Writing for the Web from Web Copywriting to SEO Copywriting and Content Marketing, with a focus on Hospitality Digital Marketing

UNIVERSITA’ TELEMATICA “e-Campus”
Facoltà di LETTERE
Corso di Laurea in
Lingue e Letterature Moderne e Traduzione Interculturale
WRITING FOR THE WEB: FROM WEB COPYWRITING TO SEO
COPYWRITING AND CONTENT MARKETING, WITH A FOCUS ON
HOSPITALITY DIGITAL MARKETING
Relatore:
Ch.mo Prof. Paolo Pepe
Correlatore:
Ch.ma Prof.ssa Savina Stevanato
Tesi di Laurea di:
Valentina Iannaco
Matricola numero 005019200
Anno Accademico 2015/2016

I
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Jakob Nielsen, 2007

III
INDEX
Introduction………………………………………………………………………… p.V
1. Principles of Web Usability 2.0: how people use Websites and how a
Website should welcome its visitors…………………………………………………. p.1
2. Web Design and SEO: how to optimize Websites for both search engines
and users…………………………………………………………………………….. p.9
3. How to write for the Web: a Web Copywriting guide……………………… p.15
3.1 How and what people read on the Internet………………………………….. p.17
3.2 Writing 2.0: the Inverted Pyramid style…………………………………….. p.19
3.3 Web Copywriting principles……………………………………………….. p.22
3.3.1 Writing and formatting…...…………………………….……………….. p.24
3.3.2 Tone and voice………...……………………………….……………….. p.28
3.4 Web Copywriting is Pragmatic 2.0………………..……………………….. p.31
4. SEO Copywriting: how to create persuasive content that ranks well
in search engines………………………………………………………...……… p.35
4.1 SEO Copywriting principles………….………………………………….. p.37
4.2 The 5 essential elements to focus on………………………………….. p.39
4.2.1 Title…………………………………………………………………… p.39
4.2.2 Meta-description…..…………………………………………………. p.40
4.2.3 Content……...……...………………………………………………… p.41

IV
4.2.4 Keyword frequency………………...………………………………… p.43
4.2.5 Linking out and call to action………..………………………………. p.46
4.3 How to create persuasive content on the Web…………………………. p.48
5. Focus on Hospitality Digital Marketing………………………………. p.53
5.1 Web Design for Hospitality: some guidelines to create the perfect
Website for hotel…………………………………………………………….. p.55
5.2 Hotel Copywriting: best practices and tips…………………………….. p.68
5.3 Case history: interview to Laura Boniega, Web Editor-in-chief at
Titanka! Spa Web Company and Margherita Nieri, Web Editor-in-
chief at QNT Hospitality srl – Booking Blog Web Company…………. p.82
5.3.1 Interview results and conclusions…………………………………….. p.91
6. Content Marketing: how to build an audience to build a business…. p.95
6.1 Difference between Content Marketing and Copywriting……………... p.96
6.2 How to use contents to find customers: essentials and tips……………. p.98
6.3 How travel brands lead the Content Marketing conversations: some case
histories………………………………………………………………….. p.103
7. Conclusion………………………………………………………………. p.117
Bibliography……………………………………….…………………………. p.119

Writing for the Web: from Web Copywriting to SEO Copywriting and Content Marketing,
with a Focus on Hospitality Digital Marketing
1
1. Principles of Web Usability 2.0: how people use Websites and how a Website should
welcome its visitors
The concept of usability has been officially defined by International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)1
and International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)2
through
ISO 9241-11:19983
and ISO/IEC 25010:20114
, two standards that aim to establish software
quality requirements.
They describe usability as the degree to which a product can be used to achieve users’
specified goals “with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use”5
.
Following these principles, Jakob Nielsen6
, the world's leading expert on Web usability, states
that it is characterized by five quality components7
:
i. Learnability: how easy the system is for users to accomplish basic tasks the first time
they encounter its design;
ii. Efficiency of Use: how quickly users can perform their tasks, once they have learned the
design of a product;
iii. Memorability: when users return to the system after a period of not employing it, how
easily they can reestablish proficiency;
iv. Amount of errors: the quantity and extent of errors that users make, how severe they are
and how easily users can recover from them;
1
ISO is an organization that promotes worldwide proprietary, industrial and commercial standards in
order to create products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality.
2
IEC is an international standards organization that publishes International standards for all electrical,
electronic and related technologies (known as "electrotechnology")
3
ISO 9241-11:1998, Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs), 1998,
in https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso:9241:-11:ed-1:v1:en:sec:D
4
ISO/IEC 25010:2011, Systems and software engineering — Systems and software Quality
Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE) — System and software quality models, 2011, in
https://www.iso.org/obp/ui/#iso:std:iso-iec:25010:ed-1:v1:en
5
Ibidem
6
Jakob Nielsen is a User Advocate expert in usability engineering and user interfaces. He often publishes
important articles on usability topics.
7
Nielsen, J., Usability Engineering, Academic Press, Boston, 1993, p. 26

2
v. Subjective Satisfaction: how pleasant the system is to use.
According to these elements, any device has to be designed following a simple and natural
dialogue with its end user8
. People demand that their task must be completed easily, quickly and
effortless9
, so this tool has to facilitate the execution of tasks and help users to complete them,
minimizing user memory load. It must be flexible and coherent and prevent errors.
Referred to Web resources, usability is a quality attribute relating to how easy a
Website is to use. In particular, it refers to how quickly people can learn to use it, how efficient
they are while using it, how memorable it is, how it is prone to errors and how much users like
using it.
Today usability has become more important than ever, because it empowers people and
makes it easier and more pleasant to handle the technology that is invading every aspect of
modern life10
.
At the same time, the growth of search engines has allowed people to type a few words
and get a list of companies that are competing to solve their problems and satisfy their needs.
People expect a lot of Internet sites today, and are less tolerant of bad design and usability errors
because they assume that sites work.
Today it is the time of Web Usability 2.0 because the Web is improved and more
usable designs are adopted and, most of all, because usability supports business goals on the
Web, helping companies to gain money.
Usability has increased substantially in terms of how quickly and how well users can
get things done on Web resources. Because the Web is the ultimate competitive environment,
once people can use almost all sites, they will still tend to use the ones that serve them best11
.
8
Sentinelli M., L’usabilità dei nuovi media, Roma, Carocci, 2003
9
Hospitality School, The Online Copywriting Manifesto: sapete scrivere per il Web?, 2013, in
http://www.hospitalityschool.it/the-online-copywriting-manifesto-leggere-attentamente-prima-di-
scrivere/
10
Nielsen J., Loranger H., Web Usability 2.0 l’usabilità che conta, Milano, Apogeo, 2006, p. xxvi
11
Ibidem, p. 24

3
A Website must be competitive and attractive because people do not like to waste time
on the Internet. On average, people spend 1 minute and 49 seconds visiting a site before they
decide to abandon it and move on. On the final site they visit while working on a task, they
spend an average of 3 minutes and 29 seconds12
.
The way they search for information is called Information Foraging, like animals
while looking for food. This theory assumes that users constantly make decisions on what kind
of information to look for, for example stay at the current page to try to find additional
information, which path or link to follow and when to finally stop the search.
The aim is to optimize their searching behavior and, simultaneously, to minimize the
thinking required. Information foraging’s most famous concept is the Information Scent: users
rely on various cues in the information environment to get similar answers. When users no
longer expect to find useful additional information, they move to a different information source.
In the same way, they will leave if the content is good but hard to find or if it is easy to
find but not satisfying13
.The most effective sites at directing people to the right place are those
that match their expectations. Thus, it is important to enhance information scent and support
short visits.
A good Web Design that follows the principles of Usability 2.0 assumes that the key of
success is simplicity. Users experience the usability of a Website before making any purchase
decisions, thus a well-structured site will give users what they want when they want it.
A good navigation is important to have a usable site that welcomes and guides users in
achieving their objectives.
Nielsen suggests some useful guidelines to follow for applying these requirements14
:
i. Although it is important to consider the newest devices, the best screen size must be
1024×768, but it also looks good to the 800×600 setting, or even smaller. It’s important
12
Ibidem, p. 27
13
Ibidem, p. 53
14
Nielsen J., Web Usability, Milano, Apogeo, 2001, p. 164

4
that a Web resource satisfies user experience across multiple devices and has to look the
same in every browser15
;
ii. Name and logo must be placed on every page. The logo must link to the home page,
except on the home page itself;
iii. A search box must be provided if the site has more than 100 pages. Beforehand, it is
important to test if the Website search gives fast and accurate results;
iv. Have a coherent structure for organizing the content showing its functionality. The most
common structure is to categorize pages into groups, often with distinct subgroups. The
result is a hierarchy of content, a structure familiar to most of users from interactions
with Internet sites, where they form their expectations for how the Web works. Having
a good structure is critical, because it determines whether or not users are successful in
finding desired information and completing tasks;
v. Avoid scrolling and the page structure must facilitate scanning. For example, grouping
and subheadings can break a long list into several smaller units16
;
vi. Provide user tools such as contact, subscribe, save, sign in, share, change view, print.
These activities strongly affect the visitors' satisfaction. Utilities must be put where
people expect and need them, for example to the top-right corner of Web pages as
regards contacts or search, or in bottom navigation areas like subscribe tools
(newsletters, social media, etc.)17
;
vii. Let users know where they are in the Website's information architecture, which must
communicate their current location by “breadcrumbs”. They are graphical elements
that expose the information hierarchy in a linked path and reveal the user's location in
the form of Home page > Section page > Subsection page. They show people their
15
Anderson, S., What Is The Best Screen Size To Design For?, 2016, in http://www.hobo-web.co.uk/best-
screen-size/
16
Nielsen, J., 10 Good Deeds in Web Design, 1999, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/ten-good-
deeds-in-web-design/
17
Farrel, S., Utility Navigation: What It Is and How to Design It, 2015, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/utility-navigation/

