This document summarizes responses to toxic chemicals found in toys and children's products, and provides recommendations. It discusses how recalls in 2007 and 2010 brought attention to this issue, though existing regulations only address a small number of chemicals. A variety of government, nonprofit, and industry initiatives have sought to address the problem, but in an isolated manner. The document recommends more comprehensive action is still needed to ensure children's products are truly safe, given limitations in current regulations and oversight of global supply chains.
Analyis of Dell and Walmart's Initiatives to Replace Harmful Chemicals in the...Bruce Cohen
Examines the different approaches of Dell and Walmart in implementing sustainable chemicals program, analyzing performance against a set of industry best practices.
Toys are commonly played with by children and can contain chemicals that cause allergies. Sigma Test & Research Center is a toy testing lab in Delhi that offers toy safety testing and testing of other children's products at reasonable prices. It has experienced experts that can test for toy safety and is located in Delhi, India.
Chemicals Quarterly Update, Q3 2013 - New & Changing Legislation for Chemica...Compliance and Risks
The document provides a summary of various global regulatory developments related to chemicals and restricted substances over the third quarter of 2013. Some key points covered include California launching its Safer Consumer Products program, proposed amendments to regulations on chemicals like TDCPP and BPA in toys in various jurisdictions, and updates on regulatory activities related to chemicals like phthalates from organizations like ECHA and EPA.
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Banning Chemicals called Phthalates in Childhood Products - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
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Plastics & Plastic Toys - Eco Healthy Child Care - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~ cehn.org
1) The document describes an experiment to create a non-toxic bouncy ball using common household ingredients like borax, cornstarch, and glue.
2) The experiment involves mixing borax and water, adding food coloring, then combining the solution with glue and cornstarch to form balls.
3) The writer discusses facing challenges like the borax not dissolving until using warm water, and the mixture not forming properly until adding more cornstarch. However, with adjustments, the group was able to successfully create bouncy balls.
Plastics are polymers that are versatile, durable and inexpensive but also pose environmental challenges. They are non-biodegradable and accumulate as waste, polluting land and oceans. While recycling reduces environmental impacts, plastics must often be of identical composition to mix efficiently during recycling. Individual actions like reducing single-use plastics, reusing materials, and choosing recyclable packaging can help address the growing problem of plastic waste. The document examines both the benefits of plastics and initiatives people can take to protect the environment from plastic pollution.
Analyis of Dell and Walmart's Initiatives to Replace Harmful Chemicals in the...Bruce Cohen
Examines the different approaches of Dell and Walmart in implementing sustainable chemicals program, analyzing performance against a set of industry best practices.
Toys are commonly played with by children and can contain chemicals that cause allergies. Sigma Test & Research Center is a toy testing lab in Delhi that offers toy safety testing and testing of other children's products at reasonable prices. It has experienced experts that can test for toy safety and is located in Delhi, India.
Chemicals Quarterly Update, Q3 2013 - New & Changing Legislation for Chemica...Compliance and Risks
The document provides a summary of various global regulatory developments related to chemicals and restricted substances over the third quarter of 2013. Some key points covered include California launching its Safer Consumer Products program, proposed amendments to regulations on chemicals like TDCPP and BPA in toys in various jurisdictions, and updates on regulatory activities related to chemicals like phthalates from organizations like ECHA and EPA.
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Banning Chemicals called Phthalates in Childhood Products - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
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Plastics & Plastic Toys - Eco Healthy Child Care - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~ cehn.org
1) The document describes an experiment to create a non-toxic bouncy ball using common household ingredients like borax, cornstarch, and glue.
2) The experiment involves mixing borax and water, adding food coloring, then combining the solution with glue and cornstarch to form balls.
3) The writer discusses facing challenges like the borax not dissolving until using warm water, and the mixture not forming properly until adding more cornstarch. However, with adjustments, the group was able to successfully create bouncy balls.
Plastics are polymers that are versatile, durable and inexpensive but also pose environmental challenges. They are non-biodegradable and accumulate as waste, polluting land and oceans. While recycling reduces environmental impacts, plastics must often be of identical composition to mix efficiently during recycling. Individual actions like reducing single-use plastics, reusing materials, and choosing recyclable packaging can help address the growing problem of plastic waste. The document examines both the benefits of plastics and initiatives people can take to protect the environment from plastic pollution.
The document outlines an upcoming presentation on material transparency. It will cover identifying health risks in building materials using databases and chemical group classifications. It will also discuss recognizing healthy material alternatives and being able to specify them in projects. The presentation will focus on navigating material databases and having transparency conversations with industry. Attendees will learn to identify risks, sources of healthy materials, and documentation requirements for LEED credits involving environmental product declarations and material ingredients.
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The document summarizes reports of toxic chemicals in children's products submitted to Washington State between March and September 2013 under the state's Children's Safe Products Act. It finds that 78 companies reported 4,605 instances of 49 chemicals in products like toys, clothing, baby items and bedding. Many reported chemicals are linked to cancer, hormone disruption, and developmental and reproductive harm. The widespread reporting demonstrates both the prevalence of toxic chemicals in children's daily items and companies' ability to disclose such information to consumers.
