in this pamphlet you can find out about the bones of the head

1. Osteology of Head
and Neck
Dr. Mohammad Akbari
Associate professor in Anatomy Department – Tehran University of Medical
Sciences
2017
All Copy Right Reserved for Night Raid Team
Tehran University of Medical Sciences
3/5/2017

2. Preface:
This is a pamphlet prepared by a group of heroes who are studying in Tehran
University of Medical Sciences. This project resembles the power and the quality of
teamwork. It also to impress those lazy students who are lazy and wait the others to
do their responsibilities.
If this work helped in anyway, please try to help yourself and the other students by
taking such initiatives in order to improve the quality of your studies.
Mohamad AlJasem, Project Manager
m-aljasem@outlook.com
http://aljasem.eu.org
This pamphlet would not come to reality without the help of those students:
1-Mahdi Sattar, DDS – Iraq 2- Ahmed Hussien, MD – Iraq
3- Mohammad Saed AlBalaghi, MD –
Iraq
4- Ali Alazzam, DDS – Iraq
5- Mehak Nbi, MD - India 6- Wafadar Shah, MD – Pakistan
7- SharufAldin Zuhiri Balochi, MD –
Pakistan
8- Zahra Durrani, MD – Pakistan
10- Ammarah AbuBaker, MD –
Nigeria
11- Asoma Awudu, DDS – Nigeria
12- Muchtaba AlJanabi, MD – Iraq 13- Hassam Saleem Balochi, MD –
Pakistan

3. 1
THE SKULL
It is the total bones of head and face. The skull
consists of the Cranium and Mandible. The cranium
has an upper box like part which is called Calvaria
containing the brain and a front lower part consisting
of the facial skeleton. The total bones of the skull are
22 in no. calvaria consists of 8 bones( two pair 4
single).
Paired bones consist of Parietal and Temporal. Single
bones consist of Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid and
Occipital. Superior part of calvaria named vault.
Vault consist of vertical part of frontal, paired
parietal, squamous occipital, squamous temporal.
Highest point of calvaria is named as vertex.
Face consist of 14 bones( 2 single and 6 paired) 2
single bones are mandible and vomer.
Six paired bones are
1- Nasal
2- Lacrimal
3- Zygomatic
4- Maxilla
5- Palatine
6- Inferior conchae.
Except the mandible all
the bones of the skull are
firmly united to each other in the adult and create a
suture. Therefore skull contains two types of joints 1-
Fibrous joint or suture and 2- synovial joint(T.M)
movable.
Frontal Bone
It is forming forehead and roof of orbits. Frontal bone
consist of two parts:
1- Vertical part
2- Horizontal part.
Vertical part: forming the forehead and has two
surfaces and a posterior border. Surfaces consist of
A- Anterior surface ,
B- Posterior surface.
Anterior surface has:
1- Two eminence Frontal tuberosity.
2- Two supracilliary arch. They are two smooth
elevation below the frontal tuberosities. They
form the eyebrow ridges in the living subject.
3- Two supra orbital margins. At the junction of the
lateral two third and medial one third of the
supraorbital margins is the supra orbital foramen
(notch). At the external end of this part is the
zygomatic process.
4- Nasal notch set between the supra orbital margin,
it articulates with the nasal bone, frontal process
of maxilla and lacrimal bone, and forms
nasofrontalis suture. Middle point of this suture is
named nasion. Posterior of this notch is nasal
spine.
Posterior surface has:
1- Frontal crest
2- Groove for sagital sinus is upper frontal crest.
Posterior border is fused with the anterior border
of parietal bones and forming coronal suture.
Horizontal part: with ethmoid notch dividing two
parts called orbital palates of frontal bone. Each
orbital palate has two surfaces and one border.
Inferior surface forms roof of each orbit. At the
antero lateral of this surface is fossa for lacrimal
gland. Superior surface makes lateral part of anterior
cranial fossa. Posterior border fused with the anterior
border of lesser wing of sphenoid bone.
Ethmoidal notch of frontal bone: this notch is U
shaped in the midline of frontal bone.
The gap occupied by the cribriform palate of
ethmoidal bone in the inferior ridge of this notch has
cell air.
Frontal sinus: the vertical part of frontal bone at the
posterior supracilliary arch contains the two irregular
shaped cavities. They are separated from each other
by a septum.
The frontal sinuses open through the naso frontal
canal or infundibulum of ethmoid bone into the semi
lunar hiatus of middle meatus. In immature skull a
suture is termed frontal or metopic is present in b the
midline of the frontal bone. In the majority of people
the frontal suture is fused early childhood but in a
few it persist in whole or impart into adult life.

4. 2

5. 7
Ethmoid bone
It is a small bone
This bone contribute to the anterior cranial fossa,
the roof, the lateral and medial wall of nasal cavity
and medial wall of the orbit.
The ethmoid bone consists of three parts
1. Perpendicular part (plate)
2. Cribriform part (plate)
3. Two labyrinths
Perpendicular part
 Is a thin lamina of bone which occupies the
upper part of the bony nasal spetum.
 It has 4 margins:
1. Superior margin: Is attached to the
inferior surface of the cribriform plate.
2. Inferior margin: is attached to the nasal
crest of the nasal cavity’s floor.
3. Anterior margin: articulates with the
frontal and nasal bone.
4. Posterior margin: articulates with the
crest of sphenoid bone.
Cribriform plate
 Lies horizontally and occupies Ethmoidal
notch of frontal bone.
 Cribriform plate has two surfaces:
1. Superior
2. Inferior
Superior surface:
 Provides floor of the central part of the anterior
cranial fossa and it has the following elements:
 Crista Gali: is a triangle plate projects upward
from the midline of the superior surface.
 Foramen cecum: lies in front of the crista Gali
and it is a blind ended canal.
 Grooves for the olfactory bulb: Are on the
sides of crista Gali and has numerous foramina
which transmit olfactory nerves.
1. Inferior surface:
 Lies middle part of the roof for the nasal cavity.
The Ethmoidal Labyrinths:
Consists of vertical thin walls and Ethmoidal air
cells.
Air cells are in the anterior, middle and posterior
groups between two vertical plate.
Each Labyrinth has six surface:
1. Superior surface:
Articulates with the inferior edge of
frontoethmiodal notch.
It is crossed by two grooves completing anterior
and posterior Ethmoidal canal with the Ethmoidal
notch of frontal bone
1. Inferior surface:
Articulates with the maxilla.
2. Anterior surface:
Articulates with the lacrimal and frontal bone.
3. Posterior surface:
Articulates with the shcnoid conchea and forms
sphenoethmoidal recess.
4. Lateral surface(Orbital surface):
Is part of medial orbital wall.
It articulates superiorly with the orbital plate of
frontal bone, inferiorly with the maxilla and orbital
process of palatine bone, anteriorly with the
lacrimal bone and posteriorly with the sphenoid
bone.
At the curved uncinatus process projects
posteroinferiorly from inferior margin of the orbital
plate appearing in the medial wall of the maxillary
sins and it crosses the maxillary hiatus and join
with the inferior nasal conchea.
5. Medial surface:

6. 8
Forms part of the lateral nsasal wall amd has these
elements:
Superior conchea:
It is thin and curve process aove this surface.
The space that is under superior conchea named
superior meatus.
The sphenoid sinus and posterior ethmoidal sinus
open into this meatus.
6. Middle Conchea::
The lower edge of the medial plate project in the
nasal cavity medial to the lateral and forms middle
conchea.
The space that is under the middle conchea named
middle meatus.
Middle ethmdal sinus produces a swelling baliea
ethmoidalis on the medial surface of the labirynth.
These air cells open in the middle meatus.
Infundibulum
Is a curve canal begins from bulla
ethmoidal(middle air cell) extend up and forward to
the anterior ethmoidal cell. In more than 50%.
Cranial it continue up as the frontonasal duct and
communicates with the frontal sinus.
Therefore frontal sinus, anterior and middle
ethmoidal sinus and maxillary sinu opens to the
middle meatus
Sphenoid bone:
is in the base of the skull, this is the key bone of the
middle cranial fossa and also enters into the walls
of the orbital , nasal cavity ,temporal and infra-
temporal fossa. It consist of body, two greater
wings, two lesser wings and two pterygoid process.
Body:
Is cuboid in shape and is hollowed out by the
sphenoid air sinuses, these sinuses separated from
each other by a septum.
The body has six surfaces: superior, inferior,
anterior, posterior, and two lateral surfaces.
Superior surface:
is marked by several important feature in antero-
posterior sequence these are the features:
1. Ethmoidal spine articulates with ethmoidal
cribriform
2. Jugum is a smooth area
3. Sulcus ciasmatis (optic groove )
4. Optic canal leading laterally sulcus
ciasmotis
5. Tuberculum sellea is posterior to optic
groove in the lateral part of the tuberculum
sellae is anterior to clinoid process
6. Sellae turcica (pituitary fossa) contain
hypophysial gland
7. Dorsum sellae is posterior to pituitary fossa
in the lateral part of the dorsum sellae is
posterior cliniod process
Inferior surface:
this surface has amedian triangular sphenoidal
rosturum ,rosturum fitting into a fissure between the
vomeriom alea

7. 9
Anterior surface: contain these elements
1. Sphenoidal crest is median ridge articulates
with posterior edge of the perpendicular
plate of ethmoidal bone and forms a small
part of nasal septum
2. Opening of sphenoidal sinuses are either
side of sphenoidal crest. The area lateral to
each opening articulates with the ethmiodal
labyrinth, the smooth area of the anterior
surface between the opening of the sinus
and sphenoidal crest provide the posterior
part of the roof of the nasal cavity, the sinus
opens into spheno-ethmoidal recess.
Posterior surface: articulates with the basilar
part of occipital bone
Lateral surface: from anterior to posterior are
united with the lesser wing.
Greater wing and medial ptrygoid plate
Lesser wings:
Are triangular in shape it has anterior and posterior
margin superior and inferior surface and a lateral
lip. Anterior margin articulates with orbital plate of
frontal bone
Posterior margin: is forming posterior boundary of
anterior cranial fossa, in the medial end .
Posterior margin is projection of the anterior
clinoid process
Superior surface: forms a small posterior part of
the anterior cranial fossa
Inferior surface: provides the superior boundary of
the superior orbital fissure and small area of
posterior part of orbital roof
Greater wings: has three surfaces and
irregular margin
Superior surface: forms the floor of middle cranial
fossa and pierced anterior to posterior by foramina
rotundom oral and spinosum
Lateral surface: is convex and is divided into
upper (temporal) and lower (infra-temporal) parts
by the infratemporal crest
The infra-temporal surface is pierced by the
foramina oval and spinosum and bears the spine of
the sphenoid
Orbital surface: forming the posterior part of the
lateral orbital wall and has four edges
1. Superior edge: articulates with orbital plate
of frontal bone
2. Inferior edge: forms postero-lateral edge of
the inferior orbital fissure
3. Lateral edge: articulate with frontal process
of zygomatic bone
4. Medial edge forms infero-lateral edge of
superior fissure.
Irregular margin: surround the cerebral
surface, this margin divides into two parts
1. Posterior border: continues from sphenoid body
to tip of greater wing and divides medial and
lateral part by sphenoidal spine
Medial part with tip of petrous forms foramen
lacerum, lateral part articulates with the squamous
of temporal bone.
2. Anterior border: provides inferior border of the
superior orbital fissure.
Pterygoid process : descended perpendicularly and
consist of medial and lateral plates which fused
anteriorly .
Below the body of the sphenoid, the pterygoid
process pierced by the pterygoid canal.
Each plate has TWO borders &TWO surfaces:
Anterior border : fused together in its upper part
and provide the posterior bundles of the
pterygopalatine fossa and pterygomaxillary fissure .
Inferiorly anterior border: diverge leaving fissure
….in this fissure fit pyramidal process of palatine
bone.
Superiorly the medial plate extend medially across
the inferior surface of the body of sphenoid as the
vaginal process .