5
current location, afford one-click access to higher site levels and take up very little
space on the page18
;
viii. Menus must be visible and put in familiar location. They have to be coordinate with
user tasks and let them preview lower-level content;
ix. Instead of cramming everything about a product or topic into a single and infinite page,
hypertext must structure the content space. The goal is to allow users to avoid wasting
time on those subtopics that don't concern them;
x. Link titles must provide users with a preview of where each link will take
them, before they have clicked on it. Link structure must respect convention: blue,
underlined text means hyperlink or “Click here”, or text colors have to contrast with the
background color;
xi. Headlines must be unambiguous and simple. Page titles must clearly explain what the
page is about;
xii. All important pages have to be accessible for users with disabilities, especially blind
users.
xiii. Product photos must be few and of high quality. They have to show as much detail as
users need;
The command of Web Usability 2.0 is designing for simplicity for gaining persuasion and
improve both user experience and business profits. Bryan and Jeffrey Eisenberg translate this
concept in the message “KISS your customers if you want them back”, where KISS is the short
for Keep It Simple, Stupid19
.
According to their point of view, this notion is the principle of persuasion on the Web and
they add some hints to Nielsen’s guidelines:
i. Limit page load times: the best Websites load in about 10 seconds;
18
Nielsen, J., Breadcrumb Navigation Increasingly Useful, 2007, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/breadcrumb-navigation-useful/
19
Eisenberg B., Eisenberg J., Davis L.T. Call to Action: Secret Formulas to Improve Online Results,
Tennesee, Thomas Nelson Inc., 2005, p. 109

6
ii. Make clear, string text immediately available: on the Web, visitors look first to relevant
text, not graphics;
iii. Make everything obvious: users must clearly see all the information and if they can’t
find a function, they’ll assume that it is not there;
iv. Do not assume the reader is an expert user: the site prospects must have simple and
clear instructions and tools to guide visitors;
v. Earn respect by attention to details: check for typos, grammatical errors, screen error
messages, images that do not open, browser compatibility problems and functions that
do not work.
The mirror of a Website that respects Usability 2.0 guidelines is the home page. It is the first
page visited on a Website and the first to be abandoned. People need from 25 to 35 seconds to
take this decision, so there is very little time to make a good first impression20
.
A home page must communicate four important goals to readers in less than one minute:
i. What site they are arrived at;
ii. What benefits the company offers them;
iii. The most important information about the company;
iv. How to get the most relevant sections for users’ purposes.
All messages have to be to the point, thus Nielsen also states some precious guidelines for
Homepage Usability Design21
:
i. Include a one-sentence tagline that summarizes what the site or company does;
ii. Write a window title with the company name, followed by a brief description of the site;
iii. Group all corporate information in one distinct area, such as an "About <company-
name>" section;
20
Nielsen. J. Web Usability 2.0…cit. p. 30
21
Nielsen. J., Top 10 Guidelines for Homepage Usability, 2002, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/top-ten-guidelines-for-homepage-usability/

7
iv. Emphasize the site's top high-priority task and the real benefits: the homepage should
offer users a clear starting point for the main tasks they will undertake when visiting it;
v. Begin link names with the most important keywords: links are the action items on a
homepage, and when each link starts with a relevant word, it is easier to differentiate its
content from other text on the page;
vi. Do not overload the page with elaborate illustrations, boxes, and colors: users often
dismiss graphics and focus on the parts of the homepage that look more likely to be
useful. Use meaningful graphics such as photos of real people and products actually
connected to the topic.
Web Usability 2.0 pursues a new measure of a Website success. If design aims to make the
site’s purpose clear, help users find what they need and use visual elements to enhance
interaction and gain a satisfying experience, it will achieve success.
User success is the bottom line of usability and of the new concept of conversion, namely when
visitors take an action that you want them to take on the Website. Conversion is the evolution of
usability success as far as all the elements on a Website pursue the act of converting site visitors
into paying clients, starting from their first visit to the completion of their task.

8

9
2. Web Design and SEO: how to optimize Websites for both search engines and
users
The search engine is the dominant means for people looking for solutions on the Internet: the
Web’s strength comes from narrow targeted sites that provide users with the highly specialized
information that they need22
.
A major change over the years has been a decline in using search just to identify a good
site to visit. Now people are looking for answers, so they use search engines to find specific pages
related to their specific needs. The aim of search engines is to answer questions. This changing
behavior is explained by the theory of the information foraging: the easier is to track down new
resources, the less time users spend at each resource23
. Thus, improvement of search quality is
the trend that search engines are following.
All the main search engines such as Google, Bing and Yahoo have primary search results,
where Web pages and other contents are shown and ranked based on what they consider most
relevant to users.
The Search Engine Results Page is referred to as a SERP. It is important to know that
users do not see more than one SERP per query, and sometimes most of them do not ever bother
reviewing the entire page, but just the part of the Web page that is visible on screen without
scrolling. They usually type two or three words, look at the top few listings (but they abandon
them after less than two minutes if they are not useful) and view most site pages for less than half
minute.
This empirical evidence favors the importance of having a usable site driving high-quality
information and, at the same time, it is essential to appear among the earlier results of the search
engine. The process of affecting the visibility of a Web page in a search engine's unpaid results is
22
23
Ibidem, p. 37

10
called “Search Engine Optimization” or simply SEO. With this notion, optimizing a Web site for
search engines means following some best practices in order to get traffic from the “free,”
“organic,” or “natural” search results.
At first, it is important to understand how search engine works. A Web search engine is a software
system that is made up of the following main elements24
:
i. Spider software: an Internet bot which systematically browses the World Wide Web
fetching all the Web pages linked to a Website;
ii. Index software: indexing collects, and stores data keeping them into a giant database
from where it can later be retrieved. This facilitates fast and accurate information retrieval
because the process is identifying the words and expressions that best describe the page
and assigning the page to particular keywords;
iii. Query software: when a user enters a few keywords25
into a search engine,
the index already has the names of these queries, the sites containing the keywords, and
these are instantly obtained from the index. The real processing load is in generating the
Web pages that are the search results list.
Results are listed through the search engine’s set of algorithms that aim to retrieve information
by relevance26
and popularity27
.
There are some important techniques of On-page SEO that search engines recommend as part of
a good design28
:
24
Boscaro A., Porta R., Tecniche di Web Marketing, Milano, FrancoAngeli, 2008, p. 22
25
A Keyword is a word or a phrase of two or three words, which has been identified as one that
potential customers use when they are searching the internet. In order for the search engine indexes to
offer a web page as a relevant result to searching customers, this word or phrase must appear visibly in
this site and ideally in the source code of this web page.
26
Relevance denotes how well a retrieved document meets the information need of the user. It may
include concerns such as timeliness, authority or novelty of the result.
27
Link popularity describes the value of a Web site, where the measurement is based on the quantity
of quality inbound links (also called backlinks) to its pages
28
Stratton, K., SEO Checklist: Drive Traffic with Perfectly Optimized Pages, in
http://altitudemarketing.com/seo-checklist/

11
i. Offer a clear information architecture where the site structure matches user
expectations and tasks: in this way, they will find all that they need in the places they
expect29
. A clear navigation system is essential, so that search engines can deduce the
central status of pages. Keeping a consistent navigational structure helps people visualize
their current location and options within the site30
.
Every Web page must include three design elements to tell users where they are arrived
and how they can proceed to other parts of the site: company name or logo in the upper
left corner, one-click link to the homepage and search button (in the upper right corner)31
.
If the site has hierarchical information architecture, the best way to orient users is a
breadcrumb trail: links that indicate the user’s current location in the context of the
site’s hierarchy;
ii. SEO keywords are the keywords and phrases in a Website that make it possible for
people to find it via search engines. A Website that is well optimized for search engines
"speaks the same language" as its potential visitor base with keywords that help connect
searchers to the site. Keywords must be repeated three to 10 times within body copy;
iii. Design and layout give the first impression about a site. If it is too complicated, then the
search engine would not be able to examine its content properly, and finally indexing
would not be efficient, which results in a low rank32
. Thus, it is important to avoid frames,
ads, fancy stuff (such as flash or rollovers);
iv. Relevant and engaging images and videos can increase time on site. Images can be
compressed to boost site speed33
and it’s advised to include not more than one multimedia
type (video, audio) per page;
29
30
Ibidem, p. 178
31
Ibidem, p. 27
32
Tutorialspoint, White Hat SEO, in http://www.tutorialspoint.com/seo/seo-quick-guide.htm
33
Dean, B., On-Page SEO: Anatomy of a Perfectly Optimized Page, 2015, in http://backlinko.com/on-
page-seo