This document provides a systems analysis of flame retardants. It begins with an introduction explaining the purpose is to explore relationships between flame retardant use, toxicity exposure, and human health impacts. It then discusses how the tobacco and chemical industries deceptively lobbied for flame retardant use through front groups like Citizens for Fire Safety. While flame retardants provide little fire protection and pose health risks, the market continues growing due to a lack of safety testing and industry influence over regulation. Flame retardant levels in humans and wildlife are increasing, indicating bioaccumulation and downstream environmental impacts.
This document summarizes a class on sustainable product and service design. It discusses the shifting power from the US to the EU in regulating toxic chemicals due to the EU's adoption of the precautionary principle over the US's requirement for scientific consensus. It provides examples of chemicals like phthalates that were initially banned in Europe over health concerns and later in the US. It also discusses how the US's refusal to sign environmental agreements has shifted business opportunities in renewable energy to other nations. Finally, it outlines upcoming class readings and assignments on developing ideas for sustainable products and services.
Sick of Dust - Chemicals in Common Products, A Needless Health Risk in Our Ho...v2zq
This document discusses a study that tested household dust from 70 homes in 7 US states for hazardous chemicals. The study found evidence of 6 classes of toxic chemicals in all dust samples tested: phthalates, pesticides, alkylphenols, brominated flame retardants, organotins, and perfluorinated compounds. These chemicals are used in many common consumer products and migrate into household dust. Young children are especially vulnerable to negative health effects from exposure to these chemicals through dust. The study highlights the failure of the US regulatory system to protect people from unnecessary exposure to toxic chemicals in products and homes.
Pretty Scary - Could Halloween Face Paint Cause Lifelong Health Problems v2zq
Pretty Scary - Could Halloween Face Paint Cause Lifelong Health Problems - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~ safecosmetics.org
Fragranced Consumer Products - Chemicals Emitted, Ingredients Unlisted - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
The document discusses increasing transparency around product data and chemicals of concern in building materials. It notes that with more available data on carbon footprints and chemicals, along with new technology, there is an emerging era of radical transparency. It also discusses various chemicals that are common in many products but are linked to health issues, and the need for more transparency about what substances products contain.
California is a leader in green chemistry and moving toward a cradle-to-cradle economy. Two new laws were passed to address chemicals of concern and increase toxicity information. Green chemistry takes a new, benign-by-design approach to make products and processes safe from the start. This represents an opportunity to shape global chemical debates and grow California's economy. Challenges include a lack of toxicity information, inadequate regulations, and childhood exposure to toxics in products. The document recommends expanding pollution prevention, developing a green chemistry workforce, creating online product and toxics networks, accelerating safer product development, and moving toward a full cradle-to-cradle framework.
[work in progress]
*The Lead (Pb) Data Initiative* is an effort being developed around exactly those two things: Lead + Data.
This slide deck presents background on the issue of lead, a short list of some exciting efforts already underway, and a framework for a series of projects to accelerate those efforts and address other problem areas.
This is all a work in progress. Everything is draft and up for your feedback! Please reach out to read@publiclab.org if you have any interest in this conversation.
Research Proposal 4 - Sample Thesis Statement and Proposal SummaryJaime Alfredo Cabrera
This document outlines a presentation on a project proposal to pay street children to gather discarded cigarette filters and process them into insect-repellent curtains for international sale. It includes a title slide with the presenter's information, a 3-part thesis statement describing the benefits of the plan, descriptions of primary and secondary beneficiaries and how their needs would be met, the urgency of problems faced by street children, the environment, and users of pesticides/insecticides. It also includes a timeline, action plan, and proposed procedure for implementing the project.
Mattel had a major product recall after lead paint was found on one of their toys. An investigation revealed that while Mattel had supplied safe paint to their Chinese contractors, the contractors had outsourced production to subcontractors who used lead paint instead. Both the US and Chinese governments responded by passing new legislation to increase regulation of toy manufacturing in China to prevent future issues. The recall response was deemed appropriate as Mattel took all necessary steps to inform the public about the safety issue and protect consumers, indicating their priority was safety over reputation or profits. Increased government oversight of manufacturers may help avoid similar problems going forward.
Beneath the Skin - Hidden Liabilities, Market Risk & Drivers of Change in the...v2zq
This document summarizes drivers of change in the cosmetics and personal care products industry that could negatively impact company valuations. It notes a lack of regulatory oversight in the US allowing potentially harmful chemicals to be used. Emerging health issues linking chemicals like phthalates to reproductive harm are increasing consumer concern. Stricter European Union regulations are banning over 1,000 chemicals and forcing reformulation of products sold there. These factors could undermine consumer trust and brand loyalty, posing significant financial risks for companies that do not adequately respond to health and regulatory issues.
Hidden Liabilities, Market Risk & Drivers of Change in the Cosmetics & Person...v2zq
This document summarizes drivers of change in the cosmetics and personal care products industry that could negatively impact company valuations. It notes the lack of regulatory oversight in the US allows potentially harmful chemicals to enter products. Emerging health issues linking chemicals like phthalates to reproductive harm could undermine consumer trust and brand loyalty. Growing consumer concerns are being driven by NGO reports. Finally, new EU regulations banning over 1,000 chemicals will require global reformulation, increasing pressure on US companies and raising liability risks if they do not adapt to new safety standards.