8. 10
Inferior surface of vaginal process is a groove
which becomes converted to the palatovaginal canal
by the articulation with sphenoid process of
palatine bone
At the upper end of vaginal process …the posterior
border splits to enclose the small scaphoid fossa.
Immediately above and medial to the scaphoid…is
the posterior opening of the pterygoid cana l.
lower end of the posterior border forms a laterally
curving process , the pterygoid Hamulus , between
the articular part ( squamous part ) and tympanic
part, is squamotympanic fissure.
anterolateral edge of tegument tympani turn down
into squamous tympanic fissure .
Petro tympanic fissure is between pterygoid palate
and tympanic part, it leads into the tympanic cavity.
Petro squamous fissure: is between pterygoid palate
and squamous this fissure closed
Medial (cerebral) surface: is marked by a number of
depressions:
1- depression of temporal lobes
2-groove for middle meningeal vessels.
Occipital bone
The occipital bone forming much of the cranium ,
back and base .
its trapezoid in shape and internally concave…..it
encloses basally foramen magnum .
Occipital bone consist of three parts:
1-basilar part
2- squamous part
3- lateral part
1.basilar part: extend anterosuperiorly from the
foramen magnum ,fusing with the sphenoid
it has two surfaces:>superior surface :named clivus
inferior surface: named pharyngeal tubercle .
squamous part: is convex externally and concave
internally ….this part has two surface and four
borders
external surface: is convex and consist these
elements ..:
1-external occipital protuberance is at the center of
this surface.
2-highest and superior nuchal lines ..on each side of
external occipital protuberance there are two curved
lined extend from laterally this protuberance .
3- inferior nuchal line :is in each side of external
occipital crest
4- external occipital crest :from external occipital
protuberance descends to the foramen magnum
Internal surface of squamous:
consist of these element:
1- internal occipital protuberance : is at the center
of this surface .
2-sulcus for sagittal sinus :ascend from internal
protuberance to the superior angle
3- sulcus for transver sinus are in each side of
external occipital protuberance ..extend laterally
from the protuberance to lateral angle .
4- internal occipital crest :from internal occipital
protuberance descend to foramen magnum
5- two superior occipital fossa are above transvers
sinus sulcus
6- two inferior occipital fossa are below transvers
sinus sulcus .

9. 11
Borders of squamous: are two superior and two
inferior .
two superior borders articulate with posterior
border of parietal bone and from lambdoid suture .
Two inferior borders articulate with posterior
border of mastoid and from occipital mastoid suture
.
Lateral part of occipital: are each side of foramen
magnum ,and has two surfaces (superior & inferior
)
inferior has these elements
1- occipital condyle : They are oval and articulate
with superior surface of the atlas
2. Hypoglossal canal: It is above each condyle and
transmits the hypoglossal nerve
3. Condylar Fossa: This fossa is located behind
each condyle. In its floor is found the condylar
canal.
4. Jugular Process: Jutting laterally from the
posterior half of each condyle. It is a quadrilateral
plate. The jugular process with the jugular fossa of
the temporal bone form the jugular foramen.
Jugular foramen transmits vagus nerve and jugular
vein.
SUPERIOR SURFACE OF LATERAL PART:
On the superior hypoglossal canal is oval jugular
tubercle
PARIETAL BONES
The parietal
bones form the roof of the cranium and its sides.
They are irregularly shaped and quadrilateral as
well. Each parietal bone has 2 surfaces, 4 borders
and 4 angles.EXTERNAL SURFACE:
This surface is convex and smooth, and its marked
by these elements
1. Parietal Tuber: Its located at the centre of this
surface.
2. Curved Superior and Inferior Temporal lines:
These are located below the parietal tubers.
3. Parietal Foramen: Its located posteriorly, and
close to the superior border of the parietal bones. It
transmits a vein.
INTERNAL SURFACE:
This surface is concave and it is marked by the
following elements:
1. Grooves for middle meningeal vessels
2. Grooves for superior sagittal sinus which is
located along the superior border and completed the
opposite parietal bone.
SUPERIOR BORDER:
It is the longest border of the parietal bone, it is
dentate, and also the thickest part of the bone.
INFERIOR BORDER:
From front to posterior, this border articulates with
greater wing of the sphenoid, squamous of
temporal and mastoid of temporal.
ANTERIOR BORDER:
It articulates with the frontal bone to form the
coronal suture
POSTERIOR BORDER:
It articulates with the superior border of
squamous part of occipital and forms half the
lambdoid suture.
NASAL BONES

