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Working Toward the Common Good:
An Online University’s Perspectives on Social Change
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Many institutions of higher education in the United States and
indeed around the world
are reaching out to their neighborhoods as a member of the
community to contribute to the
common good through research, service, and educational
opportunities. In this descriptive study,
the understandings and practices around this kind of activity by
one university with a mission of
creating positive social change is explored. While current
literature indicates that researchers are
examining campus-community engagements, very little research
has been done on community

engagement when the institution works primarily online and the
communities involved are
geographically dispersed and dependent on individual choices
and preferences. The goal of the
study was to discover how members of one such online
university currently understand and
practice the mission to provide a baseline of understandings for
curriculum planning and
mentoring student research projects and service activities.
Through a series of interviews
conducted with faculty members, students, and alumni, several
themes were identified. These
results give rise to several implications for the university in
developing its community outreach,
along with some suggestions for further research. The
discussion of findings for this university
might have applicability to other institutions of higher
education, both online and traditional,
with a similar commitment to the community.
Background to the Study
With the advances in online education and the significant
numbers of institutions that
have campuses in multiple locations, the ease with which

colleges and universities can
demonstrate mission fulfillment is more challenged. The reach
of the university is broader in
such programs and mission efficacy relies on more than
confirmed relationships with
constituency groups that are often local to the institution. For
online education providers in
particular, the strength of mission fulfillment must rely upon
intentional promotion within
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curricular structures, student services, and philosophical
expectations that allow university
members to carry out the institution’s mission in their own
communities. Finding references that
speak to mission fulfillment in online and geographically
dispersed programs is made
particularly difficult given the limited number of writings that
deal with this topic. In fact, a
review of the literature for mission and online learning finds a
greater focus on how the decision
to deliver online instruction can become part of the institution’s
mission, not upon how the

existing mission can be assured through online delivery
(Checkoway, 2001; Johnson, et al.,
2014; Levy, 2003). The complexity of understanding what is
meant by “positive social change”,
the mission for the university in this study, adds to the
difficulty of using traditional images of
“community” within mission fulfillment.
Defining and Describing Social Change
The term “social change” has been defined and analyzed across
the academic disciplines,
reflecting the particular perspective of that discipline and its
research agenda. In one study, a
proposal for social change in schools (Jean-Marie, Normore, &
Brooks, 2009), the authors
reported that their literature review was aided by such
identifiers and organizers as equity,
diversity, social justice, liberatory education, race, gender,
ethics, urban school, global
education, critical pedagogy, oppression, social change, social
development, and social order,
among others. From the review of the literature around these
key terms, Jean-Marie, Normore,
and Brooks see social change as bringing about a “new social

order” in which marginalized
peoples would have the same educational and social
opportunities as those more privileged.
As the list of identifiers above suggests, the concepts of social
justice and equity have
been significant in discussions of social change in education,
psychology, and social and cultural
studies (see also Curry-Stevens, 2007; Drury & Reicher, 2009;
Moely, Furco, & Reed, 2008; and
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Peterson, 2009). The writing and advocacy of Paulo Freire, Ivan
Illich, civil rights leaders, and
feminists during the last half of the 20th century influenced
these understandings and helped
shape the particular emphases of social change in recent
decades.
Hoff and Hickling-Hudson (2011) sought descriptors of social
change that would be
appropriate for education and noted that Farley, writing in 1990,
offered an understanding of
social change as “alterations in behaviour patterns, social
relationships, institutions, and social

structure over time” (Hoff & Hickling-Hudson, 2011, 189).
However, Hoff and Hickling-Hudson
found this inadequate from an educational point of view because
of its value-neutral stance. They
preferred a definition that would give social change a
“connotation of social progress or social
development beneficial to society” (189). For this reason, they
chose the definition proposed by
Aloni in 2002, which places social change as challenging
“trends of discrimination, exploitation,
oppression, and subjugation displayed by groups who regard
themselves as favored and, thus,
take privileges for themselves and deprive other groups of the
right to a dignified life” (Hoff &
Hickling-Hudson, 2011, 189). In other words, the change in
social change is defined here in
positive and value-laden terms that relate more particularly to
the agents of social change than to
others they might want to change. They were careful to add that
this cannot be cast in universal
or absolute terms, but it is dependent on particular contexts and
circumstances (see also Itay,
2008, writing in political science).

and Miller (2006), working in continuing education and
innovation studies, respectively,
identified influences on the meaning of social change arising
from new political and social
realities. For instance, during the economic recession of the late
1970s and early 1980s,
education was seen to be increasingly determined by the needs
and forces of the market and less
by concerns for equity and social justice, a conclusion
suggested also by Atkinson (2010) in
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adult education and Feldman (2001) in economic history.
However, we witness today a
movement again toward social justice and equity issues (Ryan &
Ruddy, 2015), brought about in
part by Occupy activism (e.g., Cortez, 2013), current political
debates, experience in campus
outreach programs (e.g., Patterson, Cronley, West, & Lantz,
2014), social media (e.g., Taha,
Hastings, & Minei, 2015), and exposure to other cultures in a
globalized world (e.g., Bossaller,
Frasher, Norris, Marks, & Trott, 2015).

Armstrong and Miller also noted that increasing global and
international contact has led
to revisions in the meaning of social purpose narrowly defined
in Western terms and contexts
and the “grand narrative” of modernism being replaced by less
absolute and dogmatic post-
modern discourses, an idea echoed also in adult education by
Holst (2007). As a consequence,
projects with a social change purpose are considered to be more
effective when local community
partners participate in determining needs and shaping the
outcomes collaboratively (Bahng,
2015; Lees, 2007; Lewis, 2004; Nichols, Gaetz, & Phipps, 2015;
Silverman & Xiaoming, 2015).
Brennan (2008) added that the social context in which higher
education operates today
calls for universities to be responsive in a number of ways to
their constituent societies. One of
these responses, playing “a role in constructing the ‘just and
stable’ society”, returns the social
change mission to the goals of equity, which he suggested
includes equitable access to the
credentials needed to participate as equals in the new societal
realities and guarantees of

autonomy and freedom. Furman and Gruenewald (2004),
working in educational administration,
described yet another new influence on understandings of social
change: ecological concerns.
Their argument was that “environmental crises are inseparable
from social crises” (48), primarily
because they usually have to do with the misuse of racial and
economic power.
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Overall, it is apparent that social change and social purpose
have been focused primarily
on equity issues, although their working definitions, both
implicit and explicit, reflect a spectrum
of meanings ranging from simple activism around race, gender,
and poverty, for instance, to
more nuanced understandings of the impact of technology
developments, diversity,
globalization, as well as the ecological environment. More
recently, this focus has received
renewed attention as the gap between rich and poor is seen to be
widening and the middle class

to be diminishing (Gillis & McLellan, 2013; Goldberg, 2012;
Guy, 2012).
It is important to keep in mind that “social change” can be
either an action or a result,
product or process, noun or verb. While educators need a clear
end-in-view for their work with
students, processural understandings of social change may serve
them better in planning for the
kinds of learning experiences that will bring about the desired
results. The central concept of
“conscientization” in Freire’s writings on social change speaks
as much to process as product
(Hickling-Hudson, 2014) and using the concept of
“transformation” rather than “results” in
reporting on social change projects (e.g., Sewell, 2005;
Silverman & Xiaoming, 2015) further
supports this.
One of the most frequently made distinctions in social change
is that between charity and
helping on the one hand and change and justice on the other. In
many cases, the distinction is
assumed (e.g., Moely, Furco, & Reed, 2008); in other cases, it
is elaborated. In simplest terms,
charity work sets out to help someone; change efforts aim to

modify social arrangements toward
equity (Mitchell, 2008). In cultural and social studies, charity
has been identified as
“transactional” service; change and social justice as
“transformational” (Peterson, 2009, 541,
545). From a social work perspective, charity seeks to discover
the immediate elements of a
particular individual’s needs and deal with them; change
investigates the wider picture of all
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those with similar needs and how the whole group might be
helped by systemic change (Allen-
Meares, 2008). In effect, charity addresses the symptoms of a
social injustice; change seeks to
remove the root causes (Allen-Meares, Mitchell, 2008, Peterson,
2009). The former participants
can usually see immediate results for their efforts; the latter
work for the long term and may
actually never see final results, or at least they will discover
that results are usually not
immediately apparent (Mitchell, 2008). At its worst, charity
may be patronizing, perpetuating