Monica becker turi cont ed - session c green materials for turi websitezevoush
2012 presentation on Innovative Business / University Partnership: The Safer Plasticizer Assessment Project - Project for the Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (GC3)
A new investigation by Greenpeace* has found a broad range of hazardous chemicals in children’s clothing and footwear across a number of major clothing brands, including fast fashion, sportswear and luxury brands.
The document summarizes the findings of the 21st Annual Toy Safety Survey conducted by U.S. PIRG Education Fund. Some key points:
- Choking remains a top cause of toy-related deaths. Between 1990-2004, 157 children died from choking on toys. The CPSC bans small parts in toys for children under 3 and requires warning labels for toys with small parts intended for ages 3-6. However, the survey still found some toys with small parts lacking warnings.
- Magnetic toys can pose dangers if multiple small magnets are swallowed and attract within the intestines. One child died and others were injured in the last year from these. Stronger safety guidelines are needed.
Plastics additives are heavily regulated in Europe and the US, however, China is lagging behind. The paper discusses the most recent regulatory developments for plastics additives in China.
The document discusses the issue of "greenwash" in the landscaping industry. It defines greenwash as misleading consumers about a company's environmental practices or a product's environmental benefits. The document notes that as awareness of environmental issues has increased, more companies are promoting green credentials without substantiating claims. It provides examples of how to identify greenwash, such as vague claims, lack of proof from independent auditing, and failing to address all environmental impacts. The document also discusses common myths told to justify inaction on sustainability issues in the landscaping industry.
Pesticides & Chemicals Hurt your Child’s Health & Comprehensionv2zq
INCLUDES LINKS TO:
Over 120 books and web sites on Education, Children's Health and Academic Success, Organic Food Recipes, Organic Non-Sugar Sweeteners, School Lunches ~ Over 300 books on Organic Gardening and Heirloom Gardening ~ Over 200 books on Sustainable Technology and Alternative Housing ~ Over 30 books on Renewable Energy ~ Many Free PDF files on Rain Gardens, Roof Gardens, Aeroponic Gardening, Rainwater Harvesting, Waterwise Gardening, Green Eco Churches, Vegetable Oil Cars, Organic Gardening Guides, Ram Pumps, Companion Planting, Garden Therapy Manuals, Faith Healing
Resource Handbook for City Beekeeping & Honey for Healthv2zq
This document provides summaries of and links to numerous books and resources about urban beekeeping and beekeeping topics. It begins by noting some browser compatibility issues and then lists over 50 books on topics like urban beekeeping, top-bar beekeeping, natural beekeeping approaches, mason bees, and bee health. Links are provided to purchase or borrow each book from various sources.
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The document outlines an upcoming presentation on material transparency. It will cover identifying health risks in building materials using databases and chemical group classifications. It will also discuss recognizing healthy material alternatives and being able to specify them in projects. The presentation will focus on navigating material databases and having transparency conversations with industry. Attendees will learn to identify risks, sources of healthy materials, and documentation requirements for LEED credits involving environmental product declarations and material ingredients.
Toxic Chemicals In Your Shopping Cart - What's on Your List v2zq
The document summarizes reports of toxic chemicals in children's products submitted to Washington State between March and September 2013 under the state's Children's Safe Products Act. It finds that 78 companies reported 4,605 instances of 49 chemicals in products like toys, clothing, baby items and bedding. Many reported chemicals are linked to cancer, hormone disruption, and developmental and reproductive harm. The widespread reporting demonstrates both the prevalence of toxic chemicals in children's daily items and companies' ability to disclose such information to consumers.
This document provides a systems analysis of flame retardants. It begins with an introduction explaining the purpose is to explore relationships between flame retardant use, toxicity exposure, and human health impacts. It then discusses how the tobacco and chemical industries deceptively lobbied for flame retardant use through front groups like Citizens for Fire Safety. While flame retardants provide little fire protection and pose health risks, the market continues growing due to a lack of safety testing and industry influence over regulation. Flame retardant levels in humans and wildlife are increasing, indicating bioaccumulation and downstream environmental impacts.
This document summarizes a class on sustainable product and service design. It discusses the shifting power from the US to the EU in regulating toxic chemicals due to the EU's adoption of the precautionary principle over the US's requirement for scientific consensus. It provides examples of chemicals like phthalates that were initially banned in Europe over health concerns and later in the US. It also discusses how the US's refusal to sign environmental agreements has shifted business opportunities in renewable energy to other nations. Finally, it outlines upcoming class readings and assignments on developing ideas for sustainable products and services.
Sick of Dust - Chemicals in Common Products, A Needless Health Risk in Our Ho...v2zq
This document discusses a study that tested household dust from 70 homes in 7 US states for hazardous chemicals. The study found evidence of 6 classes of toxic chemicals in all dust samples tested: phthalates, pesticides, alkylphenols, brominated flame retardants, organotins, and perfluorinated compounds. These chemicals are used in many common consumer products and migrate into household dust. Young children are especially vulnerable to negative health effects from exposure to these chemicals through dust. The study highlights the failure of the US regulatory system to protect people from unnecessary exposure to toxic chemicals in products and homes.