10. 12
These are small, oblong, and variable in size. They
are placed side by side between the frontal
processes of the maxilla. They jointly form the
nasal bridge.
Each has 2 surfaces and 4 borders.
SUPERIOR BORDER: Articulates with nasal
notch of frontal bone.
INFERIOR BORDER: Attaches with lateral nasal
cartilage
LATERAL BORDER: Articulates with frontal
process of maxilla
MEDIAL BORDER: Articulate with each other
and project behind as a vertical crest and form a
small part of the nasal septum articulating with
nasal spine of frontal bone, perpendicular plate of
ethmoid and nasal septal cartilage.
LACRIMAL BONES
These are the smallest and the most fragile of the
cranial bones. They lie anteriorly in the medial
orbital walls. Each has 2 surfaces and 4 borders.
LATERAL SURFACE: It forms anterior of the
medial part of the orbital cavity. It is maked by
these elements
1. Posterior lacrimal crest
2. A groove in front of the crest which completes
the fossa for lacrimal sac.
MEDIAL SURFACE:
(Nasal Surface): It forms the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity. This medial wall is prolonged by a
descending process helping to form the
nasolacrimal canal.
ANTERIOR BORDER: Articulates with frontal
process of maxilla
POSTERIOR BORDER: Articulates with orbital
plate of ethmoid bone
SUPERIOR BORDER: Articulates with frontal
bone
INFERIOR BORDER: Articulates with orbital
surface of maxilla
Palatine bones
The palatine bones are posteriorly placed in the
nasal cavity, between the maxilla and pterygoid
process of sphenoid bone
Each palatine bone has 2 plates and 3 processes:
Horizontal plate & perpendicular (or vertical) plate
Pyramidal process, orbital process, sphenoidal
process
Orbital and sphenoidal process separated by the
deep sphenopalatine notch
Horizontal plate: is quadrilateral, which with two
surfaces and four borders:
The nasal surface: forms the posterior nasal floor
The palatine surface: forms with its fellow a
posterior quarter of bony plate, at this surface we
can see these elements:
1- Palatine crest: near its posterior border.
2- Greater palatine foramen: near its posterolateral
angle.
Anterior border: articulates with palatine process
of maxilla.
Posterior border: is thin and concave.
The perpendicular plate:
Thin and oblong has two surfaces and four borders
Nasal surface: we see these elements at this
surface: 1- Conchae crest: articulates with inferior
conchae

11. 13
2-Ethmoidal crest: is above conchae crest
Maxillary surface: articulates with maxillary and
has an oblique descending greater palatine groove
converted into a canal by maxilla it transmits the
greater palatine vessels and nerve.
Anterior border: level with the conchae crest a
pointed lamina project below and behind the
maxillary process of the inferior conchae,
articulating with it
Posterior border: articulates with medial pterygoid
lamina
Superior border: project both the orbital and
sphenoidal process separated by the sphenopalatine
notch
Orbital process: is in the front of perpendicular
plate enclose an air sinus and form posterior part of
orbital floor
Sphenoidal process: is in the posterior of
perpendicular plate and articulates with sphenoidal
conchae and above it
Sphenopalatine made in foramen by the sphenoid
body
Temporal bone
The temporal bones are in the side and base of the
skull. This is a composite bone which consisting of
four fused elements:
5- Squamous part
6- petro mastoid part (periotic)
7- tympanic
8- styloid process
1- Groove vertically for middle temporal artery is
above external acoustic meatus
Squamous part:
Anterior superior in the bone is thin;
The squamous has two surfaces (lateral &
medial)
And two margin (Superior & Antero-inferior).
Lateral (temporal) surface: consist
these elements:
1- Groove vertically for middle temporal artery is
above external acoustic meatus
2- Supra masoid crest is above mastoid
3- Suprameatal triangle is a depression marking the
mastoid antrum at the posterior superior of the
external acoustic meatus
4- Suprameatal spine is anterior suprameatal
triangle
5- The zygomatic process: projecting
forward from the lower region, which articulates
with temporal process of zygomatic bone and form
zygomatic arch.

12. 14
Posterior part of zygomatic process is triangle &
has 2 surfaces (superior & inferior) and two margin
(anterior & posterior)
Superior surface & inferior surface are concave
6- Articular tubercle: anterior margin (root)
of posterior part of zygomatic process forming a
short semi cylindrical articular tubercle is the
anterior limit of mandibular fossa.
The posterior root is prolonged backward above the
external acoustic meatus at the junction of roots is
tubercle of zygomatic root.
7- Mandibular fossa: limited in front by the
articular tubercle. Has an anterior articular area
formed by temporal squama. And posterior non-
articular area formed by the tympanic part.
Articular surface articulated with the
temporomandibular disc. Laterally to the posterior
edge of articular surface is a small conical posterior
glenoid tubercle. Posterior glenoid tubercle
separates the articular surface from tympanic
surface. It is prominent in some mammals,
descending behind the mandibular condyle prevent
backward displacement.
Superior border: articulates with inferior
border of parietal bone.
Antero inferior border articulates with
greater wing of sphenoid bone
Petromastoid part: morphologically one
element is described in mastoid and petrous part.
Mastoid part:
This is the most posterior part of the temporal bone
has two surfaces (external and internal )
And two margin (superior & inferior) :
External surface of mastoid: this surface
project down as the conical mastoid process.
On this surface near its posterior border is the
mastoid foramen.
Internal surface of mastoid: is deep and
contains this elements:
1- curved sigmoid sulcus
2-mastoid foramen is posterior sigmoid sulcus
Mastoid process: is a conical projection from
external surface of mastoid
it has two surfaces (medial & lateral), from lateral
to medial there are these elements:
1- mastoid notch for attachement of the posterior
belly of digastric muscle
2- shallow groove (occipital groove) for occipital
artery
Petrous part:
Houses the middle and internal ear cavities it lies
entirely within the cranial base wedged (‫(محصور‬
between the sphenoid and occipital bone. Its apex
directed anteromedialy.
Petrous part: has
three surfaces Anterior,Posterior, Inferior
three borders