12
v. Leverage SEO-Friendly Permalink URLs34
: Google has stated that the first 3-5 words in
a URL are given more weight. Create short URLs that include the target keyword: these
URLs make a small but significant difference in rankings;
vi. Each page should have a Title tag35
: an HTML36
title whose copy should be unique,
include the target keyword or target phrase, should be no longer than 65 characters (any
longer, and Google will truncate it anyway) and must start with a keyword;
vii. Every page should have a Meta Description tag: it is the marketing copy for a page. The
meta description in the page HTML head-tag set usually appears with the organic search
listing, and induces readers to click through. The meta description tag should be no longer
than 155 characters (tags over this will be truncated in results), and should include a target
phrase;
viii. The Header tag or the <h1> tag in HTML, will usually be the title of a post, or other
emphasized text on a page. It will be usually the largest text that stands out and must
contain a keyword. There are other header tags in HTML too, like an h2, h3, h4, and
others;
ix. ALT tag is an attribute of an image that is meant to be an alternative for non-visual
browsers when they encounter images37
. This attribute is important because search
engines gain a better understanding of what a Website is about with the keywords in an
alt attribute. Search engines cannot “see” images, so this will result in more traffic to a
34
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the Web address of an online resource that specifies its location
on a computer network. A permalink is a URL that points to a specific Web page.
35
Meta tag are terms used in HTML documents and they help describe an item and allows it to be found
again by browsing or searching
36
HyperText Markup Language, commonly referred to as HTML, is the standard markup language used
to create web pages
37
EConsultancy, The basics of using Alt Text for SEO, 2013, in https://econsultancy.com/blog/63845-the-
basics-of-using-alt-text-for-seo/

13
site. Some basics of using alt text for images are: keep the text short, mention the topic
of the page and avoid keyword stuffing38
;
x. Use descriptive Anchor text39
for all text links. The anchor title should have appropriate
keywords;
xi. Outbound links to related pages is a relevancy signal that helps Google figure out the
Web page’s topic. Include not more than two outbound links to authority sites (popular
blogs, news sites and .edu and .gov resources) in every piece of content. Add two or three
internal links that point at another section of the same Website or domain;
xii. Include social media links or social sharing buttons. Pages with active visitor interaction
are scored higher than static pages. Even if social signals may not effect directly a
Website ranking, they generate more eyeballs on its content;
xiii. Provide the HTML sitemap: it is a list of pages of a Web site accessible to crawlers or
users. It is a Web page that lists the pages on a Web site, organized hierarchically.
These techniques conform the Website to the search engine's guidelines, ensure that the content
a search engine indexes, and then ranks, is the same content a user will see. At the same time,
they ensure that a Web page content should have been created for the users and not just for the
search engines; they guarantee good quality of the Web pages and availability of useful content
on the Web pages40
.
Initially, Search Engine Optimization and usability seem to be two distinct topics, because
SEO is about attracting people to a site by making sure it shows up in search queries, while
usability is about people's behavior after they arrive on a site, with the main goal being to increase
the conversion rate41
. However, both need to be good for a Website to succeed: having great SEO
38
Keyword stuffing is a SEO technique, in which a web page is loaded with keywords in the meta tags or
in content of a web page. It may lead to a Website being banned or penalized in search ranking
39
Anchor text is the visible, clickable text in a hyperlink.
40
Dean, B., On-Page SEO: Anatomy…, cit.
41
Nielsen. J., SEO and Usability, 2012, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/seo-and-usability/

14
but bad usability means that you will get lots of traffic, but the visitors will not turn into customers.
On the other hand, a site with great usability but bad SEO simply will not get many visitors.
A search engine's ultimate goal is to help users find the best solutions to their needs. Thus,
it is reasonable to design usable Websites to work well with search engines. In order to reach this
purpose, it is important to follow standard design principles, for the simple reason that users
spend most of their time on other Websites42
.
In visiting all these other sites, people become accustomed to the prevailing design
standards and conventions. Standards design ensure that users know what features to expect, how
they will look in the interface and to find them on the site and know how to use these features to
achieve their goal.
All these guidelines belong to what Nielsen calls Architectural and Reputation SEO43
:
i. Architectural SEO is about the logical hierarchy of the Website by means of a carefully
planned internal linking structure that matches the search engine algorithm's standard of
evaluation for "authority". The result is that your target market finds your Website and
visitors become customers because your Website speaks their language, conveys
authority, is intuitive to navigate, and satisfies their needs;
ii. Reputation SEO is about the inbound links of a Web page: high-quality links pointing
to a Website increase the likelihood of the Website ranking highly in search engine
results.
The third aspect is Linguistic SEO, whose aim is helping determine the most beneficial language
to use within online content and it allows a Website content to speak to both the search engine
and the human consumer. It is about Web and SEO Copywriting, whose aim is to create high-
value contents to convert visitors to clients and traffic to sales.
42
Nielsen, J., The Need for Web Design Standards, 2004, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/the-
need-for-web-design-standards/
43

15
3. How to write for the Web: a Web Copywriting guide
As the Web continues to evolve, Copywriting has had a similar transformation. Web 2.0
influences the way of writing on the Internet in several aspects44
:
i. Writing on Internet is not linear because the Web is an active medium. On the Internet,
content is searchable and users surf among vast stores of information in order to find
something that specifically meets their immediate needs;
ii. Content-sharing Internet and wiki-based45
Websites enable anyone to post: writing
conforms to sharing and cooperation rules;
iii. Contents are enriched by conversations: posts, online newspaper articles and other
sources allow readers to leave a comment or open a discussion about the topic;
iv. Multimedia contents bonds writing with images, videos, audio and slideshows in a
useful and engaging way;
v. Mobile media time is now greater than desktop and other media. Thus content must be
mobile friendly: readable and usable on mobile devices.
User behavior in relation to Internet content is often paradoxical46
:
i. They go to Websites for information.
ii. Once arrived on a Website, they scarcely read anything during an average Website visit,
but look for the most relevant information that can give them quickly the impression to
be arrived on the right site.
44
Lorenzetti L. Scrivere 2.0. Gli strumenti del Web 2.0 al servizio di chi scrive, Milano, Hoepli, 2010, p. 2
45
A Wiki is a Website which allows collaborative modification of its content and structure directly from
the Web browser
46
Nielsen, J., Website Reading: It (Sometimes) Does Happen, 2013, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/website-reading/

16
Content is all that matters on the Web. People are drowning in newsletters and emails, social
media updates, and promos47
. This is truly the age of information overwhelm. Furthermore,
mobile devices allow users to always write and especially read, more than ever before.
The main purpose of Copywriting is to persuade a reader to take a certain action:
making a purchase, subscribing to a newsletter, or calling for more information48
.
This aim clearly shows how the basics of Copywriting lie in the “Speech Act Theory” studies.
A Speech Act is the basic unit of communication: when one speaks, one performs an act.
We use everyday conversation not just by uttering something to one another, but using the speech
acts that those utterances are used to perform: requests, warnings, invitations, promises,
apologies, predictions, and the like.
In his famous work, “How to do Things with Words”, J. L. Austin outlined his theory of
Speech Acts and the concept of performative language, in which to say something is to do
something. According to Austin's theory, what we say has three kinds of meaning49
:
i. Locutionary or propositional meaning: the literal meaning of what is said;
ii. Illocutionary meaning: the social function of what is said, such as ordering or
undertaking. The purpose of a promise is that it is an undertaking of an obligation by the
speaker to do something;
iii. Perlocutionary meaning: the actual effect of a speech act at the level of its psychological
consequences. Namely, it deals with what we bring about or achieve by saying something,
such as convincing or persuading.
Speech Act Theory attempts to explain how speakers use language to accomplish intended actions
and how hearers infer intended meaning from what is said. According to this theory, a Speech
47
Herzog, E., 8 Tips On Writing Content That People Want to Read Right Now, 2015, in
http://blog.getresponse.com/8-tips-on-writing-content-that-people-want-to-read-right-
now.html#more-21279
48
Copyblogger Media, LLC, Internet Marketing for Smart People, 2014, in
http://my.copyblogger.com/basic/imfsp/, p. 15
49
Austin, J. L., How to do things with words, London, Harvard University Press, 1962, p. 98

17
Act is defined in terms of a speaker's intention and the effect it has on a listener. Thus, it concerns
with the ways in which words can be used to carry out actions, not only to present information.
Copywriting follows just the same aim, because it uses compelling content and call to
actions (illocutionary acts) for the purpose of advertising or marketing, thus for convincing people
to buy a product (perlocutory act). However, for successfully reaching these goals, it is important
to follow some basic Copywriting guidelines. First, it is important to start knowing what people
read on the Web and how they do it.
3.1. How and what people read on the Internet
In 1997, Jakob Nielsen answered the question about how users read on the Web using two simple
words: “They don't”50
. The meaning of his answer is that people scan the Web page, picking out
individual words and sentences, instead then reading word by word.
The maxim of online users is “no waiting”: if the information is not put in front of them
this instant, they will not wait for it, but they will fasten somewhere else51
. They want the
information that they are looking for just right now, without having to dig for it. No waiting and
no work: that is what Web users want.
Provided that, Nielsen listed the three main principles for writing for the Web52
:
i. Be succinct: reading from computer screens is about 25% slower than reading from
paper. People do not want to read a lot of text from computer screens. It is not just a
matter of screen readability, because actual screens with high resolution have as good
readability as paper: it is a matter of feeling good. As a result, a good Web content must
be written with 50% less text in order to be concise;
50
Nielsen, J., How Users Read on the Web, 1997, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/how-users-read-
on-the-web/
51
Miller M., Scrivere per il Web. Diventare un Web Copywriter e catturare l’attenzione dei clienti, Milano,
Hoepli, 2013, p. 9
52
Nielsen, J., Web usability 2.0…cit., p. 31