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Pretty Scary - Could Halloween Face Paint Cause Lifelong Health Problems - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~ safecosmetics.org
Fragranced Consumer Products - Chemicals Emitted, Ingredients Unlisted - Resources for Healthy Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - For more information, Please see Organic Edible Schoolyards & Gardening with Children www.scribd.com/doc/254613963 - Gardening with Volcanic Rock Dust www.scribd.com/doc/254613846 - Double Food Production from your School Garden with Organic Tech www.scribd.com/doc/254613765 - Free School Gardening Art Posters www.scribd.com/doc/254613694 - Increase Food Production with Companion Planting in your School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 - Healthy Foods Dramatically Improves Student Academic Success www.scribd.com/doc/254613619 - City Chickens for your Organic School Garden www.scribd.com/doc/254613553 - Huerto Ecológico, Tecnologías Sostenibles, Agricultura Organica www.scribd.com/doc/254613494 - Simple Square Foot Gardening for Schools - Teacher Guide www.scribd.com/doc/254613410 - Free Organic Gardening Publications www.scribd.com/doc/254609890 ~
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California is a leader in green chemistry and moving toward a cradle-to-cradle economy. Two new laws were passed to address chemicals of concern and increase toxicity information. Green chemistry takes a new, benign-by-design approach to make products and processes safe from the start. This represents an opportunity to shape global chemical debates and grow California's economy. Challenges include a lack of toxicity information, inadequate regulations, and childhood exposure to toxics in products. The document recommends expanding pollution prevention, developing a green chemistry workforce, creating online product and toxics networks, accelerating safer product development, and moving toward a full cradle-to-cradle framework.
[work in progress]
*The Lead (Pb) Data Initiative* is an effort being developed around exactly those two things: Lead + Data.
This slide deck presents background on the issue of lead, a short list of some exciting efforts already underway, and a framework for a series of projects to accelerate those efforts and address other problem areas.
This is all a work in progress. Everything is draft and up for your feedback! Please reach out to read@publiclab.org if you have any interest in this conversation.
Research Proposal 4 - Sample Thesis Statement and Proposal SummaryJaime Alfredo Cabrera
This document outlines a presentation on a project proposal to pay street children to gather discarded cigarette filters and process them into insect-repellent curtains for international sale. It includes a title slide with the presenter's information, a 3-part thesis statement describing the benefits of the plan, descriptions of primary and secondary beneficiaries and how their needs would be met, the urgency of problems faced by street children, the environment, and users of pesticides/insecticides. It also includes a timeline, action plan, and proposed procedure for implementing the project.
Mattel had a major product recall after lead paint was found on one of their toys. An investigation revealed that while Mattel had supplied safe paint to their Chinese contractors, the contractors had outsourced production to subcontractors who used lead paint instead. Both the US and Chinese governments responded by passing new legislation to increase regulation of toy manufacturing in China to prevent future issues. The recall response was deemed appropriate as Mattel took all necessary steps to inform the public about the safety issue and protect consumers, indicating their priority was safety over reputation or profits. Increased government oversight of manufacturers may help avoid similar problems going forward.
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Monica becker turi cont ed - session c green materials for turi websitezevoush
2012 presentation on Innovative Business / University Partnership: The Safer Plasticizer Assessment Project - Project for the Green Chemistry & Commerce Council (GC3)
A new investigation by Greenpeace* has found a broad range of hazardous chemicals in children’s clothing and footwear across a number of major clothing brands, including fast fashion, sportswear and luxury brands.
The document summarizes the findings of the 21st Annual Toy Safety Survey conducted by U.S. PIRG Education Fund. Some key points:
- Choking remains a top cause of toy-related deaths. Between 1990-2004, 157 children died from choking on toys. The CPSC bans small parts in toys for children under 3 and requires warning labels for toys with small parts intended for ages 3-6. However, the survey still found some toys with small parts lacking warnings.
- Magnetic toys can pose dangers if multiple small magnets are swallowed and attract within the intestines. One child died and others were injured in the last year from these. Stronger safety guidelines are needed.
Plastics additives are heavily regulated in Europe and the US, however, China is lagging behind. The paper discusses the most recent regulatory developments for plastics additives in China.
The document discusses the issue of "greenwash" in the landscaping industry. It defines greenwash as misleading consumers about a company's environmental practices or a product's environmental benefits. The document notes that as awareness of environmental issues has increased, more companies are promoting green credentials without substantiating claims. It provides examples of how to identify greenwash, such as vague claims, lack of proof from independent auditing, and failing to address all environmental impacts. The document also discusses common myths told to justify inaction on sustainability issues in the landscaping industry.
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Pollen is described as the "perfectly complete food" and its nutritional value and medical uses have been praised for centuries. However, bee-collected pollen only began to be used widely for human nutrition after World War II with the development of pollen traps. Proper drying, storage, and processing are important to preserve pollen's quality and nutrients. Drying should be done at low temperatures, ideally below 30°C, to avoid vitamin losses. Freezing or freeze-drying pollen provides the best preservation of nutrients, though dried pollen can be stored for 1-2 years if kept cool, dry and dark. Standards have been proposed for pollen, including limits on moisture content and minimum levels of proteins
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The recent surge in pro-Palestine student activism has prompted significant responses from universities, ranging from negotiations and divestment commitments to increased transparency about investments in companies supporting the war on Gaza. This activism has led to the cessation of student encampments but also highlighted the substantial sacrifices made by students, including academic disruptions and personal risks. The primary drivers of these protests are poor university administration, lack of transparency, and inadequate communication between officials and students. This study examines the profound emotional, psychological, and professional impacts on students engaged in pro-Palestine protests, focusing on Generation Z's (Gen-Z) activism dynamics. This paper explores the significant sacrifices made by these students and even the professors supporting the pro-Palestine movement, with a focus on recent global movements. Through an in-depth analysis of printed and electronic media, the study examines the impacts of these sacrifices on the academic and personal lives of those involved. The paper highlights examples from various universities, demonstrating student activism's long-term and short-term effects, including disciplinary actions, social backlash, and career implications. The researchers also explore the broader implications of student sacrifices. The findings reveal that these sacrifices are driven by a profound commitment to justice and human rights, and are influenced by the increasing availability of information, peer interactions, and personal convictions. The study also discusses the broader implications of this activism, comparing it to historical precedents and assessing its potential to influence policy and public opinion. The emotional and psychological toll on student activists is significant, but their sense of purpose and community support mitigates some of these challenges. However, the researchers call for acknowledging the broader Impact of these sacrifices on the future global movement of FreePalestine.