13. 15
Superior, Anterior , Posterior
Anterior surface: see these elements
1-trigeminal impression is posetro lateral to the
apex and lodges the trigeminal ganglion 2- tegment
tympani is posteroLateral to the to the trigeminal
impression. It is a plate of bone to form roof of
middle ear
3- roof of the internal acoustic meatus is at the
posterior trigeminal impression
Posterior surface: contains these elements:
A- internal acoustic meatus is approximately in the
center of the posterior surface from this meatus
passes (facial & vestibulocochlear) nerve.
B- a small slit for vestibular is behind of internal
acustic meatus
C- subacurate fossa: is above small slit
Inferior surface: contain these elements:
1- Aperture of carotid canal:
Carotid canal begins this aperture and ascend
anteromedialy to reach the posterior wall of
foramen Lacerum (appex)
Emerging from this canal internal carotid artery
turn up in the middle cranial fossa.
2-jugular fossa is behind of aperture of carotid
canal . jugular fossa houses the superior bulb of
internal jugular vein.
Anterior border: articulates with squamous
part and greater wing of the sphenoid bone.
Posterior border: articulates with occipital
bone
The apex: forms the posterolateral boundary of
the foramen lacerum.the anteromedialy boundary
formed with posterior margin of greater wing of
sphenoid.
The apex is pierced by inner opening of carotid
canal.
Tympanic plate or (part): ""there is pic
page 1 see it for remind you""
this is a curved plate which is fused with the
petrous,mastoid and squamous part to complete the
external acoustic meatus it partly end sheaths the
base of the styloid process.
it has two surfaces (posterior, anterior):
Posterior surface: is concave forms anterior
wall, floor and partly posterior wall of the external
acoustic meatus medial on this surface is a narrow
tympanic sulcus for attachment of the tympanic
membrane.
Anterior surface: concave is the posterior
wall of mandibular fossa
inferior border of acoustic part:
Sharp, splitting laterally to form its root, a sheath of
styloid process (vaginal process)
Between the styloid processes & mastoid
processes is the stylomastoid foramen.
Styloid process: slender pointed about 2.5 cm in
length projects down and forward from tympanic
part of temporal bone
Maxilla bone

14. 16
Largest bone of the facial bones excepting the
mandible, jointly form the whole upper jaw, or
is the upper jawbone formed from the fusion of two
maxillary bones
Each Maxilla has a body and 4 process:
3- Zygomatic process
4- Frontal process
5- Alveolar process
6- Palatine process
Maxillary body: is large and roughly, its interior
is hollowed out by maxillary para nasal air sinus
The body has 4 surfaces:
The upper (orbital) surface:
4. Superior surface is smooth, triangular and
slightly concave, and forms the most or
greater part of the floor of orbit (orbital
floor).
5. Medial border from the front to behind
(From front to back) joints with Lacrimal
bone, orbital plate of ethmoidal bone and
orbital process of palatine
6. Posterior border forms anterior edge of infra-
orbital fissure. Anterior border is part of
orbital margin. Infra orbital groove (canal)
begins from posterior border passes
7. forward into infra orbital foramen.
8. Anterior surface: contain these elements:
A-elevation overlying the roots of teeth are
inferior anterior surface
o Incisive fossa: is above incisor teeth
o Canine eminence: is laterally to incisive
fossa
o Canine fossa: is above and laterally canine
eminence
Posterior surface: is convex and forms the
anterior wall of infratemporal fossa. This
surface has these elements:
5. Two or three Alveolar canal near to the
center containing posterior and superior
alveolar vessels and nerves.
The alveolar canals are apertures in the center of
the infratemporal surface of the maxilla. The
alveolar canals transmit theposterior superior
alveolar vessels and nerves
2-maxillary tuberosity: rough super medially
Internal (nasal) surface: Forms
lateral wall of nasal cavity and consist these
elements:
1-maxillary hiatus: leading into the sinus
6. Greater palatine groove it is converted
into a greater palatine canal by the palatine,
perpendicular plate.
2-nasolacrimal groove: anterior to the hiatus a
deep groove, Continuous above with the
lacrimal groove makes about two-thirds of
circum frence of the nasal lacrimal canal, the
rest being the lacrimal descending part, and the
lacrimal process of the inferior nasal conchae,
this canal leads the naso lacrimal duct to the
inferior meatus.
3-inferior conchae crest anterior to the naso
lacrimal canal for inferior conchae.

15. 17
Maxillary sinus: a large pyramidal
cavity has thin walls it has four surfaces and
apex
 Superior surface: formed by orbital surface
of maxilla
 Inferior surface (floor) formed by Alveolar
process of maxilla its lowest part about
7.25 cm below the nasal floor. Sometimes
molar roots perforate it.
 Anterior surface: formed by anterior
surface of maxilla.
 Posterior surface: formed by posterior
surface of maxilla
Apex extend into the zygomatic process of
maxilla
Base is medial and it is the lateral wall of
nasal cavity. At the base displaying maxillary
hiatus. This hiatus is reduced by the ethmoidal
uncinatus process and descending part of
lacrimal bone above.
Inferior conchae below perpendicular plate of
palatine behind.
Zygomatic process: project laterally from the
body at joint with zygomatic bone.
Frontal process: project superiorly between
nasal and lacrimal bones and joints apically
with the nasal notch of frontal bone.
It has two surface and two borders:
Lateral surface: is part of medial wall of
orbit. This surface has a vertical anterior
lacrimal crest. Behind the crest has a groove
combines with one on the lacrimal bone to
complete the lacrimal fossa.
Medial surface: is part of lateral nasal wall.
Anterior border: articulate with nasal bone.
Posterior border: articulate with lacrimal
bone.
Alveolar process: is thick, arched wide
behind, and socketed for dental roots. That for
the canine tooth is deepest, those for molars
widest.
The palatine process: thick strong and
horizontal projects from the lowest part of the
medial surface. It forms a large part of the roof
of mouth and the floor of nasal cavity.
Inferior surface: is concave, uneven and the
two palatine process form anterior three fourths
of osseous palate (bony palate).
Between the maxilla, infundibular incisive
fossa appears behind incisor teeth in the
incisive fossa are orifices of two lateral
incisive canals. Each ascend into its half of the
nasal cavity

