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1. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Water and the
Major Minerals
Chapter 12

2. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Water and the Body Fluids
• Water constitutes majority of body weight
• Influenced by body composition
• Females
• Obese people
• Elderly

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Water Functions
• Carries nutrients and
waste products
• Maintains structure
of large molecules
• Participates in
metabolic reactions
• Serves as a solvent
• Acts as a lubricant
and cushion
• Aids in regulation of
body temperature
• Maintains blood
volume

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Cellular Fluids
• Intracellular fluid
• Extracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid
• Intravascular fluid

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Water Intake
• Thirst and satiety
• Mouth, hypothalamus, and nerves sense changes
• Thirst response lags behind the body’s need
for water
• Dehydration symptoms
• Water intoxication
• Symptoms: confusion, convulsions, and death
• Caused by drinking 10-20 liters within a few hours

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Signs of Dehydration
Body Weight
Lost (%) Symptoms
1-2 Thirst, fatigue, weakness, vague discomfort, loss of appetite
3-4
Impaired physical performance, dry mouth, reduction in urine, flushed skin, impatience,
apathy
5-6
Difficulty concentrating, headache, irritability, sleepiness, impaired temperature
regulation, increased respiratory rate
7-10 Dizziness, spastic muscles, loss of balance, delirium, exhaustion, collapse
NOTE: The onset and severity of symptoms at various percentages of body weight lost depend on the activity, fitness level,
degree of acclimation, temperature, and humidity. If not corrected, dehydration can lead to death.

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Water Sources
• Water
• Provides about one-third of total water intake in
the United States
• Beverages
• Foods
• Metabolic water
• Condensation reactions
• Oxidation of energy-yielding nutrients

8. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Percentage of Water in
Selected Foods
100% Water
90-99% Fat-free milk, strawberries, watermelon, lettuce,
cabbage, celery, spinach, broccoli
80-89% Fruit juice, yogurt, apples, grapes, oranges, carrots
70-79% Shrimp, bananas, corn, potatoes, avocados,
cottage cheese, ricotta cheese
60-69% Pasta, legumes, salmon, ice cream, chicken breast
50-59% Ground beef, hot dogs, feta cheese
40-49% Pizza
30-39% Cheddar cheese, bagels, bread
20-29% Pepperoni sausage, cake, biscuits
10-19% Butter, margarine, raisins
1-9% Crackers, cereals, pretzels, taco shells, peanut
butter, nuts
0% Oils, sugars

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Water Balance
Water Sources Amount (mL)
Beverages 550 to 1500
Foods 700 to 1000
Metabolism 200 to 300
Total 1450 to 2800
Water Losses Amount (mL)
Kidneys (urine) 500 to 1400
Skin (sweat) 450 to 900
Lungs (breath) 350
Gl tract (feces) 150
Total 1450 to 2800
Note: For perspective, 100 milliliters is a little less than one-half cup and 1000 milliliters is
a little more than 1 quart (1mL = 0.03 oz).

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Water Losses
• Obligatory water excretion each day as urine
• Minimum 500 mL to carry away waste
• Vapor from lungs
• Sweat from skin
• Loss in feces
• Daily losses total 2500 mL on average

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Recommended Water Intake
• Needs vary
• AI for total water
• Two to three liters (8-12 cups) per day
• Health effects
• Physical and mental performance
• Proper functioning of kidneys, heart, GI tract, and
other systems
• Minerals in water
• Hard and soft water

12. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Blood Volume and
Blood Pressure
• Regulated by the kidneys
• Adjust urine volume and concentration
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Water-conserving hormone
• Stimulates kidneys to reabsorb water
• Released when hypothalamus stimulates pituitary
gland
• Events trigger thirst
• Helps restore homeostasis

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A Nephron, One of the Kidneys’
Many Functioning Units

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Renin
• Enzyme released by kidney cells when blood
pressure is low
• Causes kidneys to reabsorb sodium
• Accompanied by water retention
• Hydrolyzes angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
• Inactive until converted to angiotensin II
• Stimulates adrenal glands to release aldosterone
• Signals kidneys to excrete potassium and retain
sodium

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How the Body Regulates Blood
Volume and Blood Pressure

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Fluid Balance
• Fluid balance
• Two-thirds inside the cells
• One-third outside the cells
• Dissociation of salt
• Sodium: cation
• Chloride: anion
• Conducts electricity
• Forms electrolyte solutions
• Positive and negative charges perfectly balanced