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Creative Restart 2024: Mike Martin - Finding a way around “no”Taste
Ideas that are good for business and good for the world that we live in, are what I’m passionate about.
Some ideas take a year to make, some take 8 years. I want to share two projects that best illustrate this and why it is never good to stop at “no”.
Brand Guideline of Bashundhara A4 Paper - 2024khabri85
It outlines the basic identity elements such as symbol, logotype, colors, and typefaces. It provides examples of applying the identity to materials like letterhead, business cards, reports, folders, and websites.
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
2. latter problem results in part from the complexity of global
production systems.
Regulatory gaps. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) lists over 80,000 chemicals in its Toxic
Substances Control Act (TSCA) inventory, but few have been
adequately tested for safety (10). Under TSCA, extensive
hazard and exposure data are needed before EPA can act to
restrict the use of chemicals. Historically, even when the link
between exposure to a chemical and illness or injury is well
documented, EPA has done little to restrict its use (11). It is
widely recognized that TSCA is outdated and EPA and
advocacygroupsarepressingforlegislativereform(12).Other
federal agencies are also increasingly concerned about toxic
chemicals in the environment (13).
In principle, the CPSC has the authority to regulate
toxic chemicals in products, but in practice the CPSC’s
reach has been limited (14). Under the Federal Hazardous
Substances Act (FHSA), the presence of a toxic substance
in a product is not a sufficient condition for labeling or
banning the substance. FHSA requires application of a
risk-based determination of “substantial personal injury
or substantial illness” resulting from exposure (15).
Companies are responsible for making this determination,
using general guidelines provided by CPSC but are not
compelled to generate the relevant exposure and dose-
response information that would form the basis for such
a determination.
With regard to toys specifically, safety requirements in
the U.S. and other industrialized countries have focused
primarily on mechanical safety such as preventing choking,
laceration, or other injuries. As choking hazards remain a
leading cause of toy-related injuries, this is an important
area of continued focus (16). Until recently, there has been
little focus on chemicals in toys. Under current regulations,
the CPSC restricts just fourteen chemicals in toys, including
eight heavy metals and six phthalates (17).
TABLE 1. Examples of Toxic Substances in Toys and Other Children’s Products
B 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. xxx, NO. xx, XXXX
3. Why is cadmium in children’s jewelry?
In early 2010, researchers found high levels of Cd in popular
costume jewelry intended for children. The CPSC issued a
strong message advising parents to remove the product from
children to prevent harm (18). When the news became public,
some large retailers reacted quickly and removed these items
from their inventories.
Both changes in international markets and regulatory gaps
contributed to this situation. Until 2008, 75% of Cd produced in
China had been used for manufacturing nickel-cadmium
(NiCd) batteries (19). In September 2008, EU legislation
restricting the use of Cd in batteries came into force. The
Chinese government eliminated tax rebates for Cd batteries,
causing financial difficulties for exporters (20). As demand for
NiCd batteries dropped, the price of Cd decreased.
With the regulatory spotlight on lead in children’s products,
some manufacturers turned to cadmium as a substitute. There
are no U.S. federal regulations that that limit the use of this
toxic metal in children’s jewelry or require labeling of products
containing Cd. The CPSC currently limits cadmium in children’s
toys to 75 ppm and is working on new rules to limit the metal’s
presence in all children’s products, including jewelry.
Complex global supply chains. Toy production and
consumption occur in a global system characterized by large,
complex supply chains with constant downward pressure
onprices.Inmanycases,productdesignandmarketingoccur
primarily in developed countries, with manufacturing out-
sourced overseas. Demand for low cost products creates
pressure for companies to externalize environmental and
social costs, resulting in unsafe working conditions, envi-
ronmental pollution, and a drive toward using the cheapest
and often toxic materials.
Even when regulations are in place, a lapse in supply
chain management can lead to problems on a large scale.
For example, Mattel, the largest toy company in the world,
recalled over 2 million toys in 2007 for violation of the U.S.
Pb paint standard (21). In its investigation, Mattel discovered
that several contractors had purchased leaded paint from
suppliers that had not been certified by Mattel (22). Leaded
paint, used widely in China for industrial applications, is up
to one-third less expensive than nonleaded paint (23).