16. 18
Superior surface: is concave from side to
side and forms greater part (most) of nasal
floor
Lateral border: is continuous with the
maxillary body and alveolar process
Medial border: is thicker in front than behind, it
is raised superiorly into the nasal crest. Groove
between the nasal crests of two maxillae receive
lower border of vomer; anterior part of the ridge is
high and is known as incisor crest, prolonged
forward in to a sharp process which forms anterior
spine nasal Posterior border: articulates with
anterior border of horizontal part of palatine bone.
Zygomatic bone
Each zygomatic bone forms the prominence of a
cheek, contributes to Lateral orbital wall and floor,
parts of the walls of temporal and infra temporal
fossa and completes the zygomatic arch.
It has three part:
1- Body
2- Frontal process
3- Temporal process
Body:
Has three surfaces and five borders:
Lateral surface: pierced by the zygomatico
facial foramen for the zygomaticofacial nerve and
vessel.
Medial (temporal) surface: articulates
anterior with maxilla bone. The zygomatico
temporal foramen pierces this surface near the base
of frontal process.
Superior (orbital) surface: forms
anterolateral part of the orbital floor it usually bears
zygomatico orbital foramens, openings of canals
leading to zygomaticofacial and
zygomaticotemporal foramina.
Zygomatico-orbital foramens:
Anterior superior (orbital) border forms orbital
opening.
Anterior inferior border articulates with maxilla.
Posterior superior border is free
Posterior inferior is free
Posterior medial border articulated with greater
wing of sphenoid and superior surface of maxilla
The frontal process: contributes to the
lateral orbital wall it articulates above with
zygomatic process of frontal bone, and in the
behind with greater wing of sphenoid bone behind 1
cm below zygomaticofrontal suture
On posterior border of frontal process is a
tubercle named marginal tubercle.

17. 19
The temporal process directly backward articulates
with zygomatic process of temporal bone and forms
zygomatic arch
C- Maxillary process: articulates with
maxilla bone
Inferior conchae:
These bones are curved horizontal lamina in the
lateral walls.
Each has two surfaces, two borders
Medial surface is convex. Lateral surface
is concave
Superior border divided into three
parts:
Anterior part: articulates with maxillary
conchae crest
Posterior part: articulates with palatine
conchae crest
Middle part: has three-process from the front
to posterior
A-lacrimal process: articulates apically
with descending. Lacrimal process, helping to form
the nasolacrimal canal
B- Ethmoidal process: ascend to the
uncinatus process of ethmoid bone
The mandible
The mandible is the largest strongest and lowest
bone in the face has a horizontal curved body
convex forward and two broad rami ascending
posteriorly.
Mandibular body: U shaped has
 external and internal surface
 upper and lower border .
External surface: we see these element on this
surface :
1- symphysis menti: is a median ridge indicating
fusion of the halves of the fetal bone .
2- mental protuberance is triangular at the
inferiorly symphysis menti .
3- mental tubercles are in the lateral angle of the
mental protuberance .
4- mental formen is below the interval between
premolar teeth or the second premolar this foramen
transmites nerve and vessel mental .
5-obligue line: ascends back ward from each
mental tubercale to the anterior border of ramus .
Inernal surface: it has these elements :-
1- mylohyoid line it extending from behind third
molar to the mental symphysis between the
digastric fossa.
2-submandibular fossa is bellow mylohyoid line .
3- sublingual fossa is above mylohyoid line .
4- mental spines ( genial spines ) are posterior
symphysis aspect , anterior end to the mylohyoid
line.
5-genial foramen is superior mental spine most
mandibles .
6- torus mandibularis in above mylohyoid lin
medial to the molar roots .
Upper border ( the alveolar process ) : con tains
sixteen alveoli for roots of teeth varying in size and
depth .
Lower border ( the base ) : near the med line on
each side is a rough digastric fossa .
The mandibular ramus : is quadrilateral with two
surfaces , four borders and two processes .

18. 20
medial surfaces : has these elements :-
1- mandibular foramen is a little above of center ,
leading into the mandibular canal curving down and
forwards in to the body to it is mental foramen .
2- lingual is a thing triangular process
anteromedially the mandibular foramen .
3- mylohyoid groove is a descend for ward .
From behind ligula
Inferior border: meets the posterior border at the
angle , this angle everted in meals but in females
frequently in curved .
Upper border: has these elements :-
1- the condylar process is from of upper border and
divided two part:
1-Head
2-Neck
Head : it articulates with the mandibular fossa of
temporal bone with an an articular disk between.
Neck :is below the head is the narrow at the anterior
surface bears pterygoid fossa .
2- choronoid process is front of the upper border
tendon of temporalis muscle attached this process.
3- mandibular notch is between coronoid and
condylar process .

19. 21
The vomer
The vomer is alomost trapezoid . foming the
postero-inferior part of nasal septum it has lateral
surfaces and four border the superior border is
thickest , with a deep furrow between projecting
alae with fits the sphenoidal rostrum , the alae
articulate with sphenoid conchea sphenoidal
process of palatin bones and vaginal process of
sphenoid bone.
Inferior border: articulates with nasal crest
Anterior border: articulates with perpendicular
plate of ethmoid bone
posterior border : separating the posterior nasal
apertures .
Norma verticalis
Norma vericalis is Synonyms to superior aspect or
a view of the skull as seen from above.
Synonym: superior Norma
Seen from above at the below this Norma
Limited with supraorbital margin, glabella, superior
border of squamous of temporal bone and superior
nuchal line
The glabella, in humans, is the skin between
the eyebrows and above the nose. It also refers to
the underlying bone which is slightly depressed,
and joins the two super ciliary ridges. It is
a cephalometric landmark that is just superior to
the nasion.
Norma verticalis formed with vertical part of
frontal bone, parietal bone, and superior part of
occipital squamous
This Norma has two surface:
1- External 2- Internal
External surface: has these elements:
1- Supra orbital margin
2- glabella
3- supracilliary arch
4- frontal tuber
5- Parietal tuber
6- superior & inferior nuchal line
7- Parietal foramen
8- coronal suture