rather than overcoming the differential in power—the “us versus
them” dichotomy—which may
have brought about the need in the first place. At its best,
change may not only amend the
situation of the needy but also strengthen authentic
relationships among all those involved as it
redistributes and shares power more equally between those who
are privileged and those who are
not. In the reciprocity between the needy and change agents,
each benefits although in different
ways (Peterson, 2009).
Writing within the context of human services, Netting,
O’Connor, & Fauri (2007) picked
up on many of the distinctions between charity and change but
put them in an entirely different
light. They replaced charity with focused or peripheral change;
that is, advocacy for individuals
providing “relatively short-term interventions designed to gain
access to, utilization of, or
improve the existing service delivery system” (60). These
interventions are critical in
operationalizing an organization’s mission in that they focus on
implementing and achieving the

intent of particular policies and processes. They are usually
manifested as case advocacy—
working for “individual clients whose rights have been violated
and/or whose access to benefits
have been denied” (p. 63). Netting, O’Connor, and Fauri also
substituted “change” with
“transformation” described as “long-term, structural
interventions designed to change the status
quo at broad community, state, regional, or even national level”
(60). These kinds of
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interventions may involve “social movement organizations,
campaigns for social justice . . . and
coalitions with system reform goals” (60). They may threaten
the status quo and are usually
manifested as cause advocacy—working in “an arena, locus of
change, or target,” which may be
“an organization . . . legislation, law, and/or community or
other large system” (63).
While the literature in general clearly weighs in on the side of
change over charity, some
writers have raised points in favor of taking a more holistic

view of social change that includes
both charity and change. Netting, O’Connor, and Fauri (2007),
for instance, proposed that
because both case advocacy and cause advocacy fall within the
professional roles of human
services providers, both must be planned for and their success
evaluated. One argument in favor
of a more holistic view is that charity may be needed as a
necessary first step to improve
immediate and pressing conditions. Change can then
subsequently address the policies and social
institutions that need reform and/or revitalization (Hoff &
Hickling-Hudson, 2011). This
argument takes on merit when one considers that change may
take time whereas charity may
bring some immediate relief. In a similar vein, charity may also
be considered an important first
step to build trust between social change activists and those for
whom they work, which, once
established, can be a basis on which to take later steps
collectively toward political change
(Peterson, 2009).
Over two decades ago, Boyer claimed, “At no time in our
history has the need been

greater for connecting the work of the academy to the social and
environmental challenges
beyond the campus (1990, xii).” Duderstadt, a decade later,
noting some of the pitfalls to an
institution of higher learning that arise from the expectation
that it will “address social needs and
concerns”, nevertheless declares that “it is clear that public
service must continue to be an
important responsibility of the American university” (2000,
2003, 146). For the purpose of this
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study, when individuals associated with colleges and
universities find ways to serve their local
communities and contribute to the common good, their efforts
are identified as contributing to
positive social change.
Research Method
The goal of this study was to explore and analyze the current
state of understanding and
practice around social change at one online university with
geographically dispersed students and

faculty. We selected a qualitative research design for this study
in an effort to get at the
understandings of faculty members, students, and alumni in
their experience of social change
processes and how they make meaning out of those experiences
(see Creswell, 2003). The site
selected for the project is a comprehensive, regionally
accredited, for-profit institution originally
founded in 1970 as a distance learning institution. It currently
enrolls approximately 60,000
students. The institution is an appropriate site for this research
in that creating positive social
change was the university’s mission from its founding. The
mission statement is prominently
displayed in university publications, shared widely with new
faculty members and students, and
frequently discussed in online forums and other venues.
Although the researchers considered both focus and group
interviews as data collection
methods, we ultimately decided that individual interviews
would provide the richest information
and would also permit comparisons among interview groups.
Informed by both the literature

review and the goal for the study, the researchers prepared an
interview guide, utilizing cross
referencing between the goals for the research and the interview
questions. (The interview
questions are provided in Appendix A.) A research team,
consisting of six faculty members,
completed inter-rater reliability training and piloted the
interview guide. The study was approved
by the university’s Institutional Review Board and appropriate
measures were taken to preserve
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confidentiality of responses with interviewers signing
confidentiality agreements and the
substitution of pseudonyms for real names in any reporting of
the study. A small gift card ($50
for Amazon.com) was sent to participants in appreciation for
their time and willingness to be
interviewed.
Working in pairs, the researchers interviewed three groups of
participants selected via
purposeful, referral sampling from the institution’s faculty,
students, and alumni. Interviewees

were identified by their colleagues, teachers, or mentors as
active participants in social change
activities and possessing an ability and willingness to articulate
their understandings in a
considered way. Eight current students, ten faculty members,
and 12 graduates including five
very recent graduates made up the pool of interviewees.
Interviews were conducted via telephone and transcribed
verbatim using digital
recordings. For each pair of researchers, there was a lead
interviewer and an observer who
debriefed after each interview. The observer also kept interview
notes and verified interview
transcripts; member checks were also used to confirm the
accuracy of the transcripts. Two
analyses of the responses were undertaken, concurrently but
independently, to provide different
perspectives for comparison. The analysis began with the
interview transcripts, looking for
recurring ideas and common themes. The initial and open
coding identified key participant
responses, followed by a second coding that labeled the nature
of the emerging theme. Following

the second coding, the researcher developed working definitions
for each theme. The interviews
were coded a third and final time, during which the working
definitions provided a framework
for confirming the code, and illustrative quotes were noted.
Coded Analysis
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Significant Common Themes
When interviewees were asked to define social change and
provide examples from their
own experiences, their answers and the responses to follow-up
probes yielded richly nuanced and
diverse concepts, spanning a wide spectrum of ideas, reflecting
the broad sweep of the
university’s official definition. Themes emerged about the focus
on others, the charitable nature
of social change, the way small actions in social change could
expand from one or a few to
many, and about the central role of education in changing
perspectives and bringing about social

change.
Focus on the “Other”
Most participants gave definitions of social change that were
“other”-focused; that is,
social change was seen as an important goal in order to improve
some aspect of life for other
people, but not necessarily for themselves. Others might need to
benefit from social change, but
the participants in this study did not typically include
themselves in the change population. For
instance, Brian, a faculty member, stated that social change “is
anything and everything an
individual does to improve the life or lives of others.” In some
cases, those “others” had unmet
personal needs: their quality of life was seen as insufficient or
their wellbeing was somehow in
question.
Few participants first thought of social systems or community-
at-large initiatives as they
discussed social change, but they often added the larger
community in an expansion of their
definition. In some cases, this seemed to be added almost as an
after-thought. Ray, an

undergraduate faculty member, defined social change “as a
group of people who are getting
involved, who are giving of themselves, whether it be in terms
of time or money or effort or all
of the above, to make an impact on both individual people’s
lives and society as a whole”. Other
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respondents took in the larger community immediately. Arsi, for
instance, an alumna whose
work focused on the intergenerational transfer of learning,
spoke of that expansion to the wider
community in these terms: “[S]ocial change has a lot to do with
making a contribution to society
that will not only improve individuals’ lives but will
collectively improve the environments in
which they live, and that can expand beyond just personal
agendas.” Only a few respondents
spoke specifically of social change within the boundaries of
democracy and related political
principles, but the possible expansive nature of social change
was a clear theme: “Social
change,” stated faculty member Christine, “is tinkering with the

world.”
Helping and Altering
Consistent with the focus on “the other” and with a framework
that centers on individual
needs, most participants used language associated with helping
to describe the actions that
support social change. Typical definitions included words such
as “contribute”, “serve”, “give”,
or “provide”, reinforcing the idea that social change is
something that participants initiated for
another individual or set of individuals with specific needs.
Pam, an alumna who works in
mental health, spoke of “project(s) that will kind of better the
populations that they’re serving,”
while Brian spoke of disadvantaged people and the need to
“give them the dignity” of a job.
Marg, another alumna, took up the idea of service: “You have
something that you see you can
start off with service projects or volunteering and charity work
and all of that,” but she extended
this to include a larger context: “I recognize(d) the social
injustices taking place everywhere, in
many communities . . .” And Diane, an MBA alumna, stated that
“social change is about helping

every individual achieve their potential so that they can reach
down and help the next one up.”
In addition to using language that anchored social change within
the concept of helping,
many interviewees described their own social change actions in
terms of the desired effect on
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others. They used terms such as “(re)build”, “develop”,
“empower”, “improve”, and “modify” to
describe the outcomes of their work for social change. Tom, a
faculty member with philosophical
groundings in the quality movement, strives to encourage
people to build on the positive. “Social
change is making something better” and encouraging that
movement forward.
The Ripple Effect
The vast majority of respondents noted that a single person can
be responsible for social
change: only two of the 30 respondents indicated that a “critical
mass” (Eileen’s term, further
arbitrarily defined as 30% of a population by Diane) was

necessary to effect significant social
change. However, most participants acknowledged that social
change can begin with a single
individual but his or her efforts require expansion. Many
participants used the term “ripple” to
note the movement from the single person to a group of people,
and then to a larger impact. Kim,
a student who came to the university precisely because of the
social change mission, is a teacher.
She instructs her own students that “whatever they do should be
important to them and make
some kind of ripple.” Alumnus Charlie called it a “gravitational
wave,” as in physics, that
ultimately impacts the farthest reaches of the universe.
For the most part, social change was seen in terms of making
progress. Paige noted the
idea of “paying it forward” and other interviewees used the
concept of moving forward in a
positive way as part of their social change definition. Over half
the interviewees thought that
both accentuating the positive and removing the negative were
involved in social change, but
nearly as many indicated that a focus on the positive was crucial
for social change. Only one

respondent indicated that the single goal of social change was to
remove a negative. The notion
of social change by an individual, often for the benefit of
another individual, was prevalent.
Changing Perspectives and the Role of Education
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Participants in each interview group identified education as an
important feature of how
they understand and approach social change. Alice, an alumna
who had a successful military
career and now focuses her efforts on teaching, put it this way:
“Social change to me is being
able to, I guess, implement or work hand-in-hand with students
to help them further their
education so that we help our community become a better
community. It's making sure that
education is the priority as well as being concerned about the
community and the economic
status of the community and the children in the schools.”
Moreover, each group had representatives who spoke of
“transformations” in perspective

as a key feature of social change. Brenda, an alumna who
studied aging women, linked social
change to changing perspectives: “Social change is taking the
norms, the mindset, the
expectations, the assumptions of a society and beginning to
shift them, hopefully in a positive
way.” Wendy, an alumna who has started her own school,
acknowledged that her hope and her
goal “is that kind of the change that the school is in our
community--that it goes beyond just the
children and the families here, but actually that we start this
new conversation of what education
can be.” Margaret, a faculty member in human services, spoke
of beginning social change at a
“very grassroots level, where you can shape a person’s values,
or maybe their attitude, maybe
their beliefs . . . which in turn, basically diffuses out to other
aspects of society.”
Secondary Themes
Reliance on Context
The task of articulating a definition of social change was not
simple for most participants.
In terms of elaborating on social change definitions and

examples, some participants noted the
importance of context. Becky, a doctoral student in Public
Policy and Administration, focused on
context: “Let’s see. Well, that depends on the project. It can be
an individual that’s changed
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something in their life or it could be a process that’s changed or
it could be a policy. That’s hard
without knowing an example.”
Social Change and Benefit to the Initiator
“Who is social change for?” As respondents considered the
beneficiaries of social
change, some admitted that social change action promotes
benefit for the change initiator.
Paige noted that the first thing that changes in social change is
often the self: “Well, I hope first,
before anything, we’re changing our lives, who we are, what we
believe, and what we think. You
have to do that first before you can actually make a difference
in the community.” Charlie, an
alumnus who has founded a business to promote cross-cultural

communications, spoke similarly
of the need to build the “self” in order to effect social change:
“And by doing that I enrolled
[here] and hoped to develop those strengths in myself, which
gets back to the Gandhi point that
you become the change you want to see by empowering myself,
educating myself, engaging
myself . . .” Arsi proposed that social change serves a dual
purpose. “I think it’s not only for the
person that initiates the social change but I think it’s for a
broader audience and it can include the
community.” Ray stated that this is a “central truth to the
human experience. When you help
people, you personally benefit, and when you help enough
people or you get together a large
enough group, you can help society benefit.” Christine
admitted, “I think very selfishly. It’s
definitely for myself because of all the things that go with it,
but I think the goal is that there will
be some value or benefit for us universally.”
Discussion and Implications
The participants in this study were focused on others. an
admirable quality, enacting the

“servant-leadership model” (Greenleaf, 1977, among others) for
improving organizational
effectiveness and creating change. A few of the participants
acknowledged benefit to themselves
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in engaging in social change activity, usually in the form of
personal satisfaction that can come
about by doing something good for others. One interviewee
expressed the even more cynical
view that all we do is tainted by a level of self-serving. Social
justice and equity were seen by
some to be objectives for social change action but in the form of
bringing about for others what
they themselves already possesses. A few spoke of supporting
democracy by their actions, where
all work together for the common good.
The enthusiasm and momentum around helping others was very
notable in this group of
interviews. By itself, however, a focus on improving conditions
for another may not be
sufficient for thorough-going social change. Under some
conditions, especially when root causes

are not addressed, it can be experienced as disempowering and
patronizing by the recipients,
creating two levels in a community—the helpers operating from
a privileged position and the
helped operating from a position of need and deficit—and
neither level is transformed by the
activity. Importantly, it may not always reveal that one might
be implicated as a member of a
group that could very well be the source of the problem being
addressed.
As indicated, one of the persistent themes in the scholarly
discussion of social change is
the clear distinction between charity and helping on the one
hand and change and justice on the
other. In the coded analysis made of the definitions and
descriptions of social change, the theme
“charity and alteration” was one of the most prominent. It was
described as serving or helping
others so that their lives and possibly the lives of an ever
widening circle will be changed. The
analysis found that the participants in this study tended to speak
more often in terms of “charity”
than “change”.

Real-life examples of social change activity, however, are
seldom as clear cut as
descriptions of charity and change in the literature suggest.
While charity predominates in the
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descriptions and actions of the participants, and social change
activity was conducted by
individuals or small groups engaged in the same effort and
focused on a specific needy group,
and even though most of the change was seen as making a
difference in the lives of individuals
being served rather than in the systemic structures that make up
society and its institutions, many
nevertheless saw their activities contributing to change in a
larger context. Much of this change
was envisaged in terms of hopeful thinking about the long-term
potential and “ripple effect” of
their efforts, rather than in terms of the impact of deliberately
planned or collaborative action.
The larger changes were considered post hoc effects rather than
outcomes planned from the
beginning. Not apparent were strategies based on an analysis of

systemic flaws and developed to
address root causes, bringing all players into the planning, and
being deliberate about making
long-term and sustainable changes.
The analysis which looked for common themes in the responses
produced encouraging
news for those who work in higher education. Both faculty
members and students spoke of the
transformative power of education to change perspectives and
attitudes. They spoke of the
power of class discussion forums, learning from different others
in classes, curricular topics that
specifically addressed needs and opportunities for social change
activity, practical projects
undertaken as class assignments, and the example of faculty
members and other students who
were engaged in social change activity. Faculty members also
spoke of the importance of one-
on-one mentoring of students who were in the process of
developing a change project.
Suggestions for Further Research
This study opens up several questions that suggest areas for
additional research, some

that arise from expanding and strengthening the original study,
and others to follow-up on leads
from this study. Among the first set of questions is how wide-
spread these views and
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understandings of social change are within the context of this
university. So, this interview study
with its referral sampling approach might usefully be expanded
to the whole university
community for a more thorough-going data set, perhaps
employing a survey to provide
quantitative measures of the strengths of the many responses
represented by the sample in the
original study. Then too, given that this study was conducted in
one institution whose mission is
to create positive social change, what would other institutions,
traditional and online, find if they
were to conduct similar investigations? This question is
important if the institution wants to more
fully realize its social responsibility in community outreach by
providing an initial sense of some
of the common themes , with their strengths and weaknesses,

that might exist already in the
institution.
In follow-up on leads from this study, studies of teaching and
learning strategies might
help determine the most effective for expanding ideas of charity
to include a change dimension,
and to prepare students in the skills needed for social change as
efforts toward justice and equity
and/or empowerment and agency.
Limitations of the Study
This was an exploratory study whose purpose was to discover
the understanding and
practice of positive social change as a component of the mission
of a large U.S. online
university. The sample size was small and purposefully selected
for the participants’
involvement in social change activities. As a result, it was
comprised of a majority of
participants who live and study in the United States. There was
a general intent to include
participants with diverse racial and ethnic background and
gender. The end result is a range of
values along with diversity in culture, gender, and ethnicity in

this group of participants and an
equally wide ranging number and kinds of contexts and
opportunities for social action being
19
addressed by them. While this is a limitation of the study, it
also is representative of the
complexity of understanding social change and those who are
active within it.
Missing from the research design is the involvement of a
designated external community
in the project. Our identified “community” includes the faculty,
students, and alumni of the
institution. As faculty members, the researchers are part of this
community and we relied upon
other faculty, our students, and our alumni to help identify
participants, perfect the interview
guide, provide a debriefing after each interview, and support
member checks. The University’s
external communities, less well defined, are all the communities
in which our students, faculty,
and alumni practice positive social change. The difficulty of
creating touch points with all

external community constituency groups, challenging even for
land-based institutions, would
have been prohibitive for a study of this size.
Conclusion
The findings of this study indicate that faculty, alumni, and
students at this particular
institution show strong passion to make changes for “the greater
good.” It also shows that for
those who are actively involved, some of the distinctions made
in the literature do not hold in
their understandings and practice of social change. Activities
that at first glance might seem to
fall into the category of charity were also undertaken with the
expectation of a “ripple effect”
that would manifest itself as change in the broader society.
“Helping” and “altering” concepts
were used together to describe the purpose of an activity. In
other words, service activities were
often understood to be aiming for social justice or self-efficacy
which takes them out of the realm
of simply helping (a potentially disempowering relationship)
and into the domain of real change;
from a focus on a single individual or group of individuals

toward creating an impact through
these individuals on the wider community. This move from
charity to change was not always
20
fully understood by participants and could be strengthened even
further by preparing students in
the skills and knowledge to turn their scholarly understandings
and personal commitment into
even more effective community engagement and long-lasting
impact that more deliberately looks
to creating systemic change.
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25

APPENDIX A
Interview Questions
Was working for social change important to you before you
came to [this institution?]
If yes, how were you involved?
Was the social change mission important to you in making your
choice to come to [institution]?
From your perspective, what is “social change”?
From your own observations, can you give some examples of
what you mean?
What is changed by social change?
Who is social change for, primarily? [Me? Others? The whole
planet?]
How many individuals need to be engaged in order to call it
social change? Is one enough or
does it need to be more? How many more?
How important is it for social change to focus on policy and
policy-makers?
What do you think of when you think about political activism?
How important is political
activism in social change? What kind of political activism

would you engage in? (or encourage
your students to engage in)
Is social change more about removing something negative or
nurturing something positive?
How do you feel about having social change as a goal of your
teaching, learning, or professional
work?
How important is the goal of fostering social change in
understanding your role as a faculty
member, or planning and undertaking your studies as a learner,
or developing your career as a
graduate?
© 2016 Laureate Education, Inc. Page 1 of 2
Interview Guide Instructions
1. Prepare!
a. Choose a recording device to capture your voice and your
interviewee’s voice. Smartphones have a variety of apps for
recording
and downloading calls. Several are free. Some charge an

additional fee
for downloading the file. Some also have a transcribing service,
but there
is an extra charge. You can also use a simple handheld
recording device.
Conduct the interview using the speakerphone so both voices
will be
distinctly heard.
b. Decide how you want to create the transcription. As indicated
above,
you can use a transcription service; they will charge anywhere
between $1
and $3 a minute. Alternatively, you can transcribe the interview
yourself by
typing the text into MS Word. This is free, but time
consuming—about 1–2
hours, as you need to record the contents of the interview
verbatim. Be
sure to identify when the interviewee is speaking, and highlight
the
questions you ask.
c. Create an Interview Guide Form. An example is provided in
the course,
or you can create your own. If you use this one or another, be
sure to
leave space for your notes.
d. Prepare a brief introduction. There is an example in the
Interview Guide
Example.
e. Practice your interview with a friend to get comfortable with
the questions
and the recording device.

f. Set up your appointment.
2. Conduct your interview.
a. Test to make sure your recording equipment is working.
b. Have your interview guide with you and a pen to take notes.
Immediately after:
i. Make detailed notes of your experience. Include how you
were
feeling during the interview, and your unspoken reactions to the
interviewee’s comments.
ii. Check to make sure the recording worked
c. As soon as possible, transcribe the interview.
Questions:
1. Can you tell me what program are you in at Walden?
a. And what year did you start?
2. How was working for social change important to you before
you came to Walden?
a. Can you give me an example of what you did?

3. How was the social change mission important to you in
making your choice to
come to Walden?
a. Please describe how it was important/not important to you.
4. From your perspective, what is social change?
a. Can you give me some examples of what you mean by that?
Interview Guide Example
Date:
Time:
Interviewee Code #:
Location of Interview:
Parts of the Interview Interview Questions
helping
me practice my interview skills. As you know, the
purpose of this interview is to talk about what
social change means to you as a Walden student.
This should last about 10 minutes. After the
interview, I will be examining your answers to

practice data analysis, and some of your answers
will be shared with my Instructor and classmates.
However, I will not identify you in my documents,
and no one will be able to identify you with your
answers. You can choose to stop this interview at
any time. Also, I need to let you know that this
interview will be recorded for transcription
purposes.
to begin?
Question 1:
1. Can you tell me what program you are in at
Walden?
a. And what year did you start?

Question 2: 2. Was working for social change important to you
before you came to Walden?
a. Can you give me an example of what
you did?
Question 3:
3. Was the social change mission important to you in
making your choice to come to Walden?
a. Please describe how it was important/not
important to you.
Question 4: 4. From your perspective, what is social change?

a. Can you give me some examples of what
you mean by that?
Close 1. Thank you for your answers. Do you have anything
else you’d like to share?
2. Do you have any questions for me?
3. Thank you for your time. Goodbye.
DirectionsVideo Code #Student GenderStudent Program of
StudySubject matter/topicWhat happened in the Video? (2) 1st
Cycle Descriptive1st Cycle Concept2nd cycle PatternsQuick
MemosDirection12356678My NotesTranscriptThe
TranscriptDirections: For each video you chose, type in the
following information, extracted from your video field notes

guide. Put the data of one video per tab. The numbers above
correspond to the directions below. 1. Create a video code
number, so the identifying information will not be visible in
this record.2. Indicate speaker's gender3. Indicate speakers
program of study4. Briefly describe the subject matter or topic
of the video.5. (a) Under the sub-heading "My Notes", copy
each sentence describing a "fact" of the video (#2 from your
Notes guide) into one cell of the spread sheet. Use the "wrap
text" function for readability.5 (b) Under the sub-heading
"Transcript", select sections of text from the video transcript,
again placing each one in a cell of the spread sheet. 6-7. Using
the techniques from your Saldana text and the coding videos,
code each line with two 1st cycle and one 2nd cycle codes.8.
Create a short statement or phrase summarizing your reflexive
notes (#4 from your guide).
Video 1Video Code #Student GenderStudent Program of
StudySubject matter/topicWhat happened in the Video? (1)1st
Cycle Descriptive1st Cycle Concept2nd Cycle PatternsQuick
MemosMy NotesTranscript
Video 2Video Code #Student GenderStudent Program of
StudySubject matter/topicWhat happened in the Video? (2) 1st
Cycle Descriptive1st Cycle Concept2nd Cycle PatternsQuick
MemosMy Notestranscript
Website SourceWebsite SourceType of Page/SourceSubject
matter/topicWeb page/report content1st Cycle
CMC: CMC:
Cell alignment differs from the Video 2 tab. Suggest uniform
alignment.
1st cycle2nd cycleMemosDELETE THE RED CONTENT AND
PUT IN YOUR OWNURL: [insert here]E.g., home page,
.pdftranscriptEXAMPLEhttps://www.waldenu.edu/about/social-
change/global-day-of-serviceGlobal Days of ServiceDescribes
2015 Global Days of ServiceGlobal Days of Service, celebrated
October 12–18, inspired more than 20,500 faculty, staff,
students, and alumni, as well as their friends and family, to

participate in community service projects around the
world.Members of the Walden and Laureate communities in
more than 15 countries contributed more than 125,000 volunteer
hours in more than 240 service projects. Projects
included:Cleaning and organizing the Minneapolis American
Indian Center in the U.S.Building houses for hedgehogs and
performing general cleaning and maintenance at a nature reserve
in Gdansk, Poland.Painting, assembling furniture, beautifying a
courtyard, and organizing a food pantry at a middle school in
Baltimore, Maryland, in the U.S.Launching a program to engage
with and provide physical and artistic outlets to refugee
children and their families in Germany.Serving orphans in Saudi
Arabia.Thank you to all of our volunteers for helping make a
positive impact in communities around the globe.
Sheet 2

Interviewing Techniques Part One
Program Transcript
NARRATOR: This program contains excerpts from two
interviews. Observe the
differences between the two interview demonstrations. In
addition, note the
information about interview techniques Dr. Linda Crawford
provides throughout
the program.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: This interview provides excerpts
from two 30--minute
interviews. As you view the videos, you have two jobs – one as
a researcher and
one as a student. In your researcher job, you'll be collecting
data on both
interviews, practicing observation skills, and later, you'll be
analyzing the data.
As you collect the data, take care to be accurate in your
observation of behavior
and language. Then differentiate between observation and
interpretation. For
example, if you had notate the participant moved back in the
chair, folded her
arms and waited before responding, that's an observation. On
the other hand,
the notation, “The participant was offended by the question,”
is an interpretation.
As an observer, you don't know the reason for the behavior.

Here, perhaps the
participant may just have wanted time to think about the
answer and wasn't
offended at all. So, take care to differentiate between
observation and
interpretation. In your student job, learn from the modeling
some aspects of how
to conduct an interview with skill. Interviewing is an art with
the goal of inviting
the participant to provide as much information as possible for
the study. To do
that, you need to establish a level of rapport and trust. Use
questions that draw
out the participant and engage the participant. As you observe
the interviews,
look for both strong and weak models of establishing rapport
and trust and
questioning. Weaker, ineffective interview strategies can cause
confusion,
anxiety and discomfort. Some examples of ineffective
strategies are giving
inadequate information on how the interview will proceed,
using closed or one--
word answer questions, withdrawn body language. All of those
may cause the
participant to feel uncomfortable, ignored or even coerced. On
the other hand,
strong and effective interview strategies engage the participant,
encouraging him
or her to provide clear and useful information. Some examples
of effective
strategies are clear explanation and information on how the
interview will
proceed, using open--ended question and probe, balancing
rapport and neutrality,
appropriate body language. As you observe, identify and

notate as specifically as
you can the exact content, verbal language, body language of
both the
interviewer and the interviewee. How are questions asked,
what responses do
they generate, how does body language play into the
interview, what is the effect
of the interviewer's action on the interviewee. With study and
observation and
practice, you will build habits that allow you consistently to
collect clear and valid
data. As an interviewer, you are a researcher, a scientist. You
are also an artist
painting a relationship between yourself and the participant.
Let's see what the
painting might look like.
LAURA: Hi.
© 2016 Laureate Education, Inc. 1

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Oh, hi, Laura, come on. Watch the
cord, please.
Thank you very much. I'm sorry about it but you know how it
goes. Thank you,
have a seat. Laura, I'm so happy that you agreed to do this
interview because
it's really going to help me get my study done and get my
degree. So, thanks a
lot. I have 5 questions. You ready to go on them?
LAURA: But, how long is this going to take?
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Oh, that was in the stuff I sent you.
30 minutes is
what I'm thinking, okay. That be a work --
LAURA: Yeah, yeah, I think that will be okay. But what –
you're taking notes or
something?
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Yeah. Oh, right. I'm going to be
taking some notes,
so please don't let that distract you. It – I won't print your name
with it, so it'll
keep your – your stuff will all be anonymous. And to remind

you, I'm also going
to tape it. Okay – that was okay with you still?
LAURA: Yeah, I guess, yeah, okay.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Okay, all right. Are you ready to
go now? (Yes) And
remind you of the topic, we're talking about workplace morale.
(Okay) Okay.
Now, let me see – do I have the tape in here, yeah, okay. Oh,
how does this
thing work? You know, every one is different. Oh, I think it's
– it's running, so I
think we're okay. All right, thanks a lot. What is workplace
morale?
LAURA: Well, I guess – I guess would say workplace morale
means it's a fun
place to work that you know it's a place I don't mind going, I
like going. Nice
people.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Nice people, okay. Now, we've all
had bad
workplaces.
LAURA: Well, I guess what I can think of is a program that I
wanted to start at
the school here, an after school program. I was very excited
about it and you
know my principal, Rick Baxter, totally squashed the (ew)
idea. I, you know I'm in
graduate school, so I'm using my new ideas that I'm learning to
put everything
into really developing this program and seeing it as
something that the kids here

really, really need and I know it would be appreciated. And, so,
I went in to talk to
him and explain my ideas and he basically said no way, we
don't have time for
any extra stuff, stick to the basics – make sure your learning
outcomes are good.
He told me to focus on the important things. And I just – I left
that meeting

feeling just – just terrible, all the work I put in. And, that's just
– that's just one
example. I mean and the other teachers, we talk about it, too.
It's any new
ideas, whether it's in the classroom, outside of the classroom. I
mean, we want
to really help these kids and we want to really get them
excited, you know get
them to be learning by getting excited about things. And Rick
just doesn't help us
you know in that way. He'll say things like no way, forget
about it, stick -- you
know it's something that makes you – I know for me at least, it
makes me kinda
feel put down, you know acting like I'm doing the things I'm
supposed to be doing
because I'm focusing on other things. So, I don't feel respected
and _____ just
have demeaning comments and (My goodness) that really
hurts my morale. And
with this last program, that was like the icing on the cake. I
just I felt like you
know what, I just gave up on it. And you know so now so I'm
not feeling good
about my morale here, I have to say.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: I can understand – I've had a similar
(Really?) yeah, a
similar experience where I had a program I wanted to do and it
got totally
squashed the principal. So, I understand exactly how you feel.
But really I'm
sorry that happened to you, that's really unfortunate. 00:07:25
Do you think that
workplace morale in education is similar to workplace morale
in other

professions?
LAURA: Well, yeah, definitely.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Do you think your school has
good workplace morale?
LAURA: Not really.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Well, why?
LAURA: Well, it's because of the way Rick treats us. You
know, if we can't have
new ideas, if we're not respected, then you know how are we
supposed to feel
good about what we're doing. And the just it's just I feel
criticized. You know I
just – it's definitely I'd say Rick. If I had to put it on anything,
I'd have to say it
was Rick that just would make me say why I don't have very
good morale.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: I can't believe – that's really too
bad for the leader of
the school to be behaving like that towards you.
LAURA: Yeah. Oh, I better check the time. I really, oh, I
really have to go. (You
do?) Yeah, so--
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: I have one more question, I'll ask it
really fast.
LAURA: Well, okay, I guess if it's really, really quick.

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: It's really fast. What are some ways
your school could
improve workplace morale?
LAURA: You know, it's not really that bad. I have to go, I
really have to go.

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Okay, thanks a lot. Bye, bye.
Watch the cord,
please. Thank you, don't trip. You'll mess up my study if you
do. Okay, thanks,
bye--bye, Laura.
LAURA: Bye.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: We have now observed and
collected data from one
interview. It may be helpful to take a break to separate the two
observations. As
a researcher, it's a good practice to take breaks between
observations. Many of
us have had the experience of teaching several classes in a row
of the same
preparation. By the last class, it's a mental jumble – we can't
remember what we
taught or to whom, and we find ourselves saying things like –
did I tell you people
this. That mental jumble can also happen in research when the
observations
follow very closely upon each other. But when people give us
time to assist in
research, it is important that they have our full attention, that
we are fully present
to them and focused on them. So, take a break. When you come
back, recall
that you have two jobs. One as a researcher to collect accurate
observational
data. Two, as a student, to learn skills for conducting
interviews. Let's see how
the next interview compares with the first.
LAURA: Hi.

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Oh, hi, Laura, glad to meet you.
(Pleased to meet
you, too, hi.) Please have a seat. Thank you for taking the
time for this interview.
Your participation in this educational project on workplace
morale for teachers is
really important as a study. It'll help us understand more
about how to support
teachers and ultimately help the student achievement and
student outcomes.
We'll be interviewing yourself and about 10 other teachers, so
we'll have all this
information that will contribute to the project. Now, I know
you've read about the
project and how we're conducting it, but I'd just like to review a
few items with
you. (Okay) First of all, as you know, your participation is
totally voluntary. So, if
I ask you a question that you don't want to answer or if you
need to stop the
interview at any time, just let me know. Also, as you know, I'll
be audio taping the
interview and also be taking some notes. When I finish, when
we finish the
interview, I'll be giving you a transcript of the audio tape and
sharing my notes
with you so you can look at them, review them, make any
corrections that you
see need to be made to make sure that we capture what it is you
wanted to say.
This study may be published and in publication, we won't use
any of your names
– yourself or any of the other teachers, even if we use direct
quotes, we'll use
pseudonyms. And it also might be presented in conferences and
professional

meetings. Okay – do you have any questions? (No) As you
know, we've set
aside about 30 minutes for the interview and that seems to be
okay for you?

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Okay. We won't go beyond that time
unless you wish
to do so. (Okay) Audio taping is still fine?
LAURA: Yes, that's fine.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Okay. Ready to go? (Yes) Let's
start then. Laura,
what does workplace morale mean to you?
LAURA: Workplace morale I would say basically means that
it's a fun place to
work, that it's a place where you are looking forward to getting
up and going to
every day and that there's nice people there that you enjoy
working with.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: What makes it fun?
LAURA: I would say the idea that you can try out new ideas,
that your
colleagues support you, that there's a sense of friendship,
camaraderie, flexibility
on the part of the supervisor, and support – just feeling
supported, I'd say.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: So, support actually makes you
enjoy the work?
(Yes) I'd like to hear some stories about workplace morale.
And if you could tell
me a story that might have enhanced workplace morale and one
that de--
enhanced it – without naming any real names, that would be
really helpful to me.
Do you have some stories like that?

LAURA: Yeah. I think I'll one that you call de--enhanced.
(Okay) At a school I
worked at before, there was a principal who he just didn't –
didn't give us the
flexibility to try out new ideas. I had a program I had my
heart set on starting. I
had spent so much time on it and I really felt like it would help
solve some of the
problems and difficulties that kids were having. It was an
after school program
and I just thought it would just be so – the creativity and the
critical thinking
involved would just really help the kids. And, he just said no
way, he squashed
the whole idea and I felt bad because I felt like I had nowhere
to go. I couldn't
even -- you know, every time I'd try to bring it up to the point
that he said, “Just
please don't bring this up to me again. Stick to the basics.
That's -- you know
that's what you were hired for.” And, I was completely
deflated after that and so
that, yeah, that didn't make me feel very good about my job.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: After that, did you propose any
other new programs?
LAURA: No. No, I knew it wouldn't work out. But I'd had
other times and it was
because I had other times where little things he would just
squash and that was
just sort of like the icing on the cake and I knew you know that
there was nothing
else I could do at that point.

DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Had you shared this idea with any
of your colleagues?
LAURA: Yes. They liked the idea and then they told me about
time that the
same thing happened to them. We were all very frustrated and
you know it got to
the point that we were just complaining to each other and that

didn't help you
know because it sort of you know after complaining and just
that negative talk at
least for me sort of makes me feel even worse. You know, we
were trying to
support each other but that wasn't helpful.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: When you say that you're open to
constructive
critique, I'm interpreting that to mean that you don't need to be
told everything
you do is right and good.
LAURA: Right, yeah. Right, like for instance, you know there's
guidelines. You
know we need to be told that you know we're going to keep in
those guidelines.
You know that's – but it's all in the way you do it, the way it's
presented.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: So, my understanding is pretty
much on target of what
you're saying? (um--hmm) As you think about the
responsibility for workplace
morale, we've talked about the employees and the teachers and
the supervisor
or the principal. Particularly in education, does the
community--at--large have any
role in it and what might be the relative roles of those three
groups – the
supervisor, the teachers and the community--at--large?
LAURA: I would say the community--at--large, the only thing
I can think about is
parents as another group that affects our workplace morale
in terms of if they're

too negative, if they're not open, if they're not supportive and
helpful, that makes
our job harder. You know, if they're – and especially if they're
not supportive if
we have new ideas or new programs. That, that makes – so,
they're an important
piece. And then the colleagues are also important, very
important in terms of
that support. But if I were to put it in rank order, I would say
your principal, you
know for teachers, the principal is the most important. The
colleagues second,
and then parents, third – even though they're all important,
that's how I would
rank them.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: could we go back to an earlier
question a little bit? Do
you believe that you've given me enough information or all the
information you
want about a positive and a negative experience?
LAURA: Oh, yeah, no, oh, yeah. The – oh, I'm glad you
mentioned that because
the situation I'm in now is like night and day (Okay)
comparing it to the other one.
We really have a collegial atmosphere. It all starts with a
program this principal
said to us and it was his idea – he said, “I want each of you
teachers whatever
your interests are to develop a program that's going to
enhance student learning,
student critical thinking and student creativity,” and he left it
open to come up with

what we wanted to do and he said I want you to meet every
week, provide each
other support and feedback. And, you know, I'll be at these
meetings and we'll
help each other and we'll brainstorm because he really
believed that that's going
to really help things. And for me, I just -- you know I felt like
I was so thrilled, you
know based on my other experience, I thought this is

wonderful. So, I developed
a media literacy and a documentary producing program for
the kids in my class.
And other teachers did totally different things. And we meet
every week and we
talk about it and we give each other really helpful feedback
and it's become just
this great – it's really enhanced our interest and you know
we're interested in
each other, we care, we give each other good feedback. And,
you know I'm
friends with some of the teachers now that I didn't you know
hardly know just
because of the support. And the principal is there. He reigns us
in when he
needs to and we can handle it because we know we have his
support, we know
he's just sticking to the guidelines that are there and but
otherwise – and if we're
going too far, he'll help us brainstorm for a way to work
around it or address it so
that you know it's appropriate. And, I'm just really thrilled.
And the interesting
thing is it – it is more work but we're able to really make
changes and see it. We
can see everyday in that class when we see it with the kids.
We see it on their
faces and then we see it – I see it in their assignments in
grades going on, and
struggling kids doing better because they're excited about
school. And, you know
and we're starting to bring in pieces of each other's programs.
Every -- you know
all these programs are quite different and it's just been
wonderful. It's still in
process, but so far everything is completely good and I think

you know part of it is
that it's a good principal, but all of us as teachers at this
particular school just
jumped in and we're ready, we're open and ready to try it out
and it's been
working really well and so I'm happy.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Laura, I want to respect your time
and I notice we're at
30 minutes.
LAURA: Oh, we are, okay. Oh, wow.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Yeah, already. I do have one more
question, but it's
time's up, so I'd like to know if you'd like to stay or go.
LAURA: Okay, well, you know I was going to go but I have to
say I'm really
enjoying this. I don't mind answering another question, (You
sure?) go right
ahead. (Okay) I'd like to. (All right.) Thanks.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: I'd like to know some of your ideas
on how a school
might ensure a positive workplace morale.
LAURA: Well, I guess a typical school that aren't doing sort of
these unusual
motivating programs, one simple thing they could do is just
more social
occasions for the teachers, more opportunities for teachers to
get to know each
other on a social level because I've been at schools where I
only like have one or

two teacher friends that are my close friends at the school.
And, you know don't
really know the others and I feel it can be a bit isolating. And
just to be able to
talk and to be able to share experiences and ideas and just I
think you start with
just you know social parties. You know, little after school you
know get--together

hour, just informally, I think that would help. I think it would
be a simple way to
help to be able to support each other. And, then I guess the key
thing is a
supervisor who sort of makes it a point to be flexible and
trusting and supportive.
I think that's a key element and that's going to affect
everything.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: If you had to say 3 or 5 words –
the most – really key
in terms of this area, what would you say?
LAURA: Respect, support and openness.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Okay. Laura, is there anything else
you'd like to share
with me on this topic that I've not asked you about or that you
would like to have
an opportunity to say?
LAURA: No, I can't think of anything else. I think we've
covered everything on
this topic, yeah.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Well, thank you so much. And as I
said, I'll be
sending you a copy of the transcript and also my notes. If you
see any
corrections or anything that I've missed, please do let me
know. Thank you so
much, Laura.
LAURA: Okay, thank you. Thanks.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: Bye--bye. (Bye--bye) Have a good

class. (Okay)
Okay.
DR. LINDA CRAWFORD: You now have observed and
collected data on two
interviews. As a researcher, you have three tasks in addition to
data collection
Organization of data, analysis of data, and interpretation of the
data to answer
your research question. Your course materials and
assignments will develop
those skills. As a researcher doing qualitative studies, you need
to carefully plan
for the time it takes for you to collect, organize, analyze and
interpret data. It can
be quite a bit of time. Estimate for yourself, for example, how
much time it would
take to collect data for 10 audio taped 40 minute interviews. As
you estimate the
time, plan for contacting and scheduling the interviews, travel
time, conducting
the actual interview and transcribing the interview. That
estimate feeds into your
feasibility planning for the study and it's important for you in
order to allocate
adequate resources to fulfill your research goals. Here, you're
not going to have
to transcribe the interview, but you are going to be organizing,
analyzing and
interpreting the data. Again, you'll be relying on course
materials for guidance in
that. In your student role, you have observed various qualities
of interviewing.

Now, imagine yourself as an interviewer. What would your
body language be
like? How would you establish rapport? What about the
phrasing of your
questions – how would you phrase questions to draw the
participant into dialog?
In order to practice that, you might consider a question and
write it 3, 4, 5
different ways. Then evaluate the phrasings in order to see
which would be most
effective. You might even try them out with some folks. As an
interviewer, you
are a scientist and an artist. As a scientist, you must use strong
and rigorous
research designs and procedures. As an artist, you are painting
a relationship to
establish comfort with your participant so that the participant
can contribute as
much as possible to the study. Practice your science and art by
designing and
conducting interviews. Invite people to observe those interviews
and give you

feedback, participate yourself as an interviewee and observe
others conducting
interviews. One way to do that is to observe and critique
interviews conducted
on news programs. This study, observation and practice will
develop you as a
skilled interviewer.

Interviewing Techniques Part Two
Program Transcript
We have now observed one interview. Let's see how the next
interview
compares with the first.
LINDA: Oh, hi, Laura, glad to meet you. I'm Linda. (Pleased to
meet you, too,
hi.) Please have a seat. Thank you for taking the time for
this interview. Your
participation in this educational project on workplace morale
for teachers is really
important as a study. It'll help us understand more about how
to support
teachers and ultimately help the student achievement and
student outcomes.
We'll be interviewing yourself and about 10 other teachers, so
we'll have all this
information that will contribute to the project. Now, I know
you've read about the
project and how we're conducting it, but I'd just like to review a
few items with
you. (Okay) First of all, as you know, your participation is
totally voluntary. So, if
I ask you a question that you don't want to answer or if you
need to stop the
interview at any time, just let me know. Also, as you know, I'll
be audio taping the
interview and also be taking some notes. When I finish, when
we finish the
interview, I'll be giving you a transcript of the audio tape and
sharing my notes

with you so you can look at them, review them, make any
corrections that you
see need to be made to make sure that we really capture what it
is you wanted to
say. This study may be published and in publication, we won't
use any of your
names – yourself or any of the other teachers, even if we use
direct quotes, we'll
use pseudonyms. And it also might be presented in conferences
and
professional meetings. Okay – do you have any questions?
(No) As you know,
we've set aside about 30 minutes for the interview and that
seems to be okay for
you?
LAURA: That will be okay.
LINDA: Okay. We won't go beyond that time unless you wish
to do so. (Okay)
Audio taping is still fine? (Yes) Okay. Ready to go? (Yes)
Let's start then.
Laura, what does workplace morale mean to you?
LAURA: Workplace morale I would say basically means that
it's a fun place to
work, that it's a place where you are looking forward to getting
up and going to
every day and that there's nice people there that you enjoy
working with.
LINDA: What makes it fun?
LAURA: I would say the idea that you can try out new ideas,
that your
colleagues support you, that there's a sense of friendship,

camaraderie, flexibility
on the part of the supervisor, and support – just feeling
supported, I'd say.
LINDA: So, support actually makes you enjoy the work?
(Yes) I'd like to hear
some stories about workplace morale. (Okay) And if you
could tell me a story

that might have enhanced workplace morale and one that de-
-enhanced it –
without naming any real names, that would be really helpful to
me. Do you have
some stories like that?
LAURA: Yeah. I think I'll start with the one that you call de-
-enhanced. (Okay)
At a school I worked at before, there was a principal who he
just didn't – didn't
give us the flexibility to try out new ideas. I had a program I
had my heart set on
starting. I had spent so much time on it and I really felt like it
would help solve
some of the problems and difficulties that kids were having. It
was an after
school program and I just thought it would just be so – the
creativity and the
critical thinking involved would just really help the kids. And,
he just said no way,
he squashed the whole idea and I felt bad because I felt like I
had nowhere to go.
I couldn't even -- you know, every time I'd try to bring it up to
the point that he
said, “Just please don't bring this up to me again. Stick to the
basics. That's --
you know that's what you were hired for.” And, I was
completely deflated after
that and so that, yeah, that didn't make me feel very good about
my job.
LINDA: After that, did you propose any other new programs?
LAURA: No. No, I knew it wouldn't work out. But I'd had
other times and it was
because I had other times where little things he would just

squash and that was
just sort of like the icing on the cake and I knew you know that
there was nothing
else I could do at that point.
LINDA: Had you shared this idea with any of your
colleagues?
LAURA: Yes. They liked the idea and then they told me about
times that the
same thing happened to them. We were all very frustrated and
you know it got to
the point that we were just complaining to each other and that
didn't help you
know because it sort of you know after you know complaining
and just that
negative talk at least for me sort of makes me feel even
worse. You know, we
were trying to support each other but that wasn't helpful.
LINDA: When you say that you're open to constructive
critique, I'm interpreting
that to mean that you don't need to be told everything you do is
right and good.
LAURA: Right, yeah. (Okay) Right, like for instance, you
know there's
guidelines. (Okay) You know we need to be told that you know
we're going to
keep in those guidelines. And you know that's – but it's all in
the way you do it,
the way it's presented.
LINDA: So, my understanding is pretty much on target of
what you're saying?
(um--hm) As we think about the responsibility for workplace

morale -- we've talked
about the employees and the teachers and the supervisor or
the principal --
particularly in education, does the community--at--large have
any role in it and

what might be the relative roles of those three groups – the
supervisor, the
teachers and the community--at--large?
LAURA: I would say the community--at--large, the only thing
I can think about is
parents as another group that affects our workplace morale
in terms of if they're
too negative, if they're not open, if they're not supportive and
helpful, that makes
our job harder. You know, if they're – and especially if they're
not supportive if
we have new ideas or new programs. That, that makes – so,
they're an
important piece. And then the colleagues are also important,
very important in
terms of that support. But if I were to put it in rank order, I
would say your
principal, you know for teachers, the principal is the most
important. The
colleagues second, and then parents, third – even though
they're all important,
that's how I would rank them.
LINDA: Could we go back to an earlier question a little bit?
Do you believe that
you've given me enough information or all the information you
want about a
positive and a negative experience?
LAURA: Oh, yeah, no, oh, yeah. The – oh, I'm glad you
mentioned that (That's
okay, it's all right) because the situation I'm in now is like
night and day (Okay)
comparing to the other one. We really have a collegial
atmosphere. It all starts

with a program this principal said to us and it was his idea –
he said, “I want each
of you teachers whatever your interests are to develop a
program that's going to
enhance student learning, student critical thinking and student
creativity,” and he
left it open to come up with what we wanted to do and he said,
“I want you to
meet every week, provide each other support and feedback.
And, you know, I'll
be at these meetings and we'll help each other and we'll
brainstorm,” because he
really believed that that's going to really help things. And for
me, I just -- you
know I felt like I was so thrilled, you know based on my other
experience, I
thought this is wonderful. So, I developed a media literacy
and a documentary
producing program for the kids in my class. And other
teachers did totally
different things. And we meet every week and we talk about it
and we give each
other really helpful feedback and it's become just this great –
it's really enhanced
our interest and you know we're interested in each other, we
care, we give each
other good feedback. And, you know I'm friends with some of
the teachers now
that I didn't you know hardly know just because of the support.
And the principal
is there. He reigns us in when he needs to and we can handle
it because we
know we have his support, we know he's just sticking to the
guidelines that are
there and but otherwise – and if we're going too far, he'll help
us brainstorm for a

way to work around it or address it so that you know it's
appropriate. And, I'm
just really thrilled. And the interesting thing is it – it is more
work but we're able to
really make changes and see it. We can see everyday in that
classroom we see
it with the kids. We see it on their faces and then we see it – I
see it in their
assignments in grades going up, and struggling kids doing
better because they're
excited about school. And, you know and we're starting to bring
in pieces of each

other's programs. Every -- you know all these programs are
quite different and it's
just been wonderful. It's still in process, but so far everything
is completely good
and I think you know part of it is that it's a good principal, but
all of us as teachers
at this particular school just jumped in and we're ready, we're
open and ready to
try it out and it's been working really well and so I'm happy.
LINDA: Laura, I want to respect your time and I notice we're at
30 minutes.
LAURA: Oh, we are, okay.
LINDA: Yeah, already. (Oh, wow) I do have one more question,
but it's time's
up, so I'd like to know if you'd like to stay or go.
LAURA: Okay, well, you know I was going to go but I have to
say I'm really
enjoying this. I don't mind answering another question, (You're
sure?) go right
ahead. (Okay) I'd like to. (All right.) Thanks.
LINDA: I'd like to know some of your ideas on how a school
might ensure a
positive workplace morale.
LAURA: Well, I guess a typical school that aren't doing sort of

these unusual
motivating programs, one thing, simple thing they could do is
just more social
occasions for the teachers, more opportunities for teachers to
get to know each
other on a social level because I've been at schools where I
only like have one or
two teacher friends that are my close friends at the school.
And, you know don't
really know the others and I feel it can be a bit isolating. And
just to be able to
talk and to be able to share experiences and ideas and just I
think it could start
with just you know social parties. You know, little after school
you know get--
together hour, just informally, I think that would help. I think
it would be a simple
way to help to be able to support each other. And, then I guess
the key thing is a
supervisor who sort of makes it a point to be flexible and
trusting and supportive.
I think that's a key element and that's going to affect
everything.
LINDA: If you had to like say three or five words – the most
– really key in terms
of this area, what would you say?
LAURA: Respect, support and openness.
LINDA: Okay. Laura, is there anything else you'd like to share
with me on this
topic that I've not asked you about or that you would like to
have an opportunity
to say?

LAURA: No, I can't think of anything else. I think we've
covered everything on
this topic, yeah.
LINDA: Well, thank you so much. And as I say, I'll be sending
you a copy of the
transcript and also my notes. If you see any corrections or
anything that I've
missed, please do let me know. Thank you so much, Laura.
LAURA: Okay, thank you. Thanks.

LINDA: Bye--bye. (Bye--bye) Have a good class. (Okay)
Okay.
LINDA: You now have observed and collected data on two
interviews. As a
researcher doing qualitative studies, you need to carefully plan
for the time it
takes for you to collect, organize, analyze and interpret data. It
can be quite a bit
of time. Estimate for yourself, for example, how much time it
would take to collect
data for 10 audio taped 40 minute interviews. As you estimate
the time, plan for
contacting and scheduling the interviews, travel time,
conducting the actual
interview and transcribing the interview. That estimate feeds
into your feasibility
planning for the study and it's important for you in order to
allocate adequate
resources to fulfill your research goals. You have observed
various qualities of
interviewing. Now, imagine yourself as an interviewer. What
would your body
language be like? How would you establish rapport? What about
the phrasing of
your questions – how would you phrase questions to draw the
participant into
dialog? In order to practice that, you might consider a question
and write it 3, 4,
5 different ways. Then evaluate the phrasings in order to see
which would be
most effective. You might even try them out with some folks.
As an interviewer,
you are a scientist and an artist. As a scientist, you must use
strong and rigorous
research designs and procedures. As an artist, you are painting

a relationship to
establish comfort with your participant so that the participant
can contribute as
much as possible to the study. Practice your science and art by
designing and
conducting interviews. Invite people to observe those interviews
and give you
feedback. Participate yourself as an interviewee and observe
others conducting
interviews. One way to do that is to observe and critique
interviews conducted
on news programs. This study, observation and practice will
develop you as a
skilled interviewer.

First Cycle Coding: Structural Coding
Program Transcript
[MUSIC PLAYING]
SUSAN MARCUS: Hi. This is Dr. Susan Marcus. And we're
back to start our coding for
a qualitative data analysis.
We've got the questions and the content into our Excel
spreadsheet. And we're going to
begin with what's called first cycle coding. This is our first
approach to the data from the
perspective of looking for units of meaning that we can then
take apart and then put
back together for the interpretation.
If this were a real research project or your dissertation, also
keep in mind your primary
research questions, the theoretical approach that you might be
using to examine the
research questions, and the methodological approach or design
as well. Here, we're just
approaching this from a very basic qualitative data analysis
approach. So we'll keep it
simple for the purposes of this demonstration. Regardless, the
first step before
beginning data analysis is, to use an expression, to wash your
brain, to let go of all
preexisting ideas and biases you have about what you are
looking for and to approach

the data with curiosity and inquiry.
So we'll begin with the first cycle coding process using
descriptive codes. This is a really
easy way to get into the data analysis process using single
words or short descriptions
to identify what's going on in the content of the interview. So
for example here, a
description of what's happening here is she's reporting on her
degree.
Here she's reporting on the year of the degree. So here she's
describing the type of
work that she did before she came to Walden. And here it's the
same. And here, as we
read through the text, the simple description was why she went
on to get her degree.
So I would go through in this first column making simple
identifying remarks describing
each piece of content from the responses. And when I get done
with my descriptive
coding, the completed document looks like this. So for
example, when she talks about
why she came to Walden, short comment how she found
Walden.
The other thing you'll note here is that I've started to put quick
memos, my impressions
as I'm beginning and doing this coding process. So here's my
comment here in my
descriptive code---- "seeing a problem." And my thought as I
was writing the code was
she seeing that there's a problem now that will impact the
future.

And here's my other comment here based on what she said. My
impression of what
she's describing sounds dire. These are, again, little short notes
that I take that I can
expand on later on and use in the later coding process.
© 2016 Laureate Education, Inc.
1

Next, we'll try a more interpretive style of coding called
concept coding, where we read
each piece of text and see what kind of meaning or concept or
idea comes to mind. So
let's look at this first bit of text here. As you can see, I've
highlighted this piece of text in
red because it's quite moving. "There are so many kids that
have problems. I just
wanted to be there to help them because of the community and
because these children
will be our future."
So several concepts come to mind that I'd like to put in as my
text. She's seeing a
problem. And she wants to be part of the solution. She's seeing
the future and also
seeing possibility. So here, using a hard return, I've identified
four possible concepts
that come out of that one piece of text.
Here, this is where she was talking about the type of work
that she was doing before
Walden. Just to give you one quick little thing, "I retired from
the Army. Prior to retiring,
just the times I would go to get my kids' school and I would
say, I am never going to
work in a school." So the concept that comes to mind is that
she is not seeing herself as
a teacher or social change agent.
And this is the way I would go through the text, reading each
bit of text, observing what
was coming up as I was reading the text, and writing a short
comment or phrase that
was more evocative and interpretive so that when I finished my
concept coding, my data

sheet looks something like this. Here are my descriptions.
Here are my interpretive
comments. And again, you can see as I've made my comments,
I also note down what
comes to mind for me.
So this is a really great example of how to be reflexive while
coding. You respond to the
text. And then you can also make a note about yourself.
So I say things, this is my internal conversation. "Never say
never." Sometimes my
comments to myself are the same as my comments for the
concepts---- "transformation."
I write down or I note my wonderings. I wonder if this is
true for other people. So this is,
hmm, maybe I should keep this in mind when I'm looking at
other interviewee
transcripts.
So that brings us to the end of our first cycle coding. We've
looked at descriptive coding,
short descriptions, concept coding, more interpretive coding,
writing memos, personal
reflections, and then the last part of the process before we
move on to our second cycle
coding, is to take a few moments and create a brief summary
of your impressions of
what you got from her interview. So here I write, "The
participant describes her
understanding of social change in terms of experience in seeing
how important it is to
get in there and make a change. There's urgency in some of her
statements."
And observe here, how as I write, I also insert quotes. So that's

how I connect my
interpretation with what the interviewee has said. "And a clear
connection to how
present action can change the future at the social level." And
again, I'm using quotes to
illustrate some of the comments and summative statements that
I've made.
2
This is a very basic approach to qualitative data analysis. As
you look through your
coding manual book and read other kinds of qualitative
research, you'll see that there
are so many different ways to approach your data. The
important thing to recognize is
coding is not just a one time pass through of the data. You'll
actually go through the
data several times using different coding processes in order to
look at the data from
different points of view.
[MUSIC PLAYING]

3
Learning Resources
Required Readings
Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative
researchers (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
· Chapter 1, “An Introduction to Codes and Coding” (pp. 1–42)
(previously read in Weeks 5 and 6)
· Chapter 2, “Writing Analytic Memos About Narrative and
Visual Data” (pp. 43–65) (previously read in Weeks 5 and 6)
Ravitch, S. M., & Carl, N. M. (2016). Qualitative research:
Bridging the conceptual, theoretical, and methodological.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
· Chapter 5, “Methods of Data Collection” (pp. 145–183)
· Chapter 7, “An Integrative Approach to Data Analysis” (pp.
215–236) (previously read in Weeks 5 and 6)
· Chapter 8, “Methods and Processes of Data Analysis” (pp.
237–270) (previously read in Weeks 5 and 6)
Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2012). Qualitative interviewing:
The art of hearing data (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
· Chapter 6, “Conversational Partnerships” (pp. 71–93)
· Chapter 7, “The Responsive Interview as an Extended
Conversation” (pp. 95–114)

· Chapter 8, “Structure of the Responsive Interview” (pp. 115–
129)
· Chapter 9, “Designing Main Questions and Probes” (pp. 131–
147)
· Chapter 10, “Preparing Follow-Up Questions” (pp. 149–169)
· Chapter 12, “Data Analysis in the Responsive Interviewing
Model” (pp. 189–211) (previously read in Weeks 5 and 6)
Yob, I., & Brewer, P. (n.d.). Working toward the common good:
An online university's perspectives on social change, 1-25.
(previously read in Weeks 1 and 4)
Document: Interview Guide Instructions (PDF)
Document: Interview Guide Example (PDF)
Use these documents to guide you as you conduct your phone
interview for this part of your Major Assignment 2.
Document: Excel Video Coding Document Template (Excel
spreadsheet)
Review this Excel template as you view this week’s media
program related to coding. Also, you will use this template for
organizing your data and preparing for coding.
Required Media

In the following Part One and Part Two media programs, Dr.
Linda Crawford provides two separate demonstrations of an
interview conducted in a school setting. As you watch, focus on
the differences between the two demonstrations in these areas:
· The interview setting
· The interview process
· Interviewer and interviewee behavior and body language (Is
rapport being built? How?)
· The interview questions (Which questions elicited better
information?)
Laureate Education (Producer). (2016). Doctoral research:
Interviewing techniques, part one [Video file]. Baltimore, MD:
Author.
Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 9 minutes.
Accessible player
Laureate Education (Producer). (2016). Doctoral
research: Interviewing techniques, part two [Video file].
Baltimore, MD: Author.
Accessible player
Laureate Education (Producer). (2016). First cycle coding:
Structural coding [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

In this media program, Dr. Susan Marcus, Core Research
Faculty with the School of Psychology at Walden University,
introduces the first cycle of coding, structural coding. She will
demonstrate how to begin highlighting text to matches the label
of social change for example.
Accessible player
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