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1.  CERAMICS :
 DEFINING CERAMICS –
An inorganic compound consisting of a metal(or semi-metal) and one or more
non-metals for which the interatomic bonds are partially or totally ionic , or
can have combination of ionic and covalent bonding.
 Ceramics can be amorphous , partly crystalline or crystalline.
 IMPORTANT EXAMPLES :
1) Silica – Silicon dioxide(SiO2) , the main ingredient in most glass products.
2) Alumins – aluminium oxide (Al2O30 used in various applications from abrasives
to artificial bones.
1) More complex compounds such as hydrous aluminium silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4) ,
the main ingredient in most clay products.

2. PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS :
 Extreme hardness – 1) High wear resistance 2) Extreme hardness can reduce wear caused by friction.
 Chemically inert – Offer corrosion resistance that occurs in an acidic or caustic environment.
 Poor tensile strength.
 Brittle , virtually no ductility , hard and strong in compression , durable.
 Melting point – Higher than for most metals . Some ceramics decompose rather than melt.
 High resistance – 1) Low electrical conductivity 2) Low thermal conductivity
3) Low thermal expansion 4) Poor thermal shock resistance
 Density – In general, ceramics are lighter than metals and heavier than polymers.
 Some ceramics are translucent , window glass(based on silica) being the clearest example.
 Excellent dielectric.
EXCEPTIONS :
1) Graphite is a very soft ceramic and conducts electricity.
2) Diamond is a very good conductor of heat.
3) Ceramics called ferrites are good conductors of electricity .
4) Super conductors have almost no electrical resistance.

4.  GLASS :
 DEFINITION OF GLASS
 AS CERAMIC :
A glass is a ceramic material that is made from inorganic material
at high temperatures. It is an inorganic product of fusion which has
been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallization.
 AS A STATE OF MATTER :
The term glass refers to an amorphous ( noncrystalline) structure of a solid material.
The glassy state occurs in a material when insufficient time is allowed during the cooling from the molten state for
the crystalline structure to form.
 ANOTHER DEFINITION OF GLASS :
Glass is an amorphous , hard , brittle , trabsparent or translucent, super-cooled liquid , obtained by fusing a
mixture of a number of metallic silicates or borates of Sodium, Potassium,Calcium and Lead. It possesses no sharp
melting point,crystalline structure and definite formula.
A STATE OF MATTER AS WELL AS TYPE OF CERAMIC.

5. PROPERTIES OF GLASS :
 1) Transparent and hard at room temperature.
 2) Sufficient strength and excellent corrosion resistance.
 3) Good electric insulator.
 4) Ability to provide a vacuum tight enclose.
 5)Amorphous
 6) Brittle
 7) Can absorb, transmit and reflect light.
 8)Melting point is not fixed , with softening occurring in wider temperature ranges.

6. TYPES OF GLASS : Based on composition
1) SODALIME OR SOFT GLASS –
 About 90% of all glass is soda-lime glass made with silica(sand) ,Calcium carbonate and soda ash.
 The approximate composition is Na2CO3.CaO.6SiO2
 They are low cost , resistant to water but not to acids.
 They can melt easily and hence can be not worked.
#USES :
Window glass, electric bulbs,plate glass , bottles , test tubes ,
reagent bottles etc.

7. 2) POTASH LIME OR HARD GLASS –
 Potash lime glass is made with silica , Calcium carbonate and Potassium carbonate.
 The approximation composition is K2Co3.CaO.6SiO2
 They posses high melting point,fuse with difficulty and are less
acted upon by acids , alkaline and other solvents than ordinary
glass.
 These glasses are costlier than soda lime glass.
#USES –
Used for chemical apparatus , combustion tubes and glassware which are
used for heating operations.
3) LEAD GLASS OR FLINT GLASS –
 It is made up of lead oxide fluxed with silica and K2CO3 is used
 instead of sodium oxide .
 These have lower softening temperature than soda glass.
 Higher refractive index.
 Good electrical properties.
 It is bright lustrous and possess high specific gravity.

8. # USES –
High quality table wares, optical lenses , neon sign tubing , cathode ray tubes , electrical insulators , crystal art
objects , windows or shields for protection against X-rays and Gamma rays in medical and atomic energy fields etc.
GLASS – CERAMICS
 A ceramic material produced by conversion of glass into a
polycrystalline structure through heat treatment.
 Size : Usually between 0.1 -1.0 micrometer , significantly smaller
than the grain size of conventional ceramics.
 This fine crystal structure makes glass-ceramics much stronger
than the glasses from which they are derived.
 Due to their crystal structure , glass-ceramics are opaque
(usually grey or white) rather than clear.