20. 22
9- sagittal suture
10 – Lambdoid suture
11- Highest nuchal line
12- External occipital protuberance, the apex of this
tuberosity named Inion
Internal surface: is concave, this surface has these
elements:
1- Groove for sagittal sinus is at the midline
2- Frontal crest is front of groove for sagittal sinus
3- Artery groove
Cranial base
Cranial base has two surfaces:
1-superior or endocrinal surface:
2- Inferior surface: is viewed from below
Superior surface: subdivided into three regions-the
anterior, middle and posterior cranial fossa.
Anterior cranial fossa: forms the anterior third of
superior surface. It houses the frontal lobes of the
cerebral hemispheres.
Anterior cranial fossa contain these elements:
1-cribriform plate of the ethmoid anteriorly its
median crista gali projects, a foramen cecum is
between crista gali and frontal crest, a groove for
olfactory bulb is each side of crista gal
2- Orbital plates of frontal bone made the lateral
regions of the floor of the fossa. The orbital parts of
the frontal bone is separated from each other by
narrow gap occupied by the cribriform plate of
ethmoid
3- Jugum of sphenoid completes the fossa behind
4- lesser wings of sphenoid is lateral to the jugum.
The medial end of its posterior border is anterior
clinoid process
Posterior borders of lesser wing provide the
posterior boundary of lateral parts of the fossa. This
fossa deeper and most extensive than the anterior, is
bounded in front by the posterior border of the
lesser wing, anterior clinoid process and chiasmatic
sulcus. Behind by the superior border of petrous
and dorsum sellea.
We see this elements this fossa centrally:
The floor is narrow formed by the sphenoid body
1- Chiasmatic sulcus connecting the optic canal
together
2- Optic canals are laterally to the chiasmatic
sulcus. This canals connects middle cranial fossa to
the orbital cavity, these canals contains optic nerve.
3- Tuberculum sellea.superolateral angle is
expended as middle clinoid process
4- Sellae turcica is behind the sellae turcica! And
containing hypophyseal gland
5- Dorsum sellae is posterior dorsum sellae!
Posterolateral angle is expended as posterior clinoid
process
6- Clivus
7-groove for internal carotid artery is lateral to the
sellea turcica
Laterally middle cranial fossa: formed by the
cerebral surface of greater wing of sphenoid,
squamous part of temporal bone and anterior
surface of petrous.
This part has these elements:
1- Superior orbital fissure formed above by lesser
wing bellow the great wing and medial by the body
of sphenoid bone.
This fissure transmits oculomotor, trochlear and
abducens nerve and ophthalmic vein
2- Foramen rotundum is behind the superior orbital
fissure it open in the ptrygopalatine fossa transmit

21. 23
this foramen  maxillary nerve
3- Foramen ovale is behind the foramen rotundum
it open into infratemporal fossa and transmits 
the mandibular nerve
4- Foramen spinosum posterolateral to foramen
ovale transmits themiddle meningeal artery
5- Foramen lacerum is posteromedial to the
foramen ovale
6- Anterior surface of petrous and it's elements
Posterior cranial fossa
The largest and deepest of the cranial fossa is
bounded in front by the dorsum sellea and superior
border of petrous.
Behind by groove for transverse sinus and superior
border of petrous we see these elements at these
fossa:
1- Foramen magnum, here medulla oblongata and
spinal cord become continue
2- Jugular foramen: sited at the posterior end of the
petro occipital fissure transmits jugular vein and
Glossopharyngeal, Vagus and Accessory nerves.
3- Grooves for transvers and sigmoid sinus
4- Internal occipital crest
5- Internal occipital protuberance
6- Posterior surface of petrous with its element
7- Hypoglossal canal
Inferior surface of cranial base
The inferior cranial aspect is complex.extending
from upper incisor teeth to superior nucheal line of
occipital. Laterally are zygomatic arch and mastoid
process. This surface divided into anterior, middle
and posterior part
Anterior part: limits front by alveolar process
behind by posterior border of horizontal plate
anterior
Anterior part consist these elements:
1- Alveolar process and teeth
2- incisive foramen
3- Hard plate formed by palatine process of
maxilla and horizontal plate of palatine
4- Greater palatine foramina
5- Lesser palatine foramen
6- Inter maxillary suture

22. 24

23. 25

24. 26
7- palatomaxillary suture
Middle part: limits front by posterior border of
horizontal part of palatine posterior
By a transverse line through the anterior margin of
the foramen magnum
This part consist these elements:
1- Two posterior nasal aperture
2- Pharyngeal tubercle
3- Pterygoid process of sphenoid bone
4- Foramen ovale and spinosum on the
infratemporal part of greater wing
5- Foramen lacerum opens in the carotid canal.
Inferior this foramen is filled by fibrocartilage this
is not traversed by large structure
6- Mandibular fossa
7- Articular tubercle
8- External acoustic meatus
9- Styloid process.
Posterior part: limits front by a line through the
anterior margin of foramen magnum behind limits
by superior nuchal line
This part has these elements:
1- Condyle of occipital
2-hypoglossal canal above the condyle
3- Foramen magnum
4- condylar fossa and condylar canal
5- Jugular process
6- Jugular foramen
7- stylomastoid foramen
8- mastoid process
10- External occipital crest
11- Inferior nuchal line
Norma frontalis
9- The anterior view of the skull.
This Norma contains these parts:
1- Anterior surface of vertical part of frontal bone
with its element
2- Orbital cavity
3- Nasal cavity
4- Anterior surface of maxillary bone with its
elements
5- Anterior surface of mandibular body with its
elements
Orbital cavity
the bony cavity containing the eyeball and its ass
ociated muscles, vessels,
and nerves. Also called eye socket, orbit
Is pyramidal with a base, apex, roof, floor, medial
and lateral wall
The roof: greater part of the roof is formed by the
inferior surface of the orbital part of the frontal
bone
Anteriorly small part of the roof is formed by
inferior surface of the lesser wing of sphenoid bone
Posteriorly at the anterolateral is a deep Lacrimal