18
ii. Write for scannability: users spend 1 minute and 49 seconds visiting a Website before
they decide to abandon it and the average time spent on the homepage is 25-35 seconds.
On the average Web page, users have time to read at most 28% of the words; 20% is more
likely53
.
Most adults can read from 200 to 300 words per minute, depending on their level of
education, but ten to twenty words for a welcome message would be more realistic than a
100-words message that maybe could never be read entirely. Users become faster at
scanning pages and quicker at dismissing things they do not like. Thus, all messages have
to be ultra-lean and at the point;
iii. Use hypertext: because it is so painful to read text on computer screens and because the
online experience fosters impatience, users tend not to read streams of text fully. Instead,
users scan text and pick out keywords, sentences, and paragraphs of interest54.
A page structured with headlines, meaningful headings, highlighting, colored text and
emphasis can make important words catch the user's eye. It is important to provide good
amounts of hypertext to divide long information into multiple pages that each focus on a
certain topic: the Web is a linking medium.
These results indicate that users prefer to scan rather than read, want text to be short and to
the point, and prefer deep navigation to long and detailed background information, in order to
focus their attention on the information of interest and ignore the rest.
When people read on Websites, it is usually because the site meets two usability goals55
:
i. Good information architecture, with clear navigation that allows users to get quickly
to a page that is relevant to their interest;
53
Nielsen, J., How Little Do Users Read?, 2008, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/how-little-do-
users-read/
54
Nielsen, J., Be Succinct! (Writing for the Web), 1997, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/be-
succinct-writing-for-the-web/
55
Nielsen, J., Website Reading: It (Sometimes)…, cit.

19
ii. Good page layout that quickly guides the eye to the relevant part of the page, utilizing
well-written subheads to summarize the information in each segment;
iii. High-quality writing with clear headlines and other elements that help users save time
by focusing their scanning eyes on information that they actually want to read.
Users often read Web pages in an F-shaped pattern: two horizontal stripes followed by a vertical
stripe56
. According to this model, most people read in an “F” pattern online, which translates to
horizontal movement, followed by vertical, scanning movement down the Web page. Then they
make another horizontal movement and then scan all the way down the left side of the page.
Writing for Internet becomes a run against the clock: it is possible to catch users within 10/15
seconds in order to fasten them on the Website57
. On the other side, reading on Internet looks like
an exploration, a treasure hunt looking for interesting themes and focused information: the
question arises whether Internet users could be properly defined as “readers”.
3.2. Writing 2.0: the Inverted Pyramid style
The “Inverted Pyramid” structure originates from traditional mass media writing. Following this
structure, the most fundamental facts represent the “base” of the pyramid and appear at the top of
the story, while non-essential information appears in the following paragraphs, in order of
importance. This style is called “Inverted Pyramid” just because it turns the traditional pyramid
style around58
.
It means starting with the conclusion. An article begins by telling the reader the
conclusion, follows by the most important supporting information, and ends by giving the
background.
56
Nielsen, J., F-Shaped Pattern For Reading Web Content, 2006, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f-
shaped-pattern-reading-web-content/
57
Carrada L. Scrivere per Internet, Milano, Lupetti, 2000, p. 11
58
Nielsen, J., Inverted Pyramids in Cyberspace, 1998, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/inverted-
pyramids-in-cyberspace/

20
Inverted-pyramid writing is useful for newspapers, because readers can stop at any time and will
still get the most important parts of the article even if they do not have all the details.
The same is on the Web. Here information are prioritized, thus the inverted pyramid
becomes even more important since it conducts readers through the details of the page. Generally,
users only look at the main and upper parts of the page, so they read only the top part of an article.
For this reason, Web writers should split their writing into smaller and coherent pieces to
avoid long scrolling pages. Each page should be structured as an inverted pyramid as the Website
itself, from the home page and its micro contents59
.
The inverted pyramid structures a text following a precise scheme:
Most important
Less important
Least important
Organizing a Web page content includes putting critical information near the top of the site,
grouping related elements, and ensuring that all necessary information is available without
slowing the user with unneeded information60
.
Following the Inverted pyramid pattern, content should be organized in different levels in
order to enable quick understanding61
:
i. Heading;
ii. Sub-heading;
iii. No more than two lines to state the main concept of the page;
59
Carrada L. Il mestiere di scrivere, Milano, Apogeo, 2007, p. 73
60
HHS Digital Communications Division, Research-Based Web Design & Usability Guidelines, in
http://www.usability.gov/sites/default/files/documents/guidelines_book.pdf, p. 169
61
Carrada, L., Scrivere per Internet…cit., p. 21

21
iv. Detailed text, where keywords are enlightened on bold or through colored fonts;
v. Possible links or further detailed texts;
The pattern of the inverted pyramid is useful when62
:
i. There is very few time for reading: by now, an occurrence of everyday life;
ii. There’s something of very precise to be communicated right now: in this case any
premise or useless phrasing must be avoided;
iii. Text is quite long and it becomes necessary to anticipate its conclusions;
iv. The Web page has lots of competitors and it is crucial to catch user’s attention in the
most immediate way;
v. There is the need of reading on mobile: it means that screen is small, and it is important
to scan quickly the main chunks of a text.
Even the F pattern's implications for Web design show that users will not read text in a word-by-
word manner, so the first two paragraphs must state the most important information. It is
important to start subheads, paragraphs, and bullet points with information-carrying words that
users will notice when scanning down the left side of the content in the final stem of their F-
behavior.
Nowadays, the concept of the inverted pyramid is pretty changed. People are learning
to read more content than just the first paragraphs: they are reading or scanning big chunks of text
to see if there is relevant information.
Therefore, while the inverted pyramid technique may work for news formats or
descriptive pages, in Websites where there is something to sell, it does not work in the same way.
Here, people is hungry for more content after reading the introduction, not satiated with the
information from a few sentences63
. Thus, to keep them reading, there should be valuable
62
Carrada L. Lavoro dunque scrivo!, Bologna, Zanichelli, 2012, p. 126
63
Soskey, G., Why the Inverted Pyramid Doesn't Work for Business Blogs, 2013, in
http://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/inverted-pyramid-business-blogs

22
information presented many times through the entire page, all the way to the post's ultimate
destination: the call-to-action at the bottom.
A call to action is an instruction to the audience to provoke an immediate response,
usually using an imperative verb such as “call now” or “find out more”. It deals with making
people do an action using a direct or indirect command, or better performative and non-
performative utterances, in order to highlight that the issuing of the utterance is the performing
of an action64
.
According to the “Speech Act Theory”, a command is an illocutionary act that has
the directive illocutionary point of getting another to do or not to do something. Thus, it is
performed with intentionality and described as having imperative form.
In his work “A Classification of Illocutionary Acts”, John Searle65
explained that the point
or purpose of an order is to get the hearer to do something66
. For this reason, a call to action
reflects an illocutionary act as far as we try to get people to do things with words.
3.3. Web Copywriting principles
Writing for the Web is very different from writing for other media: digital content must focus on
solving immediate problems if it is to capture the attention of the reader. It must deliver
actionable information, while being reliable, qualified and authentic for the target audience67
.
The goal of a “regular” text is to inform or entertain. The goal of Web Copywriting is to
get people to do something: to sign up, make a purchase, or something similar68
. The presentation
64
Austin, J. L., How to do things with words…cit., p. 12
65
J.R. Searle is an American philosopher that developed and extended the Speech Act Theory that Austin
introduced. He focused on the illocutionary acts performed by the speaker.
66
Searle, J.R., A Classification of Illocutionary Acts, 1976, in
http://sites.duke.edu/conversions/files/2014/09/Searle_Illocutionary-Acts.pdf
67
Fenigsohn, G., The Internet of words: why Nielsen teaches copywriting , 2015, in
https://www.cardwellbeach.com/the-internet-of-words-why-nielsen-teaches-copywriting/
68
Laja, P., Quick Course On Effective Website Copywriting, 2012, in
http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2012/05/quick-course-on-effective-website-copywriting/

