The document discusses different ways that languages come into contact and influence each other. It describes contact situations like travel, education, migration, business, and technology that can bring languages together. When languages are in prolonged contact, various phenomena can occur, such as borrowing and code-switching. Borrowing involves integrating linguistic elements permanently from one language into another. This can happen at the lexical, phonological, morphological and syntactic levels. Pidgins develop as a means of communication between language groups, becoming stabilized and expanded over time. Creoles emerge when pidgins become the native language of children. The document also discusses world Englishes as new varieties of English that have developed globally through language contact.

1. LANGUAGES IN CONTACT
8.2 Contact Situations 138
8.3 Borrowing 139
8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing 140
8.3.2 Structural Borrowing 141
8.4 Pidgins 142
8.5 Creoles 143
8.6 World Englishes 145
Ilkhani

2. • Language contact occurs when speakers of
two or more varieties meet, interact, and
influence one another.
What are ways that languages come into
contact, and what happens when they do?
Much in the way that two colors of paint mix,
swirl, and blend, creating something new,
languages react and change when they come
into prolonged contact with one another.

3. 8.2 Contact Situations
• How languages come into contact in the first place In what situations do two or more
languages end up in the same place at the same time?
• Travel: is one way we are exposed to new languages—many people use apps or books to learn
the target language before traveling to a new country. geographic proximity is another way two
languages might come into contact.
• Education: language contact often occurs in education, in the form of taking a second or
foreign language as a subject, or being taught other content in a language different than the
one you speak at home.
• Migration: many of the languages in the Americas were brought over from other places in the
world.
• Business and trade: When two different communities need resources that can be supplied by
the other community, the two groups have to come into contact to conduct business.

4. 8.2 Contact Situations
• Technology: When travel, exploration, and migration became facilitated by ships, trains,
automobiles, and later air travel, distant societies that had never had the opportunity to come
into contact did so more easily and more frequently. With the rise of the internet, Language
teachers can easily find videos of the target language and share it with the class, an option that
became available only relatively recently. With the advent of information technology, the
languages and cultures of people living in faraway places come right into our classrooms and
handheld devices.
• Unfortunately, a great deal of language contact is the result of violent, unjust, harrowing
experiences such as war, conquest, occupation, and slavery. The history of human civilization is
riddled with examples in which one group of people decides to dominate. In these cases of
language contact, there is often a clear language of power, held by those in the dominant
position, and a language of the oppressed, held by the subjugated peoples.

5. 8.3 Borrowing vs. code-switching
• Borrowing: What happens when languages come into contact with one another? Common
phenomenon that occurs is borrowing, in which an element of one language is permanently
added to the linguistic repertoire of another language. This can be at the lexical, phonetic,
phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, or pragmatic levels.
• .Borrowing is different from code-switching in that borrowing results in a linguistic element that
permanently embeds itself into the borrowing language, taking on the features of the
borrowing language. Monolingual speakers still use borrowed features without having any
competence in the source language, e.g., most English speakers use plenty of French-origin
words without actually speaking French. In contrast, code-switching is the alternating use of two
or more languages within a conversation. It is done by bilinguals when they are in the company
of other bilinguals. You have to be bilingual in order to code-switch.

6. Borrowing vs. code-switching
• Borrowing, on the other hand, means using one primary language, but mixing in words or ideas
from another. In borrowing, we speak one language, and alters vocabulary from another to fit
the primary language
• Borrowing does not mean that the borrowed word, sound, or grammar rule is preserved
perfectly in its original form Much like the way a liquid poured from one container into another
will take the form of that new container.

7. 8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing
• the most easily identified borrowing is lexical borrowing, in which words and phrases are
borrowed from one language to another.
• Words pertaining to foods are a common example, where it is simply easiest to just use the
native word for the food item; kimchi, tortilla, sushi, biscotti, hummus, bratwurst, naan, and
borscht.
• Terms referring to technology are often borrowed from English into other languages. Words like
email, wifi, and to print are borrowed into Spanish as el email, el wifi, and printear.
• Words and phrases in English that pertain to academia and theater are often Greek in origin:
grammar, physics, chorus, monologue, protagonist.
• Many of the words we use regularly in English also originate from Native American languages,
like chocolate(Nahuatl: chocolatl), chipmunk (Ojibwa: chitmunk), squash (Narragansett:
askútasquash), barbecue (Taíno: barbacòa), moose (Eastern Abenaki: moz), kayak (Inuktitut:
qajaq).

