the release of pancreatic juice
• Pancreatic juice contains three inactive protein splitting enzymes
• In the presence of the enzyme trypsin, the inactive enzymes in the pancreatic juice become activated and are
able to help break down protein
• Peptidase is released, which splits peptide bonds into amino acids, allowing for protein digestion
• Digestion is completed in the small intestine. From there the amino acids travel to body cells through the
bloodstream
32

33. Lipid Digestion
• Chemical digestion of lipids begins in the stomach
• Gastric juices in the stomach contain small amounts of gastric lipase, which begins to break down certain lipids
• As the lipids pass into the duodenum, the gallbladder releases bile into the small intestine via the common bile
duct
• The function of bile is to emulsify fats – to break them down into smaller droplets for more effective
digestion
• At the same time, pancreatic juices are released, containing pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase initiates the
breaking down of lipids.
• Intestinal lipase is released, which splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol
• Some fatty acids dissolve into the blood, while others are used by the liver in making lipoproteins
33

34. Digestive System Reference Page
• Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 17 – Digestive System)
• http://www.colostrumresearch.org/Studys/SO54_The%20Neonate%20and%20Colostrum.htm
• http://www.hyss.sg/escience2/filestorage/2E%20-%20%20Digestion%20-%20Introduction.htm
• http://www.foodallergysolutions.com/lactose-intolerance.html
• http://www.mamashealth.com/stomach.asp
34

35. Reference Page (continued)
• Pictures:
• http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=135514&ref=137320
• http://automatedaccess.org/rada-describe-human-digestive-system-with-diagram/
• http://www.empowher.com/condition/salivary-gland-infection
• http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/essentials/yourLiver/
• http://health.allrefer.com/health/gallbladder-disease-gallbladder-anatomy.html
• http://www.gastroliverspecialist.com/pancreatic_disease.html
• http://www.thisismattjohnson.com/
• http://www.subent.com/expertise/salivaryglanddisease.htm
• http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/cardshowall.php?title=respiratory-system_55
• http://genericlook.com/anatomy/Stomach/
• http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/pancreas.html
• http://whydetox.net/liver-detoxification
• http://www.gallbladderguy.com/gbfacts.html
• http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/small-intestine
35

36. The Circulatory System
36

37. Circulatory System
• The circulatory system has multiple functions:
• Transporting materials
• Transports gases (O2 and Co2)
• Transports nutrients to cells
• Transports waste materials from cells
• Transports hormones
• Contains white blood cells that fight infection
• Maintains body temperature
37

38. Blood Vessel Structure
& Function
• Types of blood vessels:
• Arteries – carry oxygenated blood
away from the heart
• Arterioles – small finely
branched arteries
• Capillaries – smallest, most
numerous blood vessels
• Veins – carry deoxygenated blood
back to the heart
• Venules – small branches of
veins, merge to form veins
38

39. Structure Defines Function
• Arteries
• Function – carry oxygenated blood
away from the heart and maintain
blood pressure
• Structure:
• Strong and elastic, designed for
carrying blood away from the
heart under high pressure
Veins
• Function – carry deoxygenated
blood to heart, not under pressure
• Structure:
• Have thinner walls than arteries
• Have a larger lumen than
arteries (the lumen is the part
of the blood vessel through
which blood travels)
39

40. Structure Defines Function
Capillaries
• Function – allow for exchange of nutrients and oxygen from red blood cells to body cells and
exchange of waste products and carbon dioxide from body cells to red blood cells
• Structure:
• The smallest blood vessels
• Have no smooth muscle fibers, unlike arteries and veins
• Have thin walls that form a semipermeable layer through which substances are
exchanged
• Allow only one red blood cell through at a time to allow for efficient nutrient and gas
exchange
40

41. The Heart
• The heart has four chambers, two atria
and two ventricles
• The atria are the smaller upper
chambers
• The ventricles are the larger lower
chambers
• The right atrium and ventricle are
located on the right side of the body, or
the left side when shown in diagrams.
The left atrium and ventricles are on
the right side in diagrams.
RIGHT
LEFT
41

42. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
1. Deoxygenated blood returns from
the body to the heart in veins
leading into the right atrium
2. Blood passes through the tricuspid
valve into the right ventricle. The
tricuspid valve prevents blood from
flowing back into the right atrium.
42

43. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
• The ventricles contract, forcing blood
out of the right ventricle into the
pulmonary artery. The blood passes
through the pulmonary valve,
preventing the blood from flowing
back into the right ventricle
• Blood in the pulmonary artery goes
to the lungs to receive oxygen. The
pulmonary artery is the only artery
that carries deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary artery
43

44. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
• After receiving oxygen, blood returns
from the lungs to the left atrium via
the pulmonary veins
• The atria contract, forcing blood
from the left atrium to the left
ventricle. Blood passes through the
Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve which
prevents blood from flowing back
into the left atrium.
44

45. Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
• The ventricles contract, forcing blood
out of the left ventricle and into the
aorta, the largest artery of the body.
The aortic valve prevents backflow
of blood into the left ventricle from
the aorta
• Blood travels to the rest of the body,
returning through the veins to the
right atrium (step 1)
Aorta
Overall pathway of the blood through the heart
To left
atrium
45

46. Composition of Blood
Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes),
and platelets
• Plasma – the watery portion of the
blood containing dissolved amino acids,
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins, hormones, electrolytes, and
cellular wastes
• Makes up about 55% of a blood
sample
• The formed elements of the blood
include erythrocytes, leukocytes,
and platelets
46

47. Blood
Blood supplies your body with nutrients. It also helps fight off illness. Blood is
made up of several parts—both liquids and solids. The liquid part of blood is
called plasma. Its job is to transport blood cells and dissolve food. The solid
parts of blood include red and white blood cells and platelets.
47

48. Blood
Red blood cells carry oxygen to all other cells in the body.
They also carry away some waste products.
White blood cells help the various body systems destroy
disease-causing germs.
Platelets are small, disk-shaped structures that help
your blood clot.
48

49. Blood
• Red blood cells are one of four specific types: A, B, AB, or O.
• Your blood type is inherited from your parents and remains the same
throughout your life.
49

50. Blood
• Some blood types are compatible. This means they can be safely mixed if a
person needs blood. Mixing blood types that are not compatible can be
harmful or even fatal.
• People with any blood type can receive type O. As a result, people with type O
blood are called "universal donors." People with type AB blood can receive any
blood type but can only give to others with type AB. They are known as
"universal recipients."
50

51. Blood
• Blood may also carry an Rh factor, or a protein found on the surface of red blood cells.
Blood is either Rh-positive or Rh-negative.
• People with Rh-positive blood can receive blood from donors who are either Rh-
positive or Rh-negative. People with Rh-negative blood can only receive blood from
donors who are also Rh-negative.
• Both the blood type and the Rh factor must be compatible in order for blood to be
received safely.
51

52. The Formed Elements
• Erythrocytes – transport oxygen and carbon dioxide, make up approximately
45% of a blood sample
• Leukocytes – protect against disease, make up less than 1% of a blood sample
• The five types of white blood cells are neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils,
monocytes, and lymphocytes
• Platelets – cell fragments, less than half the size of an erythrocyte. Helps
control blood loss from broken vessels
52

53. Erythrocyte Structure and Function
Function
• Travel through the bloodstream and transport
gases
Structure
• Erythrocytes are biconcave discs, meaning that
they are thin near their centers and thicker
around their rims. This adaptation increases the
surface area through which gases can diffuse.
• Their shape allows them to squeeze through
narrow capillaries
• Don’t have nuclei, which provides more space in
the cell for hemoglobin molecules
53

54. Open & Closed Circulatory Systems
Open Circulatory System
• Blood is pumped from the heart and
enters body cavities, where the tissues
are bathed in the blood
• No network of blood vessels
• Blood flows slowly because there is no
blood pressure.
Closed Circulatory System
• Blood is contained within blood vessels, it is
not free in a cavity
• Valves exist to prevent the backflow of blood
54