Responses to toxic chemicals in children’s products
1. Regulatory responses. Following the well-publicized
recalls of 2007, public demand for stronger assurance of toy
safety led to the enactment of the 2008 U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Improvement Act (CPSIA). The law amended
theoutdatedConsumerProductSafetyActof1972.TheCPSIA
significantly increases CPSC funding and enforcement
authority. It requires manufacturers to put tracking labels
on children’s products including information about the
manufacturer, production date, and batch to make it easier
to track unsafe products to their sources; makes mandatory
the requirements of the American Society for Testing and
Materials toy safety standard (ASTM F963) (24) and requires
thattestingofchildren’sproductsbeconductedbyaccredited
third-party laboratories (25).
Yet the CPSIA authority to address toxic chemicals in toys
is still quite limited. While it sets stricter standards for Pb
and restricts six phthalates in children’s products, it does
not address the larger universe of unregulated or under-
regulated chemicals in children’s products (26).
The EPA has recently stepped up its efforts to address the
problem of toxic chemicals in commerce and some of these
effortsmayhaveimplicationsfortoxicchemicalsinchildren’s
products. Among other activities, the agency has developed
action plans for a number of chemicals, outlining future
regulatory action (27). For example, EPA’s Phthalates Action
Plan notes concern about children’s exposure and identifies
this as an area for further study and regulatory action (28).
The EU recently overhauled its 20-year-old Toy Safety
Directive. In contrast to the CPSIA, the Directive takes a more
comprehensive approach to addressing toxic chemicals in
toys, prohibiting carcinogens, mutagens, and reproductive
toxicants (CMRs) in toys. It also sets new limits for 19
substances, some of which were not previously regulated,
and limits the use of allergenic fragrances. The EU Directive
requires manufacturers to conduct a safety assessment for
each toy before it is placed on the market, including an
analysis of chemical hazards that the toy may present and
an assessment of potential exposure to such hazards. Every
toy must bear a marking indicating that it meets these
requirements (29).
European consumer advocates are concerned that certain
provisions in the law will allow manufacturers to continue
to use toxic materials in toys (30). The revised Directive allows
manufacturers to self-certify, rather than requiring third-
party certification of toys. In addition, while the law prohibits
CMRs in toys, exemptions will be granted if these substances
are inaccessible to children; no suitable alternative exists; or
a scientific committee determines that the use is safe.
Companies manufacturing and selling toys in Europe are
also subject to the EU’s comprehensive chemicals policy
knownasREACH(Registration,Evaluation,andAuthorization
of Chemicals). Under REACH, companies must disclose the
presence of chemicals in their products if the European
Chemicals Agency has identified and included the chemicals
on its “Candidate List” of “Substances of Very High Concern”
and if the chemicals are present in a product at a level above
0.1 wt % (31). To date, 38 chemicals are on this list, with
more expected to be added over time (32).
In the U.S., a number of state governments have adopted
legislation to ban specific chemicals of concern, such as lead,
phthalates, and bisphenol A (BPA), in children’s products,
and to increase transparency about the presence of toxic
chemicals in these products. For example, Maine and
Washington adopted legislation in 2008 that, among other
provisions, requires companies to submit data to the state
on toxic chemicals in children’s products (33, 34). These laws
requireeachstatetocreatealistofchemicalsofhighconcern.
Maine has listed 1700 chemicals of high concern based on
their inherent hazard; this list will be narrowed to identify
priority chemicals based on potential exposure. Manufactur-
ers will be required to disclose to the state their use of priority
chemicals. In June 2010, Maine proposed designating BPA
as a priority chemical. Washington recently issued a draft list
of 66 priority chemicals (35).
In addition, some state governments are beginning to
require industry to conduct assessments to identify safer
alternatives to chemicals of concern for specific applications.
Under Maine’s legislation, a manufacturer or distributor of
a children’s product that contains a priority chemical may
be required to conduct an alternatives assessment. Draft
regulations being developed by California’s Department of
Toxic Substances Control Authority would also require
companies using a chemical of concern in certain product
categories to conduct an alternatives assessment (36). To
support these and related efforts, the Toxics Use Reduction
Institute at the University of Massachusetts Lowell is leading
a multistate initiative to develop consistent methodologies
for assessing alternatives to toxic chemicals (37).
Prior to this new wave of legislative efforts, some states
alreadyhadprogramsinplacetoincreasetransparencyabout
toxic chemicals in consumer products, including toys.
California’s Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act
VOL. xxx, NO. xx, XXXX / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 C
4. of 1986, more commonly known as Proposition 65, requires
businesses to notify consumers when a product contains
any chemical that is “known to the state of California to
cause cancer or reproductive toxicity (38).” Eight states
require companies selling mercury (Hg)-added products to
submitdetailedproductinformationtoacentralizeddatabase
(39).
Finally, efforts to gain more information about toxic
chemicals in toys may benefit from a new project, led by the
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) under the
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management
(SAICM), to form a harmonized international information
system on chemicals in products. In 2009, UNEP conducted
a global survey of stakeholders and identified toys and
children’s products as a high priority sector for UNEP’s
continued work (40).
2. Nongovernmental responses. Since 2007, two U.S.
organizationshaveworkedtofillinformationgapsbycreating
web-based systems to give consumers information on
chemicals in toys and other products. The Michigan-based
Ecology Center (41) tests toys and other consumer products
for the presence of six chemicals that can be detected with
an X-ray fluorescence (XRF) sensor: Pb, Cd, chlorine (Cl),
arsenic (As), bromine (Br), and Hg. The database provides
a rating (high, medium, or low concern) for each product.