23
of the same information to the same readers can be different on a page than it is in a book or in a
blog post or tweet69
than it is on a Web page70
.
It is a fact that the typical online user reads just the digital equivalent of what is above the
fold71
, and if the purpose is to be read and not ignored, it is important to adjust writing accordingly.
Furthermore, since the goal of the Website copy is to make people do something, all the
information needed to make the decision should be on a single page72
, or at least visible within
the upper side of the page. Even if now screen sizes are constantly shifting and designs respond
with long and captivating pages that encourage scrolling, the information above the fold is always
more valuable73
.
Scrolling is an extra action that users need to take to access content and accomplish their
goal74
. People read and scroll on a page where the information is relevant and properly formatted
for the Web, and if they do not have a good reason to do so, they will abandon it75
.
There is no need to be a “natural writer” to come up with excellent copy76
; it is just to put
yourself in the users’ shoes, because they do not know nothing about the uniqueness of your own
Website77
, and follow some key principles about writing effective copy on the Internet.
69
A tweet is a message using Twitter, an online social networking service that enables users to send and
read short 140-character messages called, indeed, "tweets".
70
Miller M., Scrivere per il Web…cit., p. 261
71
Above the fold is an expression used in Website design to refer to the portion of the webpage that is
visible without scrolling. This expression was used in journalism, referring to the upper half of the front
page of a newspaper where an important news is often located.
72
Laja, P., Quick Course on…, cit.
73
Nielsen, J. Scrolling and Attention, 2010, in https://www.nngroup.com/articles/scrolling-and-
attention/
74
Nielsen, J. The Fold Manifesto: Why the Page Fold Still Matters, 2015, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/page-fold-manifesto/
75
Nielsen, J., Accordions Are Not Always the Answer for Complex Content on Desktops, 2014, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/accordions-complex-content/
76
Laja, P., Quick course on…,cit.
77
De Bernardis, L., Come Scrivere Contenuti di Qualità per il Web, 2012, in
http://www.argoserv.it/come-scrivere-contenuti-di-qualita-per-il-web

24
3.3.1. Writing and formatting
People look at words, at the form of a text and its single letters78
. The font style seems to match
the personality of the text because it is the bearer of its expressive nuance and tone. Similarly,
every style (italic, bold, capital, lowercase and so on) or color is associated with appropriate uses:
the visual aspect contributes to build the first impression of a text.
What works in print does not necessarily works online: contents should be adapted for
the World Wide Web 79
. When writing for the Web, the user experience of the whole Website
comes into play because users read text and titles first.
Thus, it is important to structure contents in order to encourage and allow people to read
them80
. There are some basic guidelines related to text characteristics that can help ensure a Web
site communicates effectively with users81
. Punctuation and grammar matter even online, because
these mistakes will condition credibility in the negative and readers will question the accuracy of
both the content itself and the Website82
.
Writing guidelines support readability or the complexity of the words and sentence that
structure in a piece of content83
:
i. Use familiar words that are frequently seen and heard. In order to achieve this aim,
consider that somebody with a good high-school diploma or a lower-literacy users will
be able to read the text without difficulty.
ii. Use simple words: terms belonging to the basic vocabulary will make content
understandable by the majority of people84
. Try to translate contents in the most
78
Carrada L. Il mestiere di scrivere…cit., p. 5
79
Herzog, E., 8 Tips On Writing Content…, cit.
80
Nielsen, J., Web usability…,cit. p. 101
81
HHS Digital Communications Division, Research-Based…, cit.
82
83
Nielsen., J. Legibility, Readability, and Comprehension: Making Users Read Your Words, 2015, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/legibility-readability-comprehension/
84
Carrada, L., Lavoro dunque scrivo!..., cit. p. 243

25
comprehensible manner, for example write “disease” instead than “clinical pathology”,
or “make one think” instead than “lead one to think”;
iii. Use one or more infinite verbs to start a sentence: they simplify reading85
. Present tense
is the most fluent verb form on the Web;
iv. Do not abuse of adjectives: avoid or explain them86
. Using adjectives like “expert
professionals” or “operating instructions” do not convey useful meaning; they are simply
redundant. Statements like “marketing expert” or “assembly instructions” are more
concrete and add practical information. Adjective have to add details and nuances;
v. Use simple prepositions87
: avoid jumbled expressions such as “through the agency of”,
“pertaining to” or “in order to” and use simply “with”, “about”, or “for”;
vi. Do not use unfamiliar and undefined acronyms or abbreviations on Web sites. At most,
spell out abbreviations, initialisms, and acronyms, and immediately follow them by the
abbreviation88
;
vii. Spell out whole numbers less than 10, reserve the numeric format for numbers 10 or
greater;
viii. Use short sentences and minimize the number of words in a sentence and sentences in a
paragraph. A sentence should contain no more than twenty words. “The shorter the
passage, the greater the value of each word89
” says Roy Peter Clark90
on his blog;
ix. Use simple syntax91
, where subject is close to verb and verb is close to direct object. Do
not separate them with useless asides. Avoid complicated sentence structures, especially
85
Ibidem, p. 213
86
Clark, P., 25 Non-Random Things…cit., p. 237
87
Ibidem, p. 227
88
Nielsen., J., 113 Design Guidelines for Homepage Usability, 2001, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/113-design-guidelines-homepage-usability/
89
Clark, P., 25 Non-Random Things About Writing Short, 2009, in http://www.poynter.org/2009/25-non-
random-things-about-writing-short/94055/
90
Roy Peter Clark is an American writer, editor, and teacher of writing. He often speaks about ethics in
journalism
91
Carrada, L., Il mestiere di scrivere…cit., p. 28

26
compound sentences with many subordinate clauses and conjunctions. A paragraph
should not contain more than five sentences. Multiple-comma sentences can be reworked
to just include one comma92
or some conjunctions that aim to grant the natural cohesion
of the discourse and the natural flow of the sentences93
. Remember that one-sentence
paragraphs can provide impact and draw attention to key points;
x. Never use incomplete sentences, usually missing a subject or verb94
. It is always better to
use complete sentences because they express an accomplished idea;
xi. Use headlines that include awesome adjectives to attract more interest. Write six to eight
words in a headline and keep it on a single left-aligned line, where the first letter must be
uppercase95
. A good headline must be simple and direct to get right to the point96
. It has
to state the benefits of the company and offer useful information;
xii. Use sub-headings to highlight the important points for those who like to scan;
xiii. Do not use generic instructions, such as "Click Here" as a link name97
. Instead, use
meaningful text in the link names to tell users what they will get when they click. For
example, on an online shop for clothing, instead of saying "Click here for Men’s
Clearance" just say “Men’s Clearance”.
Formatting guidelines help the legibility of a Web content. Namely, “whether people are able
to see, distinguish, and recognize the characters and words in a text”98
:
i. Use familiar fonts to achieve the best possible reading speed, such as Georgia, Arial,
and Verdana. On the contrary, using unfamiliar fonts may slow reading speeds;
92
Lake, C., How to write for the web: 23 useful rules, 2010, in https://econsultancy.com/blog/6771-how-
to-write-for-the-web-23-useful-rules/
93
Carrada, L., Lavoro dunque scrivo!..., cit. p.186
94
Loranger, H., Break Grammar Rules on Websites for Clarity, 2014, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/break-grammar-rules/
95
Lake, C., How to write…, cit.
96
Copyblogger Media, LLC, How to write magnetic headlines, 2014, in
http://my.copyblogger.com/basic/how-to-write-magnetic-headlines/
97
Ibidem
98
Nielsen, J. Legibility, Readability, and…I, cit.

27
ii. Use at least a 12-point font on all Web pages: smaller fonts elicit slower reading
performance. Never use less than nine-point font.
iii. Use black text on plain, high-contrast and non-patterned backgrounds;
iv. When users must read a lot of information, use lower-case fonts and appropriate
capitalization to ensure the fastest possible reading speed. Most users have considerable
experience reading lowercase letters and are therefore very proficient at it, for instance:
“This is an example of displaying text using mixed upper- and lowercase letters.
It is not difficult to read.”
“THIS IS AN EXAMPLE OF ALL UPPER CASE LETTERS.
TEXT IS MORE DIFFICULT TO READ”
v. Use bold text only when it is important to draw the user’s attention to a specific piece of
information;
vi. Do not abuse of italics99
: even if it is the print equivalent of underlining, on the Internet
it could be difficult to read;
vii. Use the punctuation marks carefully. The most used punctuation mark is the period,
used to end sentences. It works with declarative and imperative sentences, which should
be the type of sentence most used in writing100
. Never use it at the end of a heading101
.
Comma should be used to separate a dependent clause from the independent clause and
not more than three items listed. It makes reading flow more smoothly.
Semicolon helps sort out a long list or separate closely related independent clauses, for
example “Don’t go it alone; read the instructions”.
99
Ibidem, p. 37
100
Miller M., Scrivere per il Web…cit. p. 19
101
Maltraversi, M., SEO e SEM. Guida avanzata al Web Marketing, Milano, Edizioni Fag, 2011, p. 265

28
Use colon before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that stand by itself.
Avoid using unnecessary parentheses and use slash instead of hyphen as a separator
between elements;
viii. Change the font characteristics to emphasize the importance of a word or short phrase.
Do not use underlining for emphasis, because underlined words on the Web are generally
considered to be links. Do not use two or more different ways to highlight the same
information on one page. Unusual punctuation is not advised for emphasis, because it
reduces scannability and would be annoying to visually impaired users102
;
ix. The formatting convention chosen should be familiar to users. For example, telephone
numbers should be consistently set: +39 (425) 555-0100;
x. Arrange lists and tasks in an order that best facilitates efficient and successful user
performance. Use bulleted lists to make details listings easy to read103
. Important
information are easy to scan and contents take up less space within the page. Numbered
list is useful for giving instructions and how-to manuals;
xi. Use white space to make the page easy on the eye. They help legibility and highlight
what is important within the page, like a visual index104
;
3.3.2. Tone and voice
Tone of voice and great content are crucial for communicating on the Internet. While a Website’s
visual design is how a company looks online, the site’s writing is how a company sounds
online105
. That is the reason why it is important to follow some useful guidelines to show the right
personality to users:
102
Nielsen, J., 113 Design Guidelines…, cit.
103
Carrada, L., Scrivere per internet…, cit. p. 57
104
Carrada, L., Lavoro dunque scrivo!...cit., p. 79
105
Nielsen, J. Legibility, Readability, and…I, cit.