8. 8.3.1 Lexical Borrowing
• phonotactic rules: some Spanish-speakers have a hard time understanding the
English-speaker’s pronunciation of words borrowed from Spanish because the
pronunciation is very different. This does not have anything to do with malintent; the
borrowed word just has to change to fit the phonotactic rules of the borrowing
language. e.g. (Taco)
• English words that are borrowed into other languages have to go through the same
process as well. e.g. The words printear (“to print”) and parquear (“to park”) have been
borrowed from English by Spanish-speakers in the U.S.
• Another example comes from the various ways that other languages have adopted the
greeting Merry Christmas. In Japanese, a language that does not allow many
consonant clusters or syllable-final consonants, the phrase becomes Meri Kuri-
sumasu. Similarly, in Maori it becomes Meri Kirihimete. In Hawaiian, which also has
strict rules about consonant clusters and additionally does not employ the /r/ sound
at all, the phrase becomes Mele Kalikimaka, made popular in a cheery song.

9. 8.3.2 Structural Borrowing
• Sometimes, when a language borrows enough words from another language, entire structures
that did not originally exist in the borrowing language end up becoming a permanent feature.
This is called structural borrowing.
• At the phonetics and phonology levels, sounds or sound patterns that did not exist before can
be added to the phonetic inventory or system of phonological rules. For instance, the /ʒ/ sound
that you find in words like measure, treasury, siege, beige, and mirage did not exist in the
English phonetic inventory until its contact with French.
When words are borrowed from one language to another, the morphological process that goes
along with the source language can be borrowed as well. For instance, some pluralization rules in
English originate from languages like Latin and Greek. Instead of regular pluralization where /s/,
/z/, and /ɪz/ are added, some words take on irregular endings when a singular noun becomes
plural.
• Some examples from Latin include focus-foci, nucleus-nuclei, alumnus-alumni, fungus-fungi.

10. 8.3.2 Structural Borrowing
• Other pluralization processes come from Greek (criterion-criteria, phenomenon-phenomena) or
Old English (child-children, ox-oxen). Because these irregular morphemes deviate from the
regular /s/, /z/, /ɪz/ ending of regular plurals, language learners tend to have difficulty with
them. You might hear a learner say childs for the plural of child, for instance. This is not a bad
thing; it actually indicates that the learner is picking up on the most frequently used rule for
pluralization.
• In some cases, entire syntactic processes can change as a result of borrowing. This process takes
longer than lexical borrowing, but once it occurs it is the most drastic modifier of a language.
For instance, in Romansch, a language spoken in Switzerland, noun phrases were historically
structured as noun + adjective, as in shirt blue or shoe small. However, with extensive contact
with German, over time the entire shape of the noun phrase in Romansch shifted to adjective +
noun, as in blue shirt and small shoe. Changing the shape of the noun phrase structure rule can
make quite a striking difference in the language.

11. 8.4 Pidgins
A pidgin is a speech form that is primarily used as a means of communication among people who
do not share a common language. Pidgins are different from languages in that there are no native
speakers. It is used only between people who need to communicate past a language barrier, and
the speakers of either language would not use it amongst themselves. In the event that there is an
unequal balance of power between the groups that come into contact, the language spoken by
the people in power is called the superstrate language, and the language spoken by the less
powerful people is called the substrate language. In the pidgin that develops as a result of contact
with power imbalances, the superstrate language is typically the one that provides a large
percentage of the vocabulary. This is called a lexifier, or the language that contributes the most
vocabulary. The substrate language typically influences the phonetics and phonology of the
pidgin. Thus, a pidgin might be more intelligible to the speakers of the superstrate language, but
sound more like the substrate language.