GoodGuide provides information on the environmental,
social, and health performance of products and companies
by integrating information from a variety of data sources.
GoodGuide provides information on more than 65,000
products, including toys, food, and household and personal
care products. It provides both a summary score for health/
social/environmental attributes and individual scores so that
consumers can focus on a particular attribute (42).
In 2009, EcoLogo, an environmental certification orga-
nization, launched a public stakeholder process to develop
an eco-label for toys (43). This standard, to be finalized by
December 2010, will consider the entire product life cycle in
determining criteria for safe, healthy, and environmentally
sustainable toys. These criteria will provide valuable design
guidance for manufacturers that choose to lead in this arena.
3. Industry responses. The leading U.S. trade group for
toy manufacturers, the Toy Industry Association, has created
the Toy Safety Certification Program, designed to ensure that
toys sold in the U.S. conform to the requirements of the
CPSIA and the toy safety standard, ASTM F963. This program
is valuable to manufacturers as it provides a consistent
evaluation method and is designed to minimize testing costs.
It requires a hazard/risk analysis in the design stage, factory
audits, and production sample testing. However, it does not
go beyond ensuring compliance with existing safety standards.
Some small and medium-sized toy companies are taking
leadership in developing environmentally sustainable toys.
The Eco-Toy Alliance, a partnership of four small toy
companies, has created a Web site to educate consumers
about the attributes of eco-friendly toys and market their
products (44). This may signify a trend among smaller and
start-up companies to use green product features to their
strategic advantage. In February 2010, the New York Toy
Fair, one of the world’s largest toy trade shows, included an
“earth-friendly product zone” for the first time.
The company World Environmental Regulatory Compli-
ance Solutions (The WERCS) has developed a tool called the
GreenWERCS Chemical Screening Tool that evaluates chemi-
cal products such as paints and cleaning products for human
and environmental health risks and scores products on this
basis. The WERCS keeps formulation data confidential but
provides retailers with information on chemical hazards. In
principle, retailers can use this information to compare
competing products and encourage suppliers to substitute
safer ingredients for harmful ones (45). Although the Green-
WERCS tool is not currently used for toys, this approach
couldbeappliedtochildren’sproducts.Business-to-business
transparency initiatives may prove to be powerful drivers of
change if retailers use this information to select greener
products and motivate their suppliers to redesign products.
Some large retailers are working with suppliers to define
design elements for eco-friendly toys and in some cases to
create private label products that meet these criteria. For
example, in March 2008 Toys R Us announced a new line of
eco-friendly toys, including those made with FSC certified
wood and organic cotton (46). While it is not clear how
retailers enforce requirements, these actions signal the
potential power of the retail sector to drive market changes.
Recommendations for government and industry
WhatdoestheU.S.governmentneedtodo?Newregulations
on individual chemicals have had some effect on toys sold
in the U.S. CPSC recalls for Pb in toys have decreased
significantly, from over 17 million units in 2007, to 1.3 million
in 2008, to approximately 110,000 in 2009 (47). However,
eliminating toxic chemicals in children’s products is still a
distant goal.
With over 80,000 chemicals in commerce, it is clear that
a chemical-by-chemical regulatory approach cannot solve
theproblem.Asolutionwillrequiresignificantpolicychanges
(48).Fourkeyelementsshouldbepartoftheseimprovements.
1. Ban or restrict the use of chemicals with well-
documented toxicity in toys and other children’s products. At
a minimum, these include persistent, bioaccumulative, and
toxic chemicals (PBTs), carcinogens, mutagens, and repro-
ductive toxicants (CMRs), neurotoxicants, and endocrine
disruptors. To be effective and avoid unintended conse-
quences, such restrictions must delineate categories of
chemicals rather than simply regulating individual toxic
chemicals. The EU’s approach to CMRs in the Toy Safety
Directive may provide a model.
2. Ensureconsumers’“righttoknow”abouttoxicchemicals
inchildren’sproducts.Thefederalgovernmentshoulddevelop
requirements for labeling products with information about
toxicconstituents,aswellassubmissionofdatatocentralized
databases.
In addition to empowering consumers to protect them-
selves, transparency changes the marketplace. Transparency
requirements can motivate manufacturers to change their
practices to avoid embarrassing disclosures and maintain
market share (49). For example, California’s Proposition 65
has motivated many companies to reformulate or redesign
products to eliminate or reduce the presence of a toxic
chemical (50, 51).
3. Require chemical manufacturers to generate and dis-
close basic toxicity information for all chemicals. Responsi-
bility for demonstrating the safety of chemicals should rest
with chemical manufacturers, rather than government.
Application of this principle is needed to improve the safety
of children’s products and consumer products in general
and is at the core of the EU’s REACH legislation. Current
work to implement these new requirements in the EU can
serve as a head start for industry and regulators in the U.S.
The Toxic Chemicals Safety Act, introduced in Congress in
July 2010, includes a requirement for disclosure of chemical
ingredients, with protection of confidential business infor-
mation (52).