55. Circulatory System in Birds and Mammals
• Four-chambered heart which acts as two separate
pumps
• After passing through the body, blood is pumped
under high pressure to the lungs
• After returning from the lungs, blood is pumped
under high pressure to the body
• High rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the body
enables birds and mammals to maintain high activity
levels
55

56. Sickle Cell Disease
• Hemoglobin crystallizes in a low oxygen
environment due to an incorrect amino acid in
the protein portion of hemoglobin
• The red blood cells bend into a sickle shape,
blocking circulation in small vessels
• Symptoms:
• Joint pain
• Frequent infections
• Anemia
• Swelling in hands and feet
• Swelling of abdomen
56

57. Physiology of Circulation (thermoregulation)
• Core body temperature is one of the most regulated parameters of human physiology
• At any given point, body temperature differs from expected values by no more than a few tenths of a
degree
• Daily variations: circadian rhythm, menstrual cycle, during anaesthesia
• A key function of the CS – to exchange heat between the internal body tissues, organs and the skin to
maintain internal temperature within a narrow range
• Heat transfer via the flowing blood (i.e. vascular convective heat transfer) is the most important
heat‐exchange pathway inside the body. This pathway is particularly important when metabolic heat
production increases many‐fold during exercise

58. Fight-or-Flight Response
• The fight-or-flight response which is also known as the acute stress response, is a physiological reaction which takes
place when in the presence of something that is mentally or physically terrifying.
• The term fight-or-flight is the physiological and psychological response to stress prepares the body to react to the
danger.
• In response to acute stress, the body's sympathetic nervous system is activated by the sudden release of hormones.
The sympathetic nervous system then stimulates the adrenal glands, triggering the release of catecholamines
including adrenaline and noradrenaline.
• This chain of reactions results in an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate. After the threat is gone,
it takes about 20 to 60 minutes for the body to return to its original levels.
• This type of stress can help a person to perform better in situations when under pressure to do well, such as at work
or school. And in life-threatening cases the fight-or-flight response plays a critical role in survival. By gearing you up to
fight or flee, the fight-or-flight response makes it more likely for someone to survive danger.
58

59. Circulatory System Reference Page
• Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 14 – Blood, Chapter 15 – Cardiovascular System)
• http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20lectures/circulatory%20sys
tem/circulat.htm
• http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/data.html
• http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/153647-overview
59

60. Reference Page (continued)
• Pictures
• http://en.tcm-china.info/medical/human/75477_4.shtml
• http://biologiabm.wordpress.com/
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology
• http://www.beliefnet.com/healthandhealing/getcontent.aspx?cid=618443
• http://adam.about.net/care/Step-2-The-components-of-blood.htm
• http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/blood/red.html
• http://www.netartsbaytoday.org/html/clams_.html
• http://www.deshow.net/animal/Insect_photography_art_464.html
• http://thefutureofthings.com/news/6276/frozen-organs-live-longer.html
• http://animal-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/09/octopus.html
• http://sharonapbio-taxonomy.wikispaces.com/Animalia-Chordata--Fishes
• http://dtc.pima.edu/~biology/182/lesson11/11step3/11step3page1.htm
• http://zeitzer.com/biologysite/
• http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/articles/p198.htm
• http://www.meghmiller.com/the-adventure-continues-an-unexpected-chapter/
60

61. The Respiratory System
61

62. Respiratory System
• The primary function of the respiratory
system is to supply the blood with
oxygen in order for the blood to deliver
oxygen to all parts of the body
• Eliminates carbon dioxide from the
body in order to maintain the pH of the
blood
62

63. Alveoli
• Alveoli have a structure specialized for
efficient exchange of gases
• Walls are thin and made of
epithelial cells
• Large surface area to volume ratio
• Surrounded by a network of
capillaries. Oxygen diffuses
through the walls of alveoli and
enters into the capillaries.
63