29
i. Write in an affirmative, active voice, rather than negative and passive voice. Sentences
in active voice are typically more concise than sentences in passive voice. Furthermore,
they transmit a positive attitude in readers. Instead of saying ‘it’s been decided’, say “I
decided that...”, or “We appreciate your comment”106
instead then “Your comment is
much appreciated”,
ii. Avoid the use of jargon and marketese language107
or industry-speak108
;
iii. Avoid appearing too formal. It makes your writing boring. It is essential to use a friendly
and informal tone, close to the target personality. Address readers in the page, like sitting
across them having a friendly conversation;
iv. Ask questions. The question mark is the most engaging and interactive punctuation
mark because it puts an interlocutor into play109
. Be careful to use it only at the end of
direct questions, use period at the end of a direct question110
;
v. Emphasize words and call-to-actions using the exclamation marks, for example “Book
now!” or “Last availabilities!”. Exclamation points give the period a break and users are
attracted to them, especially when they are two or three. If they are not used judiciously,
content looks chaotic and loud111
;
vi. Avoid hyperboles: be sincere with words. Writing original content on a Website means
giving clear explanation of the benefits of a product or an idea. Words help to convey
authority and authenticity to the Website. For example, avoid using the word “very” in
106
Herzog, E., 8 Tips On Writing Content…, cit.
107
Marketese is a choice of words with promotional tone. Language is full of hyperbole and industry
jargon, meant to sound impressive, and used to promote a company or service as “the best!” or “the
top-rated!” or “probably the most significant life experience you can ever hope to have, ever!”
108
De Bernardis, L., Scrivere per il Web: Qualche Consiglio per Iniziare col Piede Giusto, 2012, in
http://www.argoserv.it/scrivere-per-il-web
109
Carrada, L. Lavoro dunque scrivo!..., cit. p. 148
110
Miller M., Scrivere per il Web…cit. p. 19
111
Pernice, K., Really Break Grammar Rules on Websites: Part Two, 2014, in
https://www.nngroup.com/articles/really-break-grammar-rules/

30
long sequences112
. Very is a helpful adjective and adverb, it can magnify the meaning of
many verbs and nouns and demonstrate genuine emotion and reinforces a concept:
Original content: Hand tufted of pure wool.
Rewrite adding very: Hand tufted of very pure wool.
Nevertheless, too many very's in a row can seem disingenuous and can even impact the
site’s credibility. This theory is valid for all the intensifiers;
vii. Use images, video, animation, and audio only when they help to convey, or are supportive
of the Web site’s message or other content;
viii. Ask for feedback and comments to users; put sharing buttons at the end of the page.
In 2000, Umberto Eco published his original translation of all these rules, making them funny
and simply understandable for their creative interpretation, for example113
:
i. Don't be redundant; don't say the same thing twice; repetitions are useless;
ii. Always be more or less specific;
iii. Don't make one-word sentences. Never;
iv. Never make generalitazions
v. Don't use ampersands & abbrev.
Writing and formatting rules, such as tone and voice guidelines, are the key principles of Web
Copywriting. They are to make content as easy to read, absorb and retain as possible. Good
writing, first, reinforces the credibility of a Website.
112
Ibidem
113
Eco, U. La Bustina di Minerva, Milano, Bompiani, 2000. Online source in
http://www.italianalingua.it/index.php?page=umberto-eco-40-rules-to-speak-good-italian

31
3.4. Web Copywriting is Pragmatic 2.0
Copywriting is “the art and science of strategically delivering words that get people to take some
form of action”114
. It means that its main purpose is to persuade a reader to take a certain action,
namely use language to perform an act.
Following the Speech Act Theory rules, these acts are defined in terms of a
writer's intention and the effect it has on a reader. Thus, words can be used to carry out actions.
In fact, Copywriters use illocutionary acts like compelling content and call to actions for
obtaining a perlocutionary effect, by persuading people to buy a product.
A copywriter helps companies reach more people and make money (intention). On the
other side, a copywriter entices and entertains readers, empowering them to make a buying
decision (effect).
The Speech Act Theory belongs to the wide field of Pragmatics, a subfield
of Linguistics and Semiotics that concerns with the use of language in social contexts and the
ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language. It deals with the
intentional acts of speakers.
Paul Grice emphasized the distinction between what words mean, what the speaker
literally says when using them, and what the speaker means or intends to communicate by using
those words, which often goes considerably beyond what is said.
Grice's Theory of Conversation starts with a distinction between what someone says and
what someone ‘implicates’ by uttering a sentence. What is said has been identified with the literal
content of the utterance; what is implicated, the implicature, with the non-literal, what is
intentionally communicated, but not said, by the speaker115
.
Furthermore, Grice stated some principles that contents have to follow to enable effective
communication, called the Grice’s Maxims:
114
Copyblogger Media, LLC, Copywriting 101, in http://www.copyblogger.com/copywriting-101/
115
Korta, K.,Perry, J., "Pragmatics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2015, in
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/pragmatics/

32
i. Quality: use real and concrete words that tell the truth;
ii. Quantity: make utterances as informative as required, without redundancies
iii. Relevance: use appropriate and proper words;
iv. Manner: avoid ambiguity and obscurity of expressions.
Web Copywriting follows exactly the same Pragmatics principles, but conveying a new sense and
working in a new context of use: the World Wide Web. Writing for the Web is very different from
writing for other media. Here, conversations are immaterial because they are written and read by
a screen.
Web Copywriting adopts the pragmatic implications of transferring offline discourses
(e.g. printed paper, advertisements) to the screen-framed space of the Net. Thus, words assume a
stronger power because they have to convey the right meaning to the right user surfing in that
moment on the Net, in a very succinct way.
In this sense, it can be called Pragmatics 2.0, in fact:
i. It strongly depends on the context and needs it to fill in the details and allow full
understanding;
ii. It uses implied meanings: language is not directly spoken, but the writer hints at or
suggests a meaning, and the reader assumes the correct intention. Persuasion must be
hidden by compelling words that capture users’ attention and intrigue them without being
an aggressive advertising message;
iii. It deals with the writer's communicative intentions: on the near side, it needs to follow
some basic communication guidelines about what language the writer intends to be using,
what meaning he intends to be using, whom he intends to refer to. The aim is to create
well-written, well-researched, informative, and rewarding content for users to read. On
the far side, what he intends to achieve by saying what he does;
iv. It uses Speech Acts to make people do things: they use linguistic, communicative and
marketing strategies in order to make people buy some product, believe things and so on.

33
Web Copywriting itself could be defined as a speech act because here content is primarily
used for the purpose of advertising or marketing, thus it has to persuade a person or group
as well as raise brand awareness.
Copywriting is all about getting the reader to take action. That action might be to purchase, opt-
in, or engage with a product, service, or company. Thus, Web Copywriters are people who write
sales copy for the Internet. Therefore, they embrace the principles of Pragmatics 2.0 because
they are responsible for not only creating sales through their words but also using words to
increase traffic to Websites.

34

35
4. SEO Copywriting: how to create persuasive content that ranks well in search
engines
One important factor that distinguishes online copy from traditional print copy is that not only
human readers read online copy. It is also “read” by the indexing software used by Google and
the other online search engines, which collects Web data to facilitate fast and accurate information
retrieval in the search engine results.
In the previous chapters, it has been explained that Search Engine Optimization (SEO)
is the process of getting traffic from the organic results on search engine116
.
The higher ranked on the search results page, and more frequently a site appears in the
search results list, the more visitors it will receive from the search engine's users. At the same
time, first results are also the most clicked.
Some years ago, Google made an Eyetracking study on 34 usability study participants117
in order to analyze their point of gaze while scanning a typical results page. Several previous
studied demonstrated that people tend to scan the search results in order. They start from the first
result and continue down the list until they find a result they consider helpful and click it or until
they decide to refine their query.
The study made by Google showed that most users were looking for among the first
two results and they never needed to go further down the page.
116
Search Engine Land, What Is SEO / Search Engine Optimization?, in
http://searchengineland.com/guide/what-is-seo
117
Google Official Blog, Eye-tracking studies: more than meets the eye, 2009, in
https://googleblog.blogspot.it/2009/02/eye-tracking-studies-more-than-meets.html

36
Moreover, like in single Web pages, users often read in an F-shaped pattern118
and they look at
information above the page fold, namely the part of the Web page that is visible when users first
land, without scrolling119
.
Fig. 1 Heatmap120
showing the activity of users scanning a typical Google results page
The study confirmed the theory that if a Website is not in the top two or three in Google for a
keyword, it is simply lost. Considering these premises, it is crucial to carry out specific strategies
to satisfy both search engines and users, and SEO guidelines are useful to gratify both.
As regards search engines, several methods can increase the prominence of a Web page within
the search results, for example writing content that includes frequently searched keyword phrases,
118
Peep, L., 10 Useful Findings About How People View Websites, in http://conversionxl.com/10-useful-
findings-about-how-people-view-websites/#-1
119
Hocking, A., 5 tips for content creation based on website reading habits, 2015, in
http://www.webfirm.com/5-tips-for-content-creation-based-on-website-reading-habits-2/
120
A heat map is a graphical representation of data where the individual values contained in
a matrix are represented as colors.