12. 8.4 Pidgins
• English is the lexifier language, that is, the main source of words in the pidgin.
Thus, there are two sources of linguistic features:
• Superstrate: the socially dominant language Most vocabulary from superstrate language (lexifier
language)
• Substrate socially subordinate language(s) Most grammatical structure from the substrate
language(s)
• substratum or substrate is a language that has lower power or prestige than another, while a
superstratum or superstrate is the language that has higher power or prestige. Both substratum
and superstratum languages influence each other, but in different ways.

13. 8.4 Pidgins
1. Gargon stage :Let us return to the trade scenario. At first, linguistic communication between
the two communities might occur by creating a few words that pertain only to their business
of trade. This is the jargon stage of pidgin formation, where there is a small collection of words
that are limited to one specific purpose. there is no established set of vocabulary.
2. stabilized pidgin: As the business relationship grows, more communication is needed in
order to express more complex meanings. This results in a more established and consistent set
of words, phrases, and syntax for communication. This stage of pidgin formation is called the
stabilized pidgin stage. Stabilized pidgins are more consistent from day to day and from
person to person
3. expanded pidgin: Some stabilized pidgins develop even further in terms of utility; rather than
just being reserved for one purpose—such as trade—some pidgins catch on and become used
in other realms of life, like education, religion, food, music, or personal relationships. This stage
is called the expanded pidgin stage, where the pidgin expands its usage across different
domains of life. At this point, there might be a great number of people who speak it.

14. 8.5 Creoles
• Creoles: The question you may be asking at this point is, when does that pidgin become a
language? The answer: it is when babies learn it as their first language. By the time a pidgin
becomes a creole, it has developed enough of its own phonetics, phonology, morphology,
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. The brain registers that it is a complex and developed
language instead of a rudimentary communication tool and begins to acquire it. This new
language is what we call a creole.
• creolization.: A creole is simply a newly formed language that has arisen out of a contact
variety, usually from what used to be a pidgin. This process is called creolization. Now, however,
the language has native speakers for the first time in its history.
• Creoles are unique in that there is often a discernable point in history when contact between
two languages took place. The contact almost always means there is one socially powerful
group that subjugates a less powerful group, as in conquest, slavery, or war.

15. Features of pidgin and creole
Pidgins Creoles
It has limited vocabulary. It has a fully developed vocabulary.
It has no rules or clear system of grammar. It has a completed system of grammar.
The words and rules are simplified. The words and rules are expanded.
Language used as means of communication
between different groups.(no native speaker)
Language is acquired by children as a native
language.
It considered as business language for business
purposes
Despite the fact that speakers may feel they
speak less than normal Languages, creole is
considered as standard language.

16. 8.6 World Englishes
• According to Kachru (1985), World Englishes are international varieties of English spoken in
three circles: the inner circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. As can beseen in Figure
8.1, the inner circle consists of countries like the U.S., Canada, U.K., Australia, and New Zealand,
where Eng-lish is typically learned as a first language. The outer circle, which includes places like
India, Malaysia, Kenya, Singapore, and the Philippines, describes countries where English is most
everybody’s second language (L2) or second first language (L1), and it is used as the lingua
franca, or common language spoken between different language communities. The expanding
circle is even bigger, encompassing countries where English is used for specific purposes. These
countries include China, Korea, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, and Taiwan.
• World Englishes make up a large category of creoles, in which English and another language
come into contact to form a new and different language. They are fully fledged languages in
their own right, and they are not “deviations from the norm”. Due to the global nature of World
Englishes, each variety takes linguistic features from the local or indigenous languages in the
surrounding areas. One such example is Singlish. Singlish is a World English spoken in
Singapore.

17. 8.6 World Englishes

18. 8.6 World Englishes
• There is a difference between L2 English and World English. L2 English speakers are in the
process of learning English as a second language and are nonnative speakers of the language.
They do not have native-like competence (yet). However, World English speakers are quite
different: they grow up speaking English in their home country, so they are very comfortable
speaking it and would even consider it their L1.
• World Englishes differ in terms of sounds, words, grammar, etc. While World English speakers do
not need the kind of ESL curriculum that an L2 English speaker needs, if the World English is
significantly different, there may be a need for guidance to transition from one language to
another.