64. Transport of Respiratory Gases
• Air enters the body through the mouth or nose and quickly moves to the pharynx, or throat. From there, it passes through the larynx,
or voice box, and enters the trachea.
• The trachea is a strong tube that contains rings of cartilage that prevent it from collapsing.
• Within the lungs, the trachea branches into a left and right bronchus. These further divide into smaller and smaller branches called
bronchioles.
• The smallest bronchioles end in tiny air sacs. These are called alveoli. They inflate when a person inhales and deflate when a person
exhales.
• During gas exchange oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the
lungs. This happens in the lungs between the alveoli and a network of tiny blood vessels called capillaries, which are located in the
walls of the alveoli.
• This lets oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse, or move freely, between the respiratory system and the bloodstream.
• Oxygen molecules attach to red blood cells, which travel back to the heart. At the same time, the carbon dioxide molecules in the
alveoli are blown out of the body the next time a person exhales.
• Gas exchange allows the body to replenish the oxygen and eliminate the carbon dioxide. Doing both is necessary for survival.
64

65. Oxygen Transport in the Blood
• Oxygen enters the blood stream and is carried by red blood cells
• In RBC’s, oxygen combines with hemoglobin to become oxyhemoglobin
• When the RBC reaches the capillaries of the body cells, the oxyhemoglobin
breaks up and releases its oxygen, becoming deoxyhemoglobin
• Oxygen is transported to cells of the body
65

66. Carbon Dioxide Transport In Blood
• Carbon dioxide, a waste product created by cells, passes through a membrane
and into the bloodstream
• Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as:
• Bicarbonate ions (70%)
• Bicarbonates of sodium and potassium
• Carbaminohemoglobin (15-25%)
• Carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream by diffusion before the
blood leaves the lungs
66

67. Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
• Oxygen enters the body through the
external nares of the nose
• Passes through the:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
67

68. Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
• Oxygen enters the bronchi
• Primary bronchi
• Secondary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi
• Passes through the:
• Intralobular bronchioles
• Terminal bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles
68

69. Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
• Oxygen enters the alveolar ducts
• Passes into the alveolar sacs
• Enters the alveoli
• Once oxygen enters the alveoli, it diffuses
through the alveolar walls and enters the
blood through nearby capillaries
• Oxygen reacts with hemoglobin in a red
blood cell to form oxyhemoglobin
• Carried in the form of oxyhemoglobin to
cells of the body
69

70. Inhalation
• Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air into the lungs
• When the respiratory muscles are at rest, the pressures on the inside of the
lungs and on the outside of the thoracic wall are about the same
• The external intercostals are the skeletal muscle directly involved in breathing
70

71. Boyle’s Law and Breathing
• Boyle’s Law involves the inverse relationships between volume and pressure
• If the pressure inside the lungs and alveoli decreases, outside air will be
pushed into the airways by atmospheric pressure
• This is what happens during normal breathing, also involves the action of
the diaphragm
• The diaphragm contracts and move downward, while the external intercostal
muscles contract, increasing the size of the thoracic cavity
• The pressure inside the lungs falls farther, and atmospheric pressure forces
more air into the body’s airways
71

72. Exhalation
• As the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles relax, the elastic tissues cause the
lungs to recoil and return to their original shapes
• The abdominal organs spring back into their previous shapes, pushing the diaphragm upward
• Surface tension causes the alveoli to shrink
• These actions cause the pressure inside the lungs to increase about 1 mm Hg above
atmospheric pressure
• The air inside the lungs is forced out through the respiratory passages
• Normal resting expiration occurs without the contraction of skeletal muscles, considered
a passive process
72

73. Asthma
• Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the airways
• The airways become swollen and narrowed
• Produce extra mucus, breathing becomes difficult
• Common symptoms:
• Coughing
• Wheezing
• Shortness of breath
• Asthma cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be controlled by:
• Avoiding situations that may trigger an asthma attack
• Using long-term control medications to prevent flare-ups
• Using a quick-relief inhaler to control symptoms once they start
73

74. Asthma Statistics
• An estimated 300 million people
worldwide suffer from asthma
• 250,000 annual deaths caused by
asthma
• Workplace conditions, such as exposure
to fumes, gases, or dust, are
responsible for 11% of asthma cases
worldwide
• About 70% of people with asthma also
have allergies
74