4. Promote the design and development of safer children’s
products. The federal government should provide incentives
to encourage manufacturers to develop safer chemicals,
materials, and products, by increasing its support of green
chemistry and green design research and development in
industry and academia. The EPA’s Green Chemistry and
Design for Environment programs should be expanded. In
addition, the federal government should actively support
D 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. xxx, NO. xx, XXXX
5. the work of states that are working to develop consistent
methodologies for alternatives assessment of chemicals.
What does the toy industry need to do? In parallel with
efforts by government to improve regulation of chemicals in
toys, there are significant opportunities for the toy industry
to take proactive measures.
1. Identify chemicals of concern and establish robust
systemstotestforthesechemicals.Oneimportantstepforward
for the toy industry would be to develop a list of chemicals
of concern that are found in children’s products. This
information would enable the toy sector to be proactive in
eliminating these chemicals where safer alternatives are
available, and jointly to pursue research on safer substitutes
where alternatives do not yet exist. Many other sectors,
including electronics, apparel (53), and automotive (54), have
worked together to develop lists of substances of concern,
and have created systems for improving information flow
about chemicals throughout their large and complex global
supply chains.
2. Engage openly with stakeholders. It would be useful
for the industry to interact more directly with all of its
stakeholders, including children’s environmental health
advocates, to address concerns about toxic chemicals. One
avenue for this engagement would be participation in the
Business-NGO Working Group, a collaboration of business
leaders from leading companies and nongovernmental
organizations that are working together to encourage the
use of safer chemicals in consumer products (55). This group
is convened by the nonprofit organization Clean Production
Action. The Green Chemistry and Commerce Council, a
network of some 100 firms and other organizations com-
mittedtodevelopingsaferchemicalsandmaterials,convened
by the Lowell Center for Sustainable Production at the
University of Massachusetts Lowell, is another valuable
resource (56).
3. Develop a sustainability roadmap. The toy industry
shoulddeveloparoadmapforthedevelopmentofsustainable
children’s products. Eliminating hazardous chemicals from
children’s products, while a critical goal, does not ensure
that these products are safe, healthy, and environmentally
sound throughout their life cycles. Numerous reports pub-
lished over the past decade by advocacy groups and industry
auditing organizations have documented unhealthy and
hazardous working conditions in toy factories (57, 58).
As a place to start, the toy industry can use the criteria
beingdevelopedbyenvironmentalcertificationorganizations
to encourage companies to design and manufacture safer
and greener products. Additional tools and resources are
also available (59). For example, the Lowell Center for
Sustainable Production has developed a tool for product
designersandmanufacturerstohelpevaluateenvironmental,
social, and economic impacts of existing products and to
design new products that minimize these impacts (60). This
framework can be used to redesign products and production
systems in advance of new regulations.
The road ahead
Concern over the problem of toxic chemicals in toys is
growing. Although significant action has been taken by
government, industry, and the advocacy community, new
revelationsmakeitclearthattheproblemhasyettobesolved.
The recent findings on Cd in children’s jewelry and other
children’s products have again ignited passions and are
triggering new, narrowly focused federal and state legislative
proposals in the U.S. (61).
New efforts to solve this problem would benefit from a
better understanding of the root causes, a clear view of the
roles of government, manufacturers, and retailers, and an
awareness of the constructive role that the nonprofit sector
can play. Effective regulation is an essential precondition,
necessary to establish an acceptable baseline level of safety
for product manufacturers, as well as for the government
agencies that are responsible for enforcing safety standards.
The road ahead will certainly be challenging. However, until
significant changes in policy and practice occur, consumers
cannot be confident that products they purchase for children
are safe, healthy, and environmentally sustainable.
Monica Becker has been an independent consultant for the past 2
years, working with government, industry, and academic organiza-
tions. Consulting contracts during this time were with: the Green
Chemistry and Commerce Council based at the University of Mas-
sachusetts Lowell; Green Depot (an on-line retailer of green products);
Harris Corporation; United Nations Environment Programme; the
New York Industrial Retention Network and the Rochester Institute
of Technology. Prior to that Ms. Becker held management positions
at the Rochester Institute of Technology, Golisano Institute for
Sustainability for 10 years. Sally Edwards is a Research Associate at
the Lowell Center for Sustainable Production at the University of
Massachusetts Lowell. Her work is currently funded by the New York
Community Trust and the Merck Family Fund. She is also serving as
an advisor to EcoLogo, an environmental certification organization
that is developing an eco-label for toys. She receives an honorarium
for this work from TerraChoice, the company that administers the
EcoLogo program. In her work to promote the development of
sustainable children’s products, Dr. Edwards interacts with many
manufacturers and retailers. In 2009, as a contractor to the Blu Skye
sustainability consulting firm she prepared slide presentations on toy
sustainability issues and design priorities for Walmart toy merchan-
disers to present to their major toy suppliers in China.Rachel Massey
is Policy Analyst and Policy Program Manager at the Massachusetts
Toxics Use Reduction Institute at the University of Massachusetts
Lowell. The Institute’s work is funded by the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts under the Toxics Use Reduction Act. Ms. Massey has
also received project funding from the Swedish Chemicals Agency and
the United Nations Environment Programme. Please address cor-
respondence regarding this article to monica@monicabecker.com.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Janet Hutchins for significant contribu-
tions to researching and drafting this article; Ken Geiser, Joel
Tickner, Yve Torrie, and Cathy Crumbley for detailed
comments; and Ann Blake for the photo.
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