37
in order to be relevant to a wide variety of search queries121
. However, also other factors help a
Website to increase traffic and be at the top of the search results list.
4.1 SEO Copywriting principles
Modern SEO is a complex collection of different sub-strategies, nearly all of which can function
independently on their own as a way to boost brand visibility and build customer relationships122
.
However, it is important to build a strong SEO strategy that is an aggregation of different
customer experience strategies woven together both to create the best online presence possible
and to achieve business aims.
The new constituents of SEO range from different factors:
i. Link building: properly, when a Website is linked from other sites, it means they found
something valuable on it, and that makes you more valuable by Google. Modern link-
building tactics involve guest posting123
and syndication of Web feeds124
;
ii. Social media: they do not influence SEO directly. Instead, engaging with a wider
audience means more people to share content, leading to more potential backlinks, which
can then influence the Website’s organic search rankings;
iii. Local SEO: it specifically involves getting the business listing accurately registered on
third-party directories and review sites, then managing your online reviews.
These factors confirm the idea that if the Website content is not good enough to attract good,
natural links and social sharing, it does not matter how “optimized” the words on the page are125
.
121
A Web Search Query is a query that users enter into a search engine to satisfy their information
needs.
122
Search Engine Land, Is modern SEO more than the sum of independent parts?, 2016, in
http://searchengineland.com/modern-seo-just-sum-independent-parts-242638
123
Guest posting means writing and publishing an article on someone else's website or blog.
124
A web feed is a data format used for providing users with frequently updated content. Content
distributors syndicate a web feed, thereby allowing users to subscribe to it.
125
Copyblogger Media, LLC, How to Create Compelling Content that Ranks Well in Search Engines, 2014,
in http://my.copyblogger.com/basic/compelling-content-ranks-ebook/ , p. 3

38
However, every year Google changes its algorithm around 500–600 times to rank search
results, using over 200 factors. For search marketers, knowing the Google updates can help
explain changes in rankings and organic Website traffic and ultimately improve Search Engine
Optimization126
.
That is why a Website must be completely usable, because Google pulls relevant contents
from the index to deliver users the best results possible127
.
For this reason, it is essential to center SEO strategies on two key factors128
:
i. On-site optimization: all kinds of technical improvements and creative choices. Mobile
optimization, site speed, site architecture, navigation structuring are just some of the ways
to optimize a Website;
ii. On-site content: it involves the quality, accuracy, conciseness and uniqueness of the
Website content.
Web Copywriting that marries SEO strategies takes the name of SEO Copywriting.
Google continuously looks for Quality Content. SEO Copywriting is writing content that fills
readers’ needs, that is relevant to the topic: it is useful content129
. It is informative and accurate.
It is grammatically correct, properly punctuated and reads well. It is original, lean, on point and
authoritative.
Quality content matters because it is all about delivering relevant results, as Google
algorithms require to provide searchers with sites that best answer their queries130
. That is why a
SEO copywriter must find the right compromise between use of keywords, information and
persuasion, focusing on immediacy and spontaneity of communication131
.
126
Moz, Google Algorithm Change History, in https://moz.com/google-algorithm-change
127
Google Inside Search, How search works. From algorithms to answers, in
https://www.google.com/insidesearch/howsearchworks/thestory/
128
Search Engine Land, Is modern SEO, cit.
129
130
Ibidem, p. 114
131
Margherita, F., Manuale di SEO Gardening, Palermo, Dario Flaccovio Editore, 2015, p. 123

39
Ironically, a Web copywriter creates high-value content that achieves business objectives
as if search engines did not exist132
. At the same time, effective SEO copywriting tells Google
which words are the most relevant ones to the people you want to reach133
.
4.2 The 5 essential elements to focus on
SEO copywriting is about how content must be written in the page and what content looks like
on a search engine results page134
.
4.2.1 Title
The tag <title> defines the text that appears in the title bar of a Web browser and the bracket text
of every page in the search list result135
. It is the on-site factor that has still lots of relevance in
SEO136
, because search engines want to offer relevant results. Therefore, those results should
prominently reflect the words the searcher is using in the title of the page137
.
Every page must have a unique title that is descriptive, concise and engaging, not a mere
list of keywords138
.
Its length must be 60-70 characters, thus it is better to use this space for inserting a sentence
that intrigues users and not the brand name. If the brand name cannot be avoided, it must be put
at the end of the sentence and not at the beginning, because Google scans pages from left to right
for assigning prominence to the different elements. For this reason, the most important keywords
of a page must be put close to the front of the title, at the beginning of the sentence that must
always have a sense of completion.
132
Copyblogger Media, LLC, How to Create Compelling Content…, cit., p. 6
133
Ibidem, p. 14
134
Ibidem, p. 35
135
Carrada, L., Il mestiere di scrivere…cit., p. 77
136
Maltraversi, M. SEO e SEM…cit., p. 119
137
Copyblogger Media, LLC, How to Create Compelling Content…, cit., p 22
138
Taverniti G. SEO Power. Strategie e strumenti per essere visibili online, Milano, Hoepli, 2013, p. 35

40
As regards the text editing, there are some important elements to avoid139
:
i. The stop words: these are common words that can hinder SEO efforts about Web titles,
because they use up precious character space. They are prepositions, articles or
conjunctions;
ii. Keyword repetition: this could be considered as spam from search engines;
iii. Leave the tag <title> empty: in this case, the page will be automatically named “Untitled
Document” and an important optimization factor will be lost;
iv. Insert keywords out of contest: spiders will notice it and the Website might incur a penalty
by Google.
Finally, titles must be written using everyday language. First, because search engines give
importance to all the words used in titles and headings. Second, because users scan the search
results and often read just the titles of the Webpages listed.
Thus, if the query they have typed matches with one of these attributes of a Website, it is more
probable that they will click it140
.
4.2.2 Meta-description
The tag <description> of a Website content will generally be the snippet copy for the search
result below the title141
. A snippet is a description of a Webpage that follows the title and precedes
the URL and includes the meta description.
As the title tag, it is written in the HTML code of the page in order to be scanned by the
search engine and showed in the results list142
:
139
140
Nielsen J., Loranger H., Web Usability 2.0…cit. p. 165
141
142
Carrada, L., Lavoro dunque scrivo!..., cit., p. 316

41
Fig. 2 Example of how Google uses title and description meta tags in search results
The Description attribute is where to put a short description of the page’s content, using the
most appropriate keywords. It must not be a repetition of the title, but it have to continue and
explain its message with coherence143
.
Its length is 100-155 characters; there are also some guidelines to follow for a good meta-
description copy144
:
i. Every single page must have a unique description;
ii. Descriptions have to be coherent with the full text of the page;
iii. Sentences must always have a sense of completion.
4.2.3 Content
Online content not only has to be engaging, but also SEO-friendly145
. Some useful tactics are:
i. Use words and not picture: search engines look mainly for text in a Web page;
ii. Break up the copy (short and chunky content is also a key to effective SEO) even if for
Google’s top 10 search results, the average number of words per page is about 950;
143
Ibidem, p. 37
144
145

42
iii. Vary the sentence structure in order to have a combination of longer and shorter
sentences146
. They should contain no more than 30 words;
iv. Split up long paragraphs into shorter ones147
: long paragraphs without much white space
are hard to read off a computer monitor, and even harder to read on a smartphone;
v. Make the important information in more prominent position, in one of the first two or
three paragraphs on the page;
vi. Use headers to chunk content148
: the header tag will usually be the title of a page or other
emphasized text on the page. There are other header tags in HTML, where each can have
a lesser degree of importance on the page: H2 tag refers to the main paragraph, H3 refers
to the sub-paragraph, H4-H5 etc. and the other minor sub-paragraphs;
vii. Use bullet points where appropriate149
: use a bulleted list instead than a list-like sentence.
The items will be much easier to read;
viii. Update contents frequently150
: they must be always unique and original;
ix. Avoid metaphors, hyperboles and figures of speech: the Web is the kingdom of
consultation, not education or learning151
;
x. Use semantic variation of the main keywords152
: use singular, plural, masculine, feminine
to convey variety to the text;
xi. Be real: every message must communicate meaningful benefits that are also tangible153
.
In this sense, tangible means real or actual, rather than imaginary or visionary;
146
Lloyd-Martin, H., 27-Point Checklist: How to Write for Google, 2015, in
http://seocopywriting.com/seo-copywriting-checklist/
147
Ibidem
148
Niciarelli, B. SEO Copywriting: i 5 elementi fondamentali, 2012, in
http://copywriter.giorgiotave.it/seo-copywriting-i-5-elementi-fondamentali/780
149
Lloyd-Martin, H., 27-Point Checklist…, cit.
150
Taverniti G. SEO Power…, cit., p. 78
151
Margherita, F., Manuale di SEO Gardening…cit., p. 73
152
Di Gaetano, F., SEO Copywriting: guida e corso. Cos’è il Web Copywriter, 2015, in
http://www.argoserv.it/seo-copywriting-corso-guida-web
153
Copyblogger Media, LLC, The 5 p approach to copy that crushes it, 2014, in
http://my.copyblogger.com/basic/5p-copy/, p. 26