75. Respiratory System Reference Page
• Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook Chapter 19 – Respiratory System
• http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/respiration.html
• http://www.preservearticles.com/201102264268/transport-of-oxygen-and-carbon-dioxide-through-blood-during-
respiration.html
• http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/oxygen.htm
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/asthma/DS00021
• http://www.aaaai.org/about-the-aaaai/newsroom/asthma-statistics.aspx
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumonia/DS00135/DSECTION=symptoms
• https://www.askaamc.org/quality/quality_measures.php?cat=pneu
75

76. Reference Page (continued)
• Pictures:
• http://www.healthcentral.com/asthma/h/respiratory-system-of-asthma-diagram.html
• http://oac.med.jhmi.edu/res_phys/Encyclopedia/Alveoli/Alveoli.HTML
• http://home.comcast.net/~pegglestoncbsd/respiratory.htm
• http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_respiratory_system
• http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sac
• http://www.mediafreedominternational.org/2012/02/20/why-are-asthma-drugs-killing-more-people-than-
asthma/
76

77. The Excretory System
77

78. Excretory System
• The excretory system functions in
removing nitrogenous substances and
other wastes from the blood in the
form of urine
• Regulates certain metabolic processes
• Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra
78

79. The Nephron
• The nephron is the functional unit of
the kidneys
• Consists of a renal corpuscle and a
renal tubule
• Main function is to control the
composition of body fluids and remove
wastes from the blood
79

80. The Nephron
• Parts of a nephron
• Glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• Proximal convoluted tubules
• Loop of Henlé
• Distal convoluted tubules
• Collecting duct
80

81. Glomerulus and Bowman’s Capsule
• Site where filtration takes place
• Blood from the renal artery is forced into the glomerulus under high pressure
• Most of the liquid is forced out into the surrounding Bowman’s capsule
• This process won’t work properly in people with extremely low blood
pressure
81

82. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
• The site where glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate and put back into the
bloodstream
• If glucose was not absorbed, it would end up in the urine
• Happens in people suffering from diabetes
82

83. Loop of Henlé
• The Loop of Henlé is the part of the nephron where water is reabsorbed
• The kidney cells in this region spend all of their time pumping sodium ions
• This causes the region of the kidney called the medulla to be very salty
83

84. Distal Convoluted Tubule
• The site of the nephron where most of the salts in the filtrate are reabsorbed
Collecting Duct
• Collecting ducts run through the medulla and are surrounded by loops of Henlé.
• In the collecting duct, filtrate is turned into urine as water and salts are removed from
it
• Called a collecting duct because it collects the liquid produced by many nephrons.
84

85. Glomerular Filtration
• Urine formation begins with glomerular filtration
• The filtration of materials from blood plasma
• Filters water and other small dissolved molecules and ions out of the
glomerular capillaries and into the glomerular capsules
• Large molecules, like proteins, are restricted because of their size
• The glomerular capsule receives the resulting glomerular filtrate
• Contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, and sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate,
phosphate, and sulfate ions
85

86. Tubular Reabsorption
• Tubular reabsorption is the process by which filtrate is moved from the renal
tubules back into the blood in response to the body’s needs
• Can occur by passive or active transport
• Usually all of the glucose in the filtrate is reabsorbed because there are
enough carrier molecules to transport it
• As a result, normally no glucose found in urine
• Normally only a trace of amino acids in the urine because most amino
acids are actively transported out of the glomerular filtrate
• About 70% of the filtered sodium, other ions, and water are reabsorbed
86

87. Tubular Secretion and Excretion
• During tubular secretion, certain
substances move from the plasma of the
peritubular capillary into the fluid of the
renal tubule
• Reverse process of tubular
reabsorption
• Helps control blood pH
• Substances may include penicillin,
histamine, phenobarbital, hydrogen
ions, ammonia, and potassium ions
• Hydrogen ions are actively secreted
throughout the renal tubule, causing urine
to (usually) be acidic by the time it is
excreted
• Excretion
• The process by which urine exits the body
• After substances have been secreted and
entered the kidney tubules, they are
eliminated from the body through the
urethra
87