25. 27
fossa for lacrimal gland
Posteriorly at the junction of the roof and medial
wall is optic canal connective orbit to the middle
cranial fossa.
The floor: medially is formed by upper surface of
the body of maxilla
Laterally is formed by the upper surface of
zygomatic
At the posteromedial, the orbital process of palatine
bone forms corner.
Infra orbital canal begins from the infra orbital
fissure passing forward in to the floor (superior
surface of maxilla), opening at an infraorbital
foramen. This canal contain infraorbital nerve and
vessels.
Lateral wall
Lateral wall formed by frontal process of zygomatic
bone and orbital surface of greater wing of
sphenoid bone
Medial wall: formed anterior to posterior by frontal
process of maxilla bone, lacrimal bone, labyrinth of
ethmoid and body of sphenoid.
The foramens and fissures opens in the orbital
cavity include:
1- Optic canal: at the junction of its roof and
medial wall, connective orbital cavity to the middle
cranial fossa and transmit its optic nerve
2- Naso lacrimal canal: little more than 1 cm long
is anterior medial wall opening below into the nasal
cavity
3- Superior orbital fissure: is at the roof between
lesser wing and greater wing sphenoidal bone.
Connective orbital cavity to middle cranial fossa
transmit oculomotor, trochlear, Abducence and
ophthalmic nerve.
4- Inferior orbital fissure: is at the floor of orbital
cavity between superior surface of maxilla and
greater wing of sphenoid, connective orbital cavity
to the infra orbital fossa, transmit maxillary nerve
& zygomatic nerve.
5- Anterior & posterior ethmoidal canals: are
medial wall of orbital cavity open to the groove of
olfactory bulb at the anterior cranial fossa
6- Zygomatico-orbital foramens: are at the floor of
orbital cavity at the superior surface of zygomatic
bone, become zygomatic-temporal canal and
zygomatic-facial canal, First opens on the facial
surface of zygomatic bone the second opens on the
temporal surface of zygomatic nerve
The nasal cavity
It is an irregularly shaped cavity lying below the
floor of anterior cranial fossa the cavity is high and
deep. It is divided in to right and left halves by
nasal septum. Each half cavity has a anterior nasal
aperture, a posterior nasal aperture, a roof, a floor, a
medial wall (septum) and Lateral wall
The roof:
is formed by nasal bone anteriorly, by the
cribriform plate of the ethmoid in its intermediate
port. And by the body of the sphenoid posteriorly.
The floor:
is provided by the palatine process of maxilla in
front and horizontal palates of palatine bones
behind. Each palatine process of maxilla is pierced
anteriorly close to the septum by an incisive canal
which transmit the Naso-palatine nerve and
terminal branch of the greater palatine artery. The
canals of two sides open inferiorly in to the incisive
fossa on the oral surface of the palatine process of
maxilla.
The lateral wall:
is very irregular at the above from anterior to
posterior is formed by frontal process of maxilla,
lacrimal bone, nasal surface of lateral mass of
ethmoid bone below from anterior to posterior is
formed by nasal surface of maxilla, perpendicular
palate of palatine bone and medial palate of
pterygoid process of sphenoid bone
Medial wall (septum):
Its bony part is largely vomer and perpendicular
plate of ethmoid. Vomer forming the posterior

26. 28
inferior region, and the perpendicular forming
anterior superior part
The conchae incompletely divide the nasal cavity
into three passages or meatus. The superior meatus
between the superior and middle conchae, the
middle meatus between the middle and inferior
conchae, and the inferior meatus between the
inferior conchae and the floor nasal cavity
The structures opening into the lateral wall of
nose are:
1- The sphenoidal air sinus opens into the spheno-
ethmoidal recess
2- The posterior ethmoidal air cells open into the
superior meatus
3- The frontal, maxillary, anterior and middle
ethmoidal air cells open in to the middle meatus
4- Naso lacrimal canal opens into the inferior
meatus
5- Sphenopalatine foramen opens into the superior
meatus.
Norma lateralis
This fissure transmits maxillary, zygomatic nerve
and infra orbital vessel
Foramen ovale and foramen spinosum are at the
roof of infra temporal fossa
Pterygoid palatine fossa: is a small pyramidal
space below the orbital apex it communicates with
the infra temporal fossa via the pterygomaxillary
fissure.
With the nasal cavity by the sphenopalatine
foramen, the orbital by the inferior orbital fissure
and middle cranial fossa by foramen – rotundum
Mastoid region: contains these parts
1- Mastoid
2- styloid process
3- stylomastoid foramen
4- External acoustic meatus
Limits
Above: superior temporal line
Front: a line draws from zygomatic process of
frontal bone to mandibular angle
Behind: a line draws from mandibular, angle to
superior nuchal line.
This region is triangular and including three parts:
1- Temporal fossa
2- Infratemporal fossa
3- Mastoid region
Temporal fossa:
Limits: above temporal line
Below: zygomatic arch
Front: zygomatic process of frontal bone and
frontal process of zygomatic bone.
The floor of this fossa parietal and squamous part
of temporal bone is irregular M shaped suture
closed this four bones.
Whose center is circular area named pterion
The pterion is the region where
the frontal, parietal, temporal, and sphenoid join
together
Infratemporal fossa
Limits: It is roof is the infratemporal surface of the
sphenoid, greater wing and part of the temporal
squamous. Here the greater wing display the
foramina ovale and spinosum.
Medial is lateral pterygoid
Lateral is zygomatic arch and mandibular ramous
Anterior: posterior surface of maxilla behind and
below is open
Its anterior and medial wall are separated above by
the pterygomaxillary fissure
We see these parts in the infratemporal fossa:
1- Pterygomaxillary fissure is a fissure between the
maxilla and pterygoid process.
2- Infraorbital fissure is located between the orbital
surface of maxilla and greater wing of sphenoid it
connects orbit with infraorbital fossa and
pterygopalatine fossa

27. 29

28. 30
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