43
xii. Speak the language of the audience: words need to match up with the way searchers most
like to talk about it because Google has to match up what a page is about with what people
are searching for154
. Furthermore, speaking in human voice is essential to help readers to
complete their task155
. Having a conversation with readers is important to engage them.
They do not want to know what the mission or vision of the site is, but just if it is the right
resource to their purpose ;
xiii. Consider what people appreciate of a Website156
: people like an interesting site that deals
with a specific topic, an original site because its content is just on that resource, a useful
site because it solves an effective problem or successfully satisfies a need, an engaging
site, because its copy is clear and direct to the point and helps users to accomplish their
goal.
4.2.4 Keyword frequency
Being listed among the first search results for the keywords that potential users search for, means
that the Website is able to offer users what they are looking for at that very moment they are
looking for it157
.
Nowadays, users have become always more expert in using search engines. These, in turn,
have introduced new features to assist users in finding the resources they need in always less
time158
. Google Suggest helps users to find information by seeing search predictions that might
be similar to the search terms they are typing, at the same time that they type in the search box.
A marketer working on a Website knows that it is essential to make some deep analysis about
the choice of the number of relevant keywords according to the business field of the site itself.
154
155
Hospitality School, The Online Copywriting Manifesto…, cit.
156
De Bernardis L., La Regola Aurea della SEO: Scrivi per le Persone, non per Google, 2013, in
http://www.argoserv.it/scrivi-per-le-persone-non-per-google
157
158
Ibidem, p. 11

44
Head keywords are keywords or keyword phrases that are short, like one or two words, for
example “Hotel in Rome” or “Car insurance”159
. They are also competitive.
On the contrary, long tail keywords are at least three and four keyword-phrases long, for
example “Hotel in Rome close to Spanish Steps” or “Car insurance for bad drivers”. It is also
very simple to find them, because Google gives long tail keyword suggestions every time you
type something into the search query box:
Fig. 3 An example of Google long tail keyword suggestions typing “Hotel in Rome”
Long tail keywords are very specific to whatever the Website is offering or selling. In this way,
whenever users use a highly specific search phrase, they tend to be looking for exactly what they
are actually going to buy or look for160
. The amount of traffic driven by each keywords cluster
will contribute to increase the whole traffic thanks to their highly segmented visits.
Some years ago, experts advised to select specific keywords per page by using some tools
provided by Google161
. As an instance, Google Adwords Keyword Tool is a free AdWords162
tool where you can search for keyword and ad group ideas, get historical statistics, see how a list
of keywords might perform and even create a new keyword list by multiplying several lists of
keywords together. A similar tool is Google Trends: an application for Web Search statistics,
showing the popularity of particular search terms over time.
159
Neely. P., Why Long Tail Keywords Are SEO Gold, 2014, in http://blog.getresponse.com/long-tail-
keywords-seo-gold.html
160
161
Ibidem, p. 17
162
Google AdWords is a pay-per-click online advertising service that enables advertisers to compete to
display brief advertising copy to users, based in part on keywords, predefined by the advertisers that
link the copy to the content of web pages shown to users.

45
Actually, today doing a certain amount of online work to rank for a selection of specific
keywords per page is obsolete. It has become far more difficult to rank for specific keyword terms
thanks to Google’s increased sophistication such as Semantic Search: the search engine can take
multiple variables about the person typing in the search query and use these to serve more accurate
and relevant results163
.
It is all about moving from delivering results purely on the user’s intent to taking into account
the entire context of the search. The concept of keyword frequency is now become writing
Keyword-Oriented Copy164
. It means that since the Website needs to provide readable,
compelling copy for visitors, it is necessary to incorporate all the necessary keywords and phrases
that matter to the search engines. It means using keywords in the right place, not only to determine
the content of a page but also to directly match user search queries165
. Keywords have to be used
organically; they have to be integral to the copy.
It has been generally accepted that keyword frequency, or the number of times your targeted
keyword phrase appears on the page, affects ranking166
. However, there is no one-size-fits-all
optimal keyword percentage167
anybody has ever demonstrated that had direct positive ranking
improvement168
. At the most, a redundancy of the same keywords in a page could bring to a
penalty for keyword stuffing, referring to the practice of loading a Web page with keywords in an
attempt to manipulate a site's ranking in Google search results.
Actually, keywords must be distributed within the text of a page using words with equivalent
meaning. For example, a page dealing with bicycles can refer to them using the words “bike”,
“MTB”, “cycle” and that is just what Google expect to find in that Website.
163
Search Engine Watch, What is semantic search and why does it matter?, 2015, in
https://searchenginewatch.com/sew/opinion/2431292/what-is-semantic-search-and-why-does-it-
matter
164
Miller M., Scrivere per il Web…cit., p.119
165
Ibidem, p. 129
166
167
Keyword density is the ratio of keywords to the rest of the words on the page
168
Margherita, F., Manuale di SEO Gardening…cit., p. 75

46
In fact, Google knows both the different meanings of a word and what kind of contents users
search around that word169
:
Fig. 4 These Websites listed in the search results for the query “bicycles” have used different words
for meaning the same stuff
This concept is related to the Latent Semantic Indexing170
. In this process, a search engine
identifies the most common words and phrases as the main keywords for the page: it looks for
synonyms related to the title of the Web page.
4.2.5 Linking out and call to action
Linking is the basis of the World Wide Web171
. According to this principle, search engines want
to know from a Website if it is sufficiently “connected” with other pages and content. Therefore,
linking out to other pages is important for a good Search Engine Optimization.
There are some best practices for linking:
i. Link to relevant content early in the body copy
ii. Link to relevant pages approximately every 120 words of content
iii. Link to relevant interior pages of your site or other sites
169
Ibidem, p. 121
170
De Bernardis, L., Come ottimizzare una pagina web in 11 passaggi, 2014, in
http://www.argoserv.it/pagina-ottimizzata-per-google
171

47
iv. Link with naturally relevant anchor text172
. Remember that the words contained in
the anchor text matters in the ranking that the page will receive by search engines.
Link attraction is one of the biggest aspect of today’s practice of Search Engine Optimization.
Google looks at the links pointing at a particular domain, and those pointing at specific pages.
Then, Google also takes into account the anchor text people use when linking to that domain or
page, to get an idea of what the right keywords would be for it173
.
As regards the text used as link label, it would be best to use a more definitive description
of the attribute than just the standard “Click here”174
. For example, if you want the reader to leave
contact information, say “Please fill out this form for us to contact you” and not “Click here to
send us an email”.
Marketers and entrepreneurs want users to take an action on their Website: to buy, to book
or subscribe175
. Therefore, they need to do more than allow them to act: they have to persuade
them. That is where a call to action comes in.
Within the Persuasion Architecture of the Website, it is the part that fits after everything
else that is written. The last thing you write is just as important as the first thing, because it
encourages readers to take an action. The first step in constructing a call to action is knowing
what it is you want the reader to do.
Writing a call to action means asking users to do a particular thing. If you want the reader
to ask for more information, say “Ask for more information”. If you want the reader to buy
something, say “Buy it”. It is as simple and direct as necessary. Use action words such as “call”,
“order”, “buy”, “book” or “subscribe”. Furthermore, choose words that move and excite, not
those that lay flat on the page. For example, “discount”, “free”, “special”, “sale”, “unlimited”.
Some action phrases could be “Limited time offer” or “Book now”.
172
The anchor text is the visible, clickable text in a hyperlink.
173
174
Tarcomnicu, F., Most Important SEO Techniques That Still Work, 2015, in
http://blog.getresponse.com/most-important-seo-techniques-that-still-work.html#more-21406
175
Eisenberg B., Eisenberg J., Davis L.T. Call to Action: Secret Formulas…cit., p. 41

48
It is also important to keep readers focused on the primary and secondary call to actions
of the Website176
. If a page lists too many choices such as a large, scrolling page of products,
consider eliminating all unnecessary choices that do not support the main calls to action. Too
many choices may force your readers into not taking any action at all.
4.3 How to create persuasive content on the Web
The Internet has disrupted the traditional sales process, allowing customers or clients to begin on
their own terms via search and social media. This means marketers must adapt to the information-
empowered prospect and the Web design itself in a fashion that more resembles courting than
selling177
.
In order to satisfy users, a Website must have a usable navigation architecture and design,
and a strong copy structure that is able to persuade and engage users, in order to guide them to
fulfill an action successfully.
One of the goals of Web Copywriting is to inform readers about whatever it is written on
a Website. However, there is also another equally important goal: to inspire readers to take some
specific action178
. For example, in an e-commerce site that action could be placing an order for a
product. Whatever the case, copy needs to fire users up to do something. It must be compelling
enough to keep readers’ attention and it must be persuasive enough to convince them to do what
you want them to do.
In order to write in this way, first it is important to think like customers. It means getting
inside their heads, find out what turns them on, and finally give them some of that. It is necessary
176
Lloyd-Martin, H., 27-Point Checklist…, cit.
177
Copyblogger Media, LLC, How to create content that converts, 2013, in
http://my.copyblogger.com/basic/content-that-converts-ebook/, p. 5
178

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