88. Osmoregulation of pH
• Homeostasis therefore requires osmoregulation – the general term for the process by which humans control
solute concentrations and balance water gain and loss
• Osmoregulators must expand energy to maintain the osmotic gradients that cause water to move in or out
• They do so by using active transport to manipulate solute concentrations in their body fluids
• The energy cost of osmoregulation depends on how different an animal’s osmolarity is from its surrounding
environment, how easily water and solutes can move across the animal’s surface, and how much work is
required to pump solutes across the membrane
• Minimizing the osmotic difference between body fluids and the surrounding environment decreases the
energy cost of osmoregulation
• Excretion and osmoregulation are linked systems
88

89. Urinary Tract Infection
• A urinary tract infection (UTI) is an
infection that begins in the urinary
system
• Most UTI’s involve the lower urinary
tract, the bladder and the urethra
• Can become serious if it spreads to the
kidneys
• Symptoms:
• Strong, persistent urge to urinate
• A burning sensation when
urinating
• Urine that appears cloudy
• Pelvic pain, in women
• Rectal pain, in men
89

90. Urinary Tract Infection
• Statistics:
• Women are at greater risk of developing a
urinary tract infection than are men
• 1 in 5 women will get a UTI during their
lifetime
• Treatment:
• Antibiotics are the typical treatment for a
urinary tract infections
• People can take steps to reduce the
chance of getting a urinary tract infection
90

91. Excretory System Reference Page
• Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 20 – Urinary System)
• http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/nitrogenouswaste.html
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gout/DS00090
• http://www.whathealth.com/gout/incidence.html
• http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/urinary-tract-infection/DS00286/DSECTION=symptoms
• http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/u/urinary_tract_infections/stats.htm
• http://www.purchon.com/biology/kidney.htm#bowmans
91

92. Reference Page (continued)
• Pictures:
• http://home.roadrunner.com/~lubehawk/BioHELP!/hexcrsys.htm
• http://www.ehow.com/how_6613609_paint-zebra-decorated-room.html
• http://kieran4332.webs.com/coyotepack.htm
• http://true-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/02/desert-tortoise.html
• http://www.wellingtonpapers.com/2009/08/10-things-alex-kliment/
• http://www.edu.pe.ca/threeoaks/teacherpages/higginbotham/Biology%20521%20Webpage/resources/chapter
12images/chapter12images.htm
• http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/nephron-function-kidney-definition.html
92

93. How body Systems are Connected
• Each individual body system works together. With the circulatory system the heart pumps blood through a
complex network of blood vessels. When the blood circulates through the digestive system it will picks up
nutrients the body will then absorbed from its last meal. The blood is also what carries oxygen inhaled by the
lungs. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to the other cells of the body then picks up any
waste products created by these cells, including carbon dioxide, and it will then delivers these waste products
to the kidneys and lungs for disposal. Meanwhile, the circulatory system carries hormones from the endocrine
system, and the immune system’s white blood cells that fight off infection.
• Each of the body's systems relies on the others to work well. The respiratory system relies on the circulatory
system to deliver the oxygen which it gathers, while the muscles of the heart cannot function without the
oxygen they receive from the lungs. The bones of the skull and spine will protect the brain and spinal cord, but
the brain will regulate the position of the bones by controlling the muscles. The circulatory system provides the
brain with a constant supply of oxygen-rich blood while the brain regulates your heart rate and blood pressure.
93

94. How body Systems are Connected
• Even seemingly unrelated body systems are connected. Your skeletal system relies on the urinary system
to remove waste produced by bone cells; in return, the bones of the skeleton create structure which
protects the bladder and other urinary system organs. The circulatory system delivers oxygen-rich blood
to the bones. Meanwhile, the bones are busy making new blood cells.
• Working together, these systems maintain internal stability and balance which is known as homeostasis.
A disease in one body system can then disrupt homeostasis and cause trouble in other body systems. If a
person becomes ill with the AIDS virus which affects the immune system, then they can develop
pneumonia in their respiratory system, a yeast infection in the reproductive system.
94