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Electrolyte Balance
• Electrolytes attract water
• Electrolytes predominantly outside of cell
• Sodium, chloride and calcium
• Electrolytes predominantly inside of cell
• Potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate
• Cell membranes are selectively permeable
• Allow passage of some molecules

18. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Water Dissolves Salts and
Follows Electrolytes

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Osmosis

20. Stepped Art
A B
With equal numbers
of solute particles
on both sides of
the semipermeable
membrane, the
concentrations
are equal, and the
tendency of water
to move in either direction
is about
the same.
A B
Now additional solute is
added to side B. Solute
cannot flow across the
divider (in the case of a
cell, its membrane).
A B
Water can flow both ways
across the divider, but has
a greater tendency to move
from side A to side B,
where there is a greater
concentration of solute.
The volume of water
becomes greater on side
B, and the concentrations
on side A and B become
equal.

21. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Regulation of Fluid and
Electrolyte Balance
• Mineral amounts must remain nearly constant
• Regulation occurs in:
• GI tract
• Kidneys

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Causes of Fluid and
Electrolyte Imbalance
• Causes of imbalance
• Prolonged vomiting or diarrhea
• Heavy sweating
• Burns
• Traumatic wounds
• Imbalance can result in a medical emergency

23. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Addressing Fluid and
Electrolyte Imbalance
• Solutes lost depend on why fluid is lost
• Vomiting or diarrhea – sodium
• Tumor development – potassium
• Replacing lost fluids and electrolytes
• Plain cool water and regular foods
• Solution of sugar, salt, and water

24. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Acid-Base Balance
• Body uses ions to regulate acidity
• Narrow pH range to avoid life-threatening
consequences
• Deviations can denature proteins
• Concentration of hydrogen ions
• High hydrogen ion concentration – acidic
• Low hydrogen ion concentration – basic

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Regulation by the Buffers
• Buffers can neutralize acids or bases
• Buffers in body fluids
• Bicarbonate
• Carbonic acid
• Respiration in lungs
• Excretion in kidneys
• Bicarbonate

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Bicarbonate-Carbonic Acid
Buffer System

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The Minerals – An Overview
• Major versus trace minerals
• Variation in amounts needed
• Inorganic elements
• Always retain chemical identity
• Cannot be destroyed by heat, air, acid, or mixing
• Body’s absorption and handling
• Freely or with carriers
• Bioavailability varies
• Nutrient interactions

28. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Minerals in a 60-kilogram
(132 pound) Human Body

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Sodium
• Roles in body
• Principal cation of extracellular fluid
• Primary regulator of volume
• Acid-base balance
• Nerve impulse transmission
• Muscle contraction
• Sodium travels freely in the blood
• Kidneys filter out and return what is needed

30. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Sodium Recommendations
• Diets rarely lack sodium
• UL for adults
• Average intake in U.S. exceeds the UL
• Hypertension
• Salt versus sodium or chloride alone
• Salt intake
• DASH diet

31. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Sodium and Bone Loss
(Osteoporosis)
• High salt intake associated with increased
calcium excretion
• Potassium as protective factor
• DASH diet recommendation
• Food sources
• Processed foods have the most sodium
• And reduced potassium
• Fresh fruits and vegetables have the least sodium

32. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Sodium and Potassium Contents of
Processed Foods

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Sodium Deficiency
• Cause
• Hyponatremia
• Toxicity
• Acute
• Edema and high blood pressure
• Chronic
• Hypertension

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Chloride
• Essential nutrient
• Roles in the body
• Major anion of extracellular fluids
• Moves passively across membranes
• Associates with sodium and potassium
• Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
• Part of hydrochloric acid

35. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Chloride Intakes
• Abundant in processed foods
• Recommendations slightly higher, but still
equivalent to those of sodium
• Deficiency and toxicity
• Diets rarely lack chloride
• Conditions leading to deficiency
• Toxicity due to water deficiency

36. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Potassium
• Principal intracellular cation
• Roles in the body
• Helps maintain fluid and electrolyte balance
• Helps maintain cell integrity
• Aids in nerve impulse transmission and muscle
contraction

37. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Potassium Intakes
• Fresh foods are richest
sources
• AI for potassium
• Increase fruit and vegetable
consumption
• Hypertension
• Diets low in potassium raise
blood pressure
• Risk of stroke

38. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Potassium Deficiency
Symptoms
• Increase in blood pressure
• Salt sensitivity
• Kidney stones
• Bone turnover
• Irregular heartbeats
• Muscle weakness
• Glucose intolerance

39. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Potassium Toxicity
• No UL
• Overconsumption of potassium salts or
supplements
• Certain diseases or treatments
• Kidneys accelerate excretion
• Can stop heart if injected into a vein

40. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Potassium in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Potassium
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 40
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 30
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 20
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 220
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 180
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 510
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 400
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 460
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 230
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 120
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 340
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 380
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 360
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ oz(171 kcal) Milk and milk products 40
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 110
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 400
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 230
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 230
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 190
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 210
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 200
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 60
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Squash, acorn ½ c baked (69 kcal) Vegetables 540
Soybeans ½ c cooked (149 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 430
Artichoke 1 (60 kcal) Vegetables 420

41. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Calcium
• Most abundant mineral in the body
• Adequate intake
• Grows a healthy skeleton in early life
• Helps minimize bone loss in later life
• Majority of body’s calcium in bones and teeth
• Part of bone structure
• Calcium bank

42. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Calcium in Body Fluids
• Helps to maintain normal blood pressure
• Extracellular calcium
• Participates in blood clotting
• Intracellular calcium
• Regulation of muscle contraction
• Transmission of nerve impulses
• Secretion of hormones
• Activation of some enzyme reactions

43. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Calcium in Disease Prevention
• Hypertension
• Blood cholesterol
• Diabetes
• Colon cancer
• Obesity
• May help maintain healthy body weight

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Calcium Balance

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Calcium Recommendations
• Hormones maintain blood concentration
regardless of dietary intake
• When intake is low, bones suffer
• Recommendations set high enough to
accommodate 30% average absorption rate
• 1300 mg per day for adolescents
• 1000 mg per day for adults up to age 50
• 1200 mg a day for women over 50 and everyone
over 70

46. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Calcium in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount of
Calcium (milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 20
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 0
Spaghetti pasta ½ c ccooked (99 kcal) Grains 2
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 40
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 15
Potato
1 medium baked w/skin (133
kcal)
Vegetables 10
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 15
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 5
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 60
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 15
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 20
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 300
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 450
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 310
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 80
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 40
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 10
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 20
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 10
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 15
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Sardines, with bones 3 oz canned (176 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 430
Bok choy (Chinese cabbage) ½ c cooked (10 kcal) Vegetables 80
Almonds 1 oz (167 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 80

47. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Calcium Deficiency
• Peak bone mass by late 20s
• All adults lose bone with age
• Begins between 30 and 40 years of age
• Osteopenia
• Osteoporosis
• Silent disease
• Blood samples offer no clues

48. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Phases of Bone Development
Throughout Life

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Phosphorus
• Second most abundant mineral in body
• Hydroxyapatite crystals of bone and teeth
• Roles in body
• Part of major buffer system
• Part of DNA and RNA
• Assists in energy metabolism
• Helps transport lipids in the blood
• Structural component of cell membranes

50. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Phosphorus Intakes
• Deficiencies are unlikely
• Best sources
• Protein-rich foods
• UL
• 4000mg
• Toxicity is rare

51. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Phosphorus in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Phosphorus
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 75
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 15
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 40
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 90
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 50
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 25
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 70
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 40
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 30
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 25
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 20
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 30
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 230
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 350
Cheddar cheese 1 ½ c (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 220
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 170
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 100
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 330
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 110
Ground beef, lean 3 oz broiled (244 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 110
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 195
Tuna, canned in water (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 140
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 80
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Liver 3 oz (184 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 520
Almonds 1 oz(165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 140
Candy bar 2.2 oz (278 kcal) Miscellaneous 130

52. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Magnesium
• Body locations
• More than half is found in bones
• Reservoir to ensure normal blood concentrations
• Roles
• Maintains bone health
• Necessary for energy metabolism
• Catalyst in ATP production
• Inhibits muscle contraction and blood clotting
• Supports normal function of immune system

53. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Magnesium Intakes
• Average dietary intake for U.S. adults below
recommendations
• Hard water contributions
• Sources
• Legumes, seeds, and nuts
• Leafy green vegetables

54. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Magnesium in Selected Foods
Food
(Best Source per
kclalorie)
Serving Size (kcalories) Food Group Approximate Amount
of Magnesium
(milligrams)
Bread, whole wheat 1 oz slice (70 kcal) Grains 30
Cornflakes, fortified 1 oz (110 kcal) Grains 5
Spaghetti pasta ½ c cooked (99 kcal) Grains 15
Tortilla, flour 1 10"-round (234 kcal) Grains 20
Broccoli ½ c cooked (22 kcal) Vegetables 20
Carrots ½ c shredded raw (24 kcal) Vegetables 10
Potato 1 medium baked w/skin (133 kcal) Vegetables 35
Tomato juice ¾ c (31 kcal) Vegetables 25
Banana 1 medium raw (109 kcal) Fruits 35
Orange 1 medium raw (62 kcal) Fruits 15
Strawberries ½ c fresh (22 kcal) Fruits 10
Watermelon 1 slice (92 kcal) Fruits 35
Milk 1 c reduced-fat 2% (121 kcal) Milk and milk products 35
Yogurt, plain 1 c low-fat (155 kcal) Milk and milk products 45
Cheddar cheese 1½ oz (171 kcal) Milk and milk products 15
Cottage cheese ½ c low-fat 2% (101 kcal) Milk and milk products 10
Pinto beans ½ c cooked (117 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 49
Peanut butter 2 tbs (188 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 50
Sunflower seeds 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 40
Tofu (soybean curd) ½ c (76 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 35
Ground beef, lean 1 oz dry (165 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 20
Chicken breast 3 oz roasted (140 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 25
Tuna, canned in water 3 oz (99 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 25
Egg 1 hard cooked (78 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 5
Excellent, and sometimes unusual, sources:
Halibut 3 oz baked (199 kcal) Meats, poultry, seafood 125
Cashews 1 oz (161 kcal) Legumes, nuts, seeds 75
Artichoke 1 (60 kcal) Vegetables 75

55. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Magnesium Deficiency
and Toxicity
• Deficiency rarely occurs
• Occurs with diseases
• Causes tetany and impairs central nervous
system activity
• Hypertension
• Protective factor
• Toxicity
• Rare, but can be fatal
• UL applies to nonfood sources

56. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Sulfate
• Sources
• Food and beverages
• Amino acids
• Methionine
• Cysteine
• No recommended intake
• Normal protein intake

57. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Osteoporosis
and Calcium
Highlight 12

58. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
• Osteoporosis becomes apparent later in life
• Develops earlier without symptoms
• One of the most prevalent diseases in U.S.
• Hip fractures
• Hip replacement
• Loss of independence
• Death from complications

59. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Bone Development and
Disintegration
• Cortical bone
• Hard outer shell
• Gives up calcium to blood
• Slow and steady rate
• Trabecular bone
• Lacy matrix
• Give up calcium when diet runs short
• Impacted by day-to-day intake and need for
calcium

60. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Healthy and Osteoporotic
Trabecular Bone

61. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Risk Factors for Osteoporosis
Nonmodifiable Modifiable
 Female gender
 Older age (>50 yr)
 Small frame
 Caucasian, Asian, or
Hispanic/Latino
 Family history of osteoporosis or
fractures
 Personal history of fractures
 Estrogen deficiency in women
(amenorrhea or menopause,
especially early or surgically
induced); testosterone deficiency
in men
 Sedentary lifestyle
 Diet inadequate in calcium and
vitamin D
 Diet excessive in protein, sodium,
caffeine
 Cigarette smoking
 Alcohol abuse
 Low body weight
 Certain medications, such as
glucocorticoids, aluminum-containing
antacids, and antiseizure drugs

62. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Gender and Hormones
• Men have greater bone density and smaller
losses later in life
• Women and menopause
• Estrogen
• Up to 20 percent bone loss in six to eight years
after menopause
• Drug therapies
• Genetics may play a role
• Smoking and alcohol effects

63. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Dietary Nutrients
• Calcium
• Adequate intakes during growing years
• Recommended levels
• Adequate protein
• Vitamins D and K
• Vitamins C and A
• Omega-3 fatty acids
• Iron inhibits calcium absorption

64. © 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
Supplements
• Calcium from foods support bone health
better than supplements
• Various forms
• Calcium carbonate, citrate, gluconate, lactate,
malate, or phosphate
• Some made from bone meal, oyster shell, or
dolomite
• Often contain lead
• Smaller doses absorbed better than large
doses