9. ADVANTAGES OF GLASS-CERAMICS :
 Efficiency of processing in the glassy state.
 Close dimensional control over the final product shape.
 Good mechanical and physical properties:
- High strength (stronger than glass)
- Absence of porosity ; low thermal expansion
- High resistance to thermal shock.
 APPLICATIONS –
- Cooking ware
- Heat exchangers
- Missile radomes

10.  MAGNETIC MATERIALS :
# INTRODUCTION –
 Magnetic materials are those materials in which a state of magnetization can be induced.
 Such materials when ,magnetised create a magnetic field in the surrounding space.
#CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNEITC MATERIAL
All materials are classified broadly into the following types –
1) Diamagnetic materials
2) Paramagnetic materials
3) Ferromagnetic materials
4) Anti-ferromagnetic materials
5) Ferrimagnetic materials

11. # DIAMAGNETIC MATERIALS :
 Diamagnetic materials create an induced magnetic field in
a direction opposite to externally applied magnetic field.
 They are repelled by the applied magnetic field.
 The permanent dipoles are absent in Diamagnetic materials.
 Examples: Bismuth,Copper,Lead,Zinc etc.
# PARAMAGNEITIC MATERIALS :
 Paramagnetic materials exhibit magnetism when the
external magnetic field is applied.
 Paramagnetic materials loose magnetization in the
absence of an externally applied magnetic field.
 These materials are weakly attracted towards magnetic
field.

12.  Paramagnetic materials experience a feeble attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet.
 These materials possess some permanent dipole moment which arises due to some unpaired electrons.
 Examples : Platinum , aluminium , copper sulphate etc.
# FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL :
 It is the phenomenon in which a material gets magnetized
to a very large extent in the presence of an external field.
 The direction in which the material gets magnetized is
the same as that of the external field.
 These materials experience a very strong attractive force when brought near the pole of a magnet.
 Examples : Fe, Co , Ni, MnA etc.

13. # ANTIFERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL :
 It refers to a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction
between any two dipoles align themselves anti-parallel to each other.
 Since all dipoles are of equal magnitude,the net magnetism is zero.
 These materials also posses dipole moment due to spin of electron.
 The opposite alignment of adjacent dipoles due to an exchange
Interaction.
# FERRIMAGNETIC MATERIAL :
 Ferrimagnetism is a phenomenon in which the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles align anti-parallel
to each other.
 But since the magnitude of dipoles are not equal , the cancellation of magnetic moments become incomplete
resulting in a net magnetization in the material.
 These materials possess magnetic dipole moment due to the spin of the electron.
Examples : Nickel, Ferrite and ferrous ferrite.

14. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF CERAMICS :
 Magnetic ceramics are important materials for a variety of applications such as data storage,tunnel junctions ,
spin valves , high frequency applications etc.
 These materials possess extra-ordinary properties such as strong magnetic coupling , low loss characteristics and
high electrical resistivity which is often related to their structure and composition.
APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETIC CERAMICS :
Ferrites are usually non-conductive ferromagnetic ceramic compounds derived from iron oxides
such as hematite (Fe2O3) or magnetite(Fe3O4) as well as oxides of other metals.
1) In Electronics Inductors , Transformers and Electromagnets – Soft ferrites like Mn-Zn and Ni-
Zn ferrites are used as core materials in these applications.
2) Data Storage – Magnetic recording tapes and hard disks.
3) Absorbing Materials - In stealth aircrafts,ferrite particles are used as a component of
radar-absorbing materials or coatings .
4) Microwave Applications – Materials like Mg-ferrites , Li-doped Ferrites and garnets are used
for such applications such as phase shifters , circulators and isolators.

15. Atharva’s Slides

16. Diverse
Structures of
Polymers: Linear,
Branched, and
Cross-Linked

17. Introduction
Polymers are macromolecules
composed of repeating units called
monomers.They can have diverse
structures including linear, branched,
and cross-linked. Understanding these
structures is crucial for tailoring
polymer properties for specific
applications.

18. Linear Polymers
Linear polymers have a straight,
one-dimensional structure with
minimal branching. This results in
easy processing and improved
mechanical properties. Examples
include polyethylene and
polypropylene.
• In linear polymers, the
monomer units are linked
together in a straight chain,
like beads on a string.
• The polymer chains do not
have any side branches or
cross-links...

19. Branched Polymers
Branched polymers have additional
chains stemming from the main
backbone, leading to increased
flexibility and lower density.
• These side branches can alter the
physical properties of the polymer
, such
as increasing its viscosity or branching
density.
• Branched polymers may have better
melt strength and elasticity compared
to linear polymers.
This structure is found in materials
like low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) and certain elastomers.

20. Cross-Linked Polymers
In cross-linked polymers,chains are
interconnected through covalent
bonds, resulting in a three-dimensional
network.This imparts high strength,
rigidity,and resistance to solvents.
Cross-linked polymers are often
insoluble and infusible due to their
highly interconnected structure.
Examples include cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX), vulcanized rubber,
and epoxy resins.
.

21. Applications
Each type of polymer structure has
its own set of properties and
applications. Linear polymers are
often used in packaging films, fibers,
and coatings. Branched polymers
find applications in adhesives,
lubricants, and certain plastics.
Cross-linked polymers are
commonly used in materials
requiring high strength and
durability, such as gaskets, seals,
and structural components in
electronics and automotive
industries.

22. Conclusion
Understanding the diverse structures of polymers is essential
for tailoring their properties to meet specific application
requirements. Whether it's the simplicity of linear polymers,
the flexibility of branched polymers, or the strength of cross-
linked polymers, each structure offers unique advantages in
various industries.

23. C

24. BASED ONORIGIN
NATURAL POLYMERS SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Natural polymers are large molecules composed of
repeating units called monomers that occur in nature
without human intervention. These polymers are
typically biodegradable and are derived from
renewable resources such as plants, animals, and
microorganisms. They play essential roles in
biological systems and have been utilized by humans
for various applications since ancient times.
Synthetic polymers are large molecules synthesized in
laboratories or industries through controlled chemical reactions
using raw materials from fossil fuels and other sources. Unlike
natural polymers derived from renewable sources in nature,
synthetic polymers offer tailored properties such as strength,
flexibility, and durability. Despite their versatility and widespread
applications, synthetic polymers pose environmental
challenges due to their non-biodegradable nature and potential
for pollution. Efforts to develop sustainable alternatives and
improve recycling technologies are underway to mitigate the
environmental impact of synthetic polymers.

25. CHARACTERISTICS
NATURAL POLYMERS SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
- Renewable Resource Sourcing
- Biodegradability
- Biocompatibility
- Variable Properties
- Limited Mechanical Strength
- Petrochemical Derivation
- Diverse Properties
- Non-Biodegradability
- High Mechanical Strength
- Uniformity and Consistency
- Cost-Effectiveness

26. EXAMPLES ALONGWITHTHEIRSOURCE AND EXTRACTION
1. Cellulose:
1. Source: Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls, found abundantly in wood,
cotton, hemp, and other plant materials.
2. Extraction Method: Cellulose can be extracted through chemical processes such as
alkaline or acidic hydrolysis, which breaks down the cell walls and removes impurities
to obtain pure cellulose fibers.
2. Chitin:
1. Source: Chitin is primarily found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans (such as crabs,
lobsters, and shrimp) and the cell walls of fungi.
2. Extraction Method: Chitin can be extracted through demineralization and
deproteinization processes, which involve treating the source material with acids or
alkalis to remove minerals and proteins, followed by purification steps.
3. Natural Rubber:
1. Source: Natural rubber is obtained from the latex sap of certain plants, most notably the
rubber tree
2. Extraction Method: The latex sap is collected by tapping the rubber tree, and it
undergoes processes such as coagulation and drying to yield natural rubber.
4. Proteins (e.g., Silk, Wool):
1. Source: Proteins are abundant in various natural sources, including silk produced by
silkworms and wool obtained from sheep.
2. Extraction Method: Extraction methods for protein-based polymers involve the spinning
of protein fibers. For silk, the cocoons of silkworms are boiled to dissolve the sericin
protein, leaving behind the fibroin protein, which is then spun into silk threads. Wool is
sheared from sheep and processed to remove impurities before spinning into yarn.
5. Gelatin:
1. Source: Gelatin is derived from collagen, a protein found in the connective tissues of
animals, particularly in the skin, bones, and connective tissues of cows, pigs, and fish.
2. Extraction Method: The extraction of gelatin involves several steps. First, the collagen-
rich animal tissues are cleaned and treated to remove non-collagenous proteins and
minerals. Then, the tissues are subjected to hydrolysis, usually through acidic or
alkaline treatment, to break down the collagen into gelatin. The resulting solution is
filtered, concentrated, and dried to obtain the gelatin powder.
1. Polyethylene:
1. Source: Polyethylene is a widely used synthetic polymer
derived from ethylene, a hydrocarbon obtained from
petroleum or natural gas.
2. Extraction Method: Ethylene is polymerized using catalysts
under controlled conditions to produce polyethylene with
desired properties. Polymerization methods include Ziegler-
Natta, metallocene, and free-radical polymerization.
2. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):
1. Source: PVC is synthesized from vinyl chloride monomers,
which are derived from the chlorination of ethylene.
2. Extraction Method: Polymerization of vinyl chloride monomers
is achieved through various methods such as suspension
polymerization, emulsion polymerization, or bulk
polymerization.
3. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET):
1. Source: PET is synthesized from terephthalic acid and
ethylene glycol, both of which can be derived from petroleum
sources.
2. Extraction Method: PET is produced through a condensation
polymerization reaction between terephthalic acid and
ethylene glycol, resulting in the formation of PET polymer
chains.
4. Polystyrene:
1. Source: Polystyrene is derived from styrene, which is
obtained from the dehydrogenation of ethylbenzene, a
compound derived from petroleum.
2. Extraction Method: Polymerization of styrene monomers can
be carried out using methods such as bulk polymerization,
solution polymerization, or suspension polymerization

27. APPLICATIONS
OF NATURAL
POLYMERS
1)TEXTILES
2)PACKAGING
3)COSMETIC INDUSTRY
4)PHARMACEUTICALS
5)FOOD INDUSTRY
6)MEDICAL DEVICES
TEXTILE
INDUSTRY
PACKAGING INDUSTRY
Cosmetics (Collagen):
•Properties: Collagen, a protein-based natural
polymer, is the main structural component of skin,
bones, and connective tissues. It has excellent
moisturizing, firming, and anti-aging properties.
•Uses: Collagen is used in cosmetics and skincare
products such as moisturizers, serums, and anti-
wrinkle creams. It helps improve skin elasticity,
reduce fine lines, and promote a youthful
appearance.
• PACKAGING INDUSTRY
COSMETICS

28. APPLICATIONS
OF NATURAL
POLYMERS
1)TEXTILES
2)PACKAGING
3)COSMETIC INDUSTRY
4)PHARMACEUTICALS
5)FOOD INDUSTRY
6)MEDICAL DEVICES
PHARMACEUTICALS
Food Industry (Alginate):
1. Properties: Alginate is a polysaccharide extracted from brown
seaweeds. It forms gels in the presence of calcium ions and
exhibits excellent water absorption and film-forming properties.
2. Uses: Alginate is used in the food industry as a thickener,
stabilizer, and gelling agent in products like ice cream, salad
dressings, and bakery fillings. Its ability to form gels helps
enhance texture and shelf stability.
FOOD INDUSTRY
Medical Devices (Hyaluronic
Acid):
1.Properties: Hyaluronic acid
is a naturally occurring
polysaccharide found in the
body's connective tissues and
synovial fluid. It is highly
biocompatible, lubricating, and
viscoelastic.
2.Uses: Hyaluronic acid is
used in medical devices such
as visco supplements for
osteoarthritis treatment,
dermal fillers for cosmetic
surgery, and as a lubricant in
ophthalmic surgery. Its
biocompatibility and ability to
retain moisture make it
valuable in medical
applications.
MEDICAL APPARATUS

29. APPLICATIONS
OF SYNTHETIC
POLYMERS
1)CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS
2)AUTOMOTIVES
3)ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY
4)ADHESIVES
Construction Materials:
1.Properties: Synthetic polymers used in construction materials, such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride), possess properties like
durability, weather resistance, and versatility. PVC, for example, is known for its ability to withstand harsh environmental
conditions, including moisture, sunlight, and temperature fluctuations.
2.Uses: PVC is extensively used in construction for manufacturing pipes, window profiles, siding, roofing membranes, and
flooring materials. Its durability, low maintenance requirements, and cost-effectiveness make it a preferred choice for various
building applications.
Automotive Industry:
•Properties: Synthetic polymers
used in the automotive industry
offer properties such as
lightweight, strength, impact
resistance, and corrosion
resistance. Materials like
polypropylene, polyethylene, and
polycarbonate are favored for
their ability to withstand
mechanical stress and exposure
to harsh environments.
•Uses: Synthetic polymers are
used in automotive components
and parts such as interior trims,
bumpers, body panels,
dashboards, upholstery, tires,
and under-the-hood
components. Their lightweight
nature helps improve fuel
efficiency and vehicle
performance while offering
design flexibility and aesthetic
appeal.
Electronics and Electrical
Appliances:
•Properties: Synthetic polymers
used in electronics and electrical
appliances provide properties
such as electrical insulation, heat
resistance, flame retardancy, and
mechanical strength. Materials
like polyethylene, polypropylene,
and polycarbonate offer excellent
dielectric properties and thermal
stability.
•Uses: Synthetic polymers are
employed in the insulation of
wires and cables, casing of
electronic devices, connectors,
circuit boards, and housing for
electrical appliances. Their ability
to withstand high temperatures
and harsh operating conditions
ensures the safety and reliability
of electronic components.
Adhesives and Sealants:
Properties: Synthetic polymers
used in adhesives and sealants
offer properties like strong
bonding, flexibility,
waterproofing, chemical
resistance, and durability. They
can form strong bonds between
different materials and
substrates, providing structural
integrity and preventing leaks.
Uses: Synthetic polymers are
utilized in various applications
such as construction,
automotive assembly,
aerospace, and manufacturing
for bonding, sealing, and coating
purposes. They are used to
bond materials like metal,
plastic, glass, wood, and
ceramics, providing enhanced
performance and longevity to
assembled products.

30. Criteria Natural Polymers Synthetic Polymers
Advantages
Biodegradability Biodegradable, environmentally friendly
Varies; some synthetic polymers are
biodegradable with additives
Renewable Resources
Sourced from renewable resources such as
plants and animals
Petrochemical-based; may deplete non-
renewable resources
Biocompatibility
Often biocompatible and suitable for
medical and food applications
Varies; some synthetic polymers may
cause allergic reactions
Sustainability
Derived from natural sources, reducing
environmental impact
Can be recycled and reused, reducing
waste
Aesthetics
Natural appearance and feel, suitable for
certain applications
Can be engineered for specific properties
and appearances
Disadvantages
Cost
Production costs may be higher due to
extraction and processing
Often cheaper to produce, but
environmental costs may be high
Limited Properties
Properties may be limited compared to
synthetic polymers
Can be engineered to have specific
properties for different uses
Durability
May not be as durable or resistant to
environmental factors
Often more durable and resistant to wear
and tear
Consistency
Properties can vary based on source and
processing methods
Consistent properties across batches
Environmental Impact
May contribute to deforestation, habitat
destruction, and pollution
Petrochemical-based, may contribute to
pollution and environmental degradation

31. BASED ONSTRCUTURE
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
These polymers are cross-linked during the curing
process, forming a rigid and durable structure that
cannot be reshaped or softened upon heating. Once
cured, they retain their shape and properties, offering
excellent heat and chemical resistance.
•These polymers soften and become
moldable when heated and solidify upon
cooling, allowing them to be reshaped and
recycled multiple times without significant
degradation. They offer versatility in
processing and can be molded into various
shapes and forms. Unlike thermosetting
polymers, thermoplastics do not undergo a
chemical cross-linking reaction during
processing. Instead, they consist of long
molecular chains held together by weak
intermolecular forces.

32. CHARACTERISTICS
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS THERMOSETTING POLYMERS
•Irreversible curing
•High heat resistance
•Superior chemical resistance
•Potential brittleness
•Limited recyclability
•Reversible melting and solidification
•Moderate heat resistance
•Variable properties
•Recyclability
•Less environmental impact

33. EXAMPLES ALONGWITHTHEIRSOURCE AND EXTRACTION
Thermoplastic Polymers
Polyethylene (PE):
- Source: Polyethylene is derived from petrochemicals, primarily ethylene obtained from crude oil or natural gas.
- Extraction Method: Polyethylene is produced through polymerization processes, where ethylene monomers are polymerized
under controlled conditions to form long chains of polyethylene molecules.
Polypropylene (PP):
- Source: Polypropylene is also derived from petrochemicals, specifically propylene obtained from crude oil refining processes.
- Extraction Method: Polypropylene is synthesized through polymerization reactions, where propylene monomers undergo
polymerization to form polypropylene chains.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):
- Source: PVC is synthesized from vinyl chloride monomers, which are derived from petrochemicals such as ethylene and chlorine.
- Extraction Method: PVC is produced through polymerization processes, where vinyl chloride monomers undergo polymerization
to form PVC polymer chains.
Polystyrene (PS):
- Source: Polystyrene is derived from styrene monomers, which are obtained from petrochemical sources such as crude oil and
natural gas.
- Extraction Method: Polystyrene is synthesized through polymerization reactions, where styrene monomers polymerize to form
polystyrene chains.
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET):
- Source: PET is derived from ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid, which are obtained from petrochemical sources.
- Extraction Method: PET is produced through polymerization reactions, where ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid react to form
PET polymer chains.
Thermosetting Polymers
Epoxy Resins:
- Source: Epoxy resins are synthetic polymers derived from petrochemical sources,
primarily through the reaction of epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A.
- Extraction Method: Epoxy resins are synthesized through a chemical reaction
between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A or other epoxides and curing agents, often
with the addition of catalysts and accelerators.
Phenolic Resins:
- Source: Phenolic resins are synthesized from phenol and formaldehyde, both of
which are derived from petrochemical sources.
• - Extraction Method: Phenolic resins are produced through the condensation
polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde under acidic conditions, followed by
curing at elevated temperatures to form a cross-linked network structure.
Polyurethane Resins:
- Source: Polyurethane resins are synthesized from polyols and diisocyanates,
which are derived from petrochemical sources.
- Extraction Method: Polyurethane resins are manufactured through the reaction of
polyols with diisocyanates, along with various additives and catalysts, to form a
polymer network that cures into a solid material.

34. APPLICATIONS
OF
THERMOPLASTI
C POLYMERS
1)3D PRINTING
2)CONSUMER GOODS
3)AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
4)AEROSPACE
5)FLUID AND WATER
MANAGEMENT
6)SEMICONDUCTOR
CONSUMER GOODS
3D PRINTING
Consumer Products: Thermoplastic polymers are found in
a wide range of consumer products, including toys,
household appliances, electronics, and sporting goods.
Materials like ABS, polyethylene, and polystyrene offer
design flexibility, durability, and aesthetic appeal for
consumer goods manufacturing.
AUTOMOBILES

35. APPLICATIONS
OF
THERMOPLASTI
C POLYMERS
1)3D PRINTING
2)CONSUMER GOODS
3)AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
4)AEROSPACE
5)FLUID AND WATER
MANAGEMENT
6)SEMICONDUCTOR
AEROSPACE
Thermoplastics have numerous advantages that make
them ideal for fluid handling and water management
applications. They are dielectric and offer lower thermal
conductivity, and they maintain efficiency and performance
far longer than metal, even when in contact with corrosive
liquids. Due to their inherent chemical stability,
thermoplastics do not contaminate the fluids they
transport.
They are also lightweight, weighing around one-sixth the
weight of equivalent metal materials, and have lower total
material and installation costs than traditional metal
systems. Overall, thermoplastics deliver:
•Chemical inertness
•Resistance to permeation and impurity absorption
•Abrasion and freeze resistance
•Ease of manufacturer and install
•Quality and reliability
These characteristics are crucial for such critical
operations as water filtration, fluid handling, and waste
management.
FLUID AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Every phase of the semiconductor manufacturing process presents its own
set of challenges, from the start of the wafer processing cycle to chip
processing and handling to packaging. When dealing with extremely high
temperatures, exposure to highly aggressive chemicals, contact with
abrasive solvents, and plasma conditions under a vacuum, choosing the right
materials can mean the difference between success and failure.
Thermoplastics deliver the chemical and corrosion resistance necessary for
optimal performance and offer other beneficial characteristics like electrical
conductivity and antistaticity. With the strict design requirements and high
level of intricacy and tolerance, thermoplastics can deliver results with
tangible ROI.
SEMICONDUCTOR

36. APPLICATIONS
OF
THERMOSETTIN
G POLYMERS
1)DENTAL INDUSTRY
2)BALLISTIC ARMOR
3)ARTIFICIAL ORGANS
4)CIRCUITS
Dental Materials: Thermosetting
polymers are employed in dentistry
for the fabrication of dental
composites and restorative materials.
These materials, such as dental resin
composites and dental adhesives,
offer excellent aesthetics, durability,
and biocompatibility, making them
suitable for dental fillings, crowns,
and veneers.
DENTAL
INDUSTRY
BALLISTIC ARMOR

37. APPLICATIONS
OF
THERMOSETTIN
G POLYMERS
1)DENTAL INDUSTRY
2)BALLISTIC ARMOR
3)ARTIFICIAL ORGANS
4)CIRCUITS
Artificial Organs: Thermosetting polymers are
utilized in biomedical engineering for the
fabrication of artificial organs and medical
implants. Biocompatible polymers such as
polyurethanes and silicone elastomers are used to
create implantable devices such as pacemaker
leads, heart valves, and intraocular lenses.
Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs):
Thermosetting polymers, particularly epoxy
resins, are used as substrates for
manufacturing printed circuit boards (PCBs) in
electronic devices. Epoxy-based PCB
laminates offer excellent electrical insulation,
mechanical strength, and dimensional
stability, making them ideal for mounting
electronic components and forming electrical
connections.
CIRCUITS
ARTIFICIAL ORGANS

38. Criteria Thermosetting Polymers Thermoplastic Polymers
Advantages
High Heat Resistance
Excellent heat resistance and dimensional
stability after curing
Moderate heat resistance, may soften or
deform under high temperatures
Chemical Resistance Superior chemical resistance and durability
Varies; some thermoplastics may exhibit
chemical resistance
Dimensional Stability
Dimensionally stable once cured, retaining
shape and form
May exhibit shrinkage or expansion upon
cooling and reheating
Rigidity
High rigidity and stiffness, suitable for
structural applications
Varies; can be engineered for specific
levels of stiffness
Excellent Electrical Insulation
Effective electrical insulators, used in
electrical components
Varies; some thermoplastics exhibit good
electrical insulation
Disadvantages
Irreversibility
Irreversible curing process, cannot be
reshaped or recycled
Can be melted and reshaped multiple
times, but may degrade over cycles
Limited Recyclability
Generally not recyclable due to irreversible
curing process
Recyclable, but may lose properties after
multiple recycling cycles
Britte
Can be brittle, prone to cracking or
fracturing under high stress
Generally tougher than thermosetting
polymers, but may still be brittle
Processing Time
Longer processing times due to curing
process
Shorter processing times, suitable for rapid
prototyping and production
Environmental Impact
May release harmful byproducts during
curing process
Generally lower environmental impact due
to recyclability

39. z
Plastics:
Properties of
Polyethylene Plastics;
Vinyl Plastics,
Nylons,
Phenol-formaldehyde resins (Bakelite) and
Glyptal;

40. z
Introduction to plastics
• Plastic is a synthetic material made from
polymers—large molecules composed of
repeating structural units.
• These polymers are derived from
petrochemicals, and through various
processes,
• they can be molded or shaped into a wide
range of solid objects.
The word, plastic, was derived
from the
word ‘Plastikos’ meaning ‘to
mold’ in Greek.

41. z
Plastic was discovered by famous
German chemist Christian Schonbein
in 1846. Plastics were actually
discovered accidentally. Christian was
experimenting in his kitchen and by
accident, he spilt a mixture of nitric acid
and sulphuric acid. To mop that solution
(a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid)
he took a cloth and after moping he
kept it over the stove. After some time,
the cloth disappeared and from their
plastic got its name

42. z
Intro :
Synthetic resin derived from the
polymerization of ethylene.
Belongs to the polyolefin resin family.
Widely utilized plastic globally.
Used in various
products:
• Clear food
wrap
• Shopping bags
• Detergent
bottles
• Automobile
fuel tanks
• Chemical Composition
of
Ethylene (C2H4):
• Gaseous
hydrocarbon derived
from the cracking of
ethane.
• Ethane is a significant
component of natural
gas or can be
obtained through
petroleum distillation.
Polymerization
Process:
•Under the influence of
polymerization catalysts,
the double bond in
ethylene can be broken.
•The resulting extra
single bond is used to
link with a carbon atom
in another ethylene
molecule.
Polymeric Structure:
•Ethylene becomes the
repeating unit of a large,
polymeric molecule
through this process.
Key Structure of
Polyethylene:
•Simple structure repeated
numerous times in a single
molecule.
•Crucial for determining
polyethylene properties

43. Molecular Variations:
•Long chainlike molecules with
hydrogen atoms connected to
a carbon backbone.
•Can exist in linear or
branched forms
Low-density polyethylene
(LDPE)
linear low-density
polyethylene (LLDPE).
High-density polyethylene
(HDPE)
ultrahigh-molecular-weight
polyethylene (UHMWPE).
It’s forms
Branched
Linear
Synthesis

44. Property LDPE LLDPE HDPE
Structure High degree of
short chain
branching + long
chain branching
High degree of
short chain
branching
Linear (or Low
degree of short
chain branching)
Catalyst
and
process
Using radical
polymerization
using tubular
method or
autoclave method
Using Ziegler-
Natta catalyst or
metallocene
catalyst
Ziegler-Natta
catalyst in:
- Single-stage
polymerization
- Multi-stage
polymerization or
a Cr or Phillips-
type catalyst
Density 0.910-0.925
g/cm3
0.91-0.94 g/cm3
0.941-0.965 g/cm3
Comparison between the main types

45. Property LDPE LLDPE HDPE
Crystallinity Low crystalline
and high
amorphous (less
than 50-60%
crystalline)
Semi-crsytalline,
level between 35
to 60%
High crystalline
and low
amorphous
(>90% crystalline)
Characteristics Flexible and good
transparency
Good moisture
barrier properties
High impact
strength at low
temperature
Excellent
resistance to
acids, bases and
vegetable oils
As compared to
LDPE, it has :
higher tensile
strength
higher impact and
puncture
resistance
Excellent
chemical
resistance
High tensile
strength
Excellent
moisture barrier
properties
Hard to semi-
flexible

46. LDPE
Shrink wrap, films,
squeezable bottles garbage
bags, extrusion moldings,
and laminates
LLDPE
High performance bags,
cushioning films, tire separator
films, industrial liners, elastic films,
ice bags, bags for supplemental
packaging and garbage bags
HDPE
Packaging , Pipes and Fittings , construction ,
toys and playground equipments , automotive
parts , agricultural products , industrial
containers , medical products, electrical cable
insulation , films and liners , marine applications.

47. Short intro -
• PVC, commonly known as Vinyl, is a high-strength
thermoplastic material.
•Widespread Applications:
• Pipes: Common in construction for plumbing.
• Medical Devices: Employed for tubing, bags, and
medical components.
• Wire & Cable Insulation: Provides electrical insulation.
• Versatility: Extensively utilized in various industries.
• Importance :
It is the world’s third-largest thermoplastic by volume after
polyethylene and polypropylene.

48. z
PVC was first made 'unintentionally' in
1872 by German chemist Eugen
Baumann. He exposed vinyl chloride
gas sealed in a tube to sunlight and
produced a white solid called PVC. In
1913, German chemist Friedrich Klatte
received the first patent for
polymerizing PVC using sunlight. By
World War I, Germany was producing
several flexible and rigid PVC products.
They were used as a replacement for
corrosion-resistant metals.

49. Polyvinyl Chloride is widely available in two broad categories:
Flexible and Rigid
Strengths Limitations
Low cost & high stiffness Difficult to melt process
Intrinsic flame retardant Limited solvent stress cracking resistance
FDA compliant & also suitable for
transparent applications
Becomes brittle at 5°C (when not modified
with impact modifiers and/or processing
aids)
Better chemical resistance than plasticized
PVC
Good electrical insulation & vapor barrier
properties
Good dimensional stability at room
temperature
Rigid PVC

50. Polyvinyl Chloride is widely available in two broad categories:
Flexible and Rigid
Strengths Limitations
Low cost, flexible & high impact strength Properties can change with time, due to
plasticizer migration
Good resistance to UV, acids, alkalis, oils and
many corrosive inorganic chemicals Attacked by ketones; some grades swollen
or attacked by chlorinated and aromatic
hydrocarbons, esters, some aromatic
ethers and amines, and nitro- compounds
Good electrical insulation properties
Tends to degrade at high temperatures
Non-flammable & versatile performance profile Non-suitable for food contact with some
plasticizers
Easier to process than rigid PVC Lower chemical resistance than rigid PVC
Flexible PVC

51. What is Nylon ?
•Nylon is a highly versatile synthetic
material.
•It can be molded into daily products
or drawn into fibers for textiles.
•Widely used in daily life activities,
from carpets to kitchenware.
•Known for flexibility, durability, and
strength.
•Commonly found in personal care
items, like toothbrush bristles.
•Used for weather protection, such
as nylon umbrellas.
•Extensively employed in various
industries for manufacturing.
•Its enduring presence is felt
throughout daily routines and
diverse applications.
Science of Nylon
Two Approaches to Nylon Production:
•Approach 1: Molecules with COOH and NH2
groups react, resulting in nylon named based on
carbon atom arrangement (e.g., nylon 6,6 from
adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine).
•Approach 2: Polymerization of a compound with
amine and acid ends produces a chain (-NH-
[CH2]n-CO-)x, known as nylon 6.
•Exact 1:1 ratio of acid to base forms a salt, dried,
then heated under vacuum to remove water,
resulting in the polymer nylon 6,6.

52. Properties
1. Lustrous Appearance:
- Nylon exhibits a shine, varying from very lustrous to semi-lustrous or dull, based on its intended use.
- Frequently used in fabric applications due to its lustrous quality.
2. Elastic Nature:
- Above its melting temperatures, nylon is amorphous and elastic, with chains approximating random coils.
- Amorphous and lamellar crystal regions contribute to its elasticity below the melting temperature.
3. High Strength:
- Inherently possesses high tensile strength and durability.
- Can be reinforced with glass fibers to further increase tensile strength, although this alters potential failure
modes.
4. Chemical Resistance:
- Resistant to oil and many chemicals due to its composition from hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid.
- The strong bonds formed during polymerization contribute to its resilience against various chemicals.
5. Resilience and Wear Resistance:
- Despite having thin fibers, nylon is strong and resilient, capable of withstanding years of wear.
- Synthetic nature allows it to mold into different shapes, enhancing flexibility.
6. Non-Absorbent:
- Does not absorb water significantly, maintaining dimensional stability.
- Hygroscopic nature allows for moisture absorption or desorption based on ambient humidity.
7. Quick Drying:
- Exhibits quick drying properties, making it suitable for moisture-wicking applications.
- Primarily hydrophobic, contributing to its rapid drying compared to other fabrics.

53. •Composition:
• Bakelite is a polymer composed of the monomers phenol and
formaldehyde.
•Type of Polymer:
• It is a thermosetting polymer, specifically a phenol-formaldehyde
resin.
•Commercial Name:
• Bakelite is the commercial name for the polymer resulting from the
polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde.
•Historical Significance:
• One of the oldest synthetic polymers created by humans.
•Synthesis Process:
• Phenol reacts with formaldehyde in a controlled acidic or basic
medium.
•Condensation Reaction:
• The condensation reaction of phenol and formaldehyde yields
ortho and para hydroxymethyl phenols and their derivatives.

54. It is
mentioned
just to
remind you
that we are
in chemistry
class
•It can be quickly molded.
•Very smooth molding can be obtained from
this polymer.
•Bakelite moldings are heat-resistant and
scratch-resistant.
•They are also resistant to several
destructive solvents.
•Owing to its low electrical
conductivity, bakelite is resistant to
electric current.
Properties
Uses –
• Electrical Components: Switches and machine parts
• Adhesives and Binding Agents
• Protective Coatings
• Utensil Handles
• General Object Parts

55. Glyptal is a type of synthetic resin
belonging to the family of alkyd resins.
Alkyd resins are thermosetting
polymers formed through the
condensation reaction of polybasic
acids and polyhydric alcohols.
Glyptal is typically derived from the
reaction between phthalic anhydride
and glycerol.
Aasan bhasha mai
It is a type of special paint or coating
that is used to protect things from
moisture and damage. It's like a
protective layer that you can put on
metal surfaces or electrical
components to keep them safe.
Glyptal is often used in things like
electrical systems to insulate and
protect the components from getting
damaged. It's a bit like giving your
belongings a tough and protective
shield to make sure they last longer
and work well.

56. 1.Electrical Insulation:
1. One of the primary uses of glyptal is in electrical insulation due to its ability to
form a durable and protective coating.
2.Adhesive Properties:
1. Glyptal exhibits adhesive properties, making it suitable for bonding certain
materials.
3.Heat Resistance:
1. The cured glyptal resin offers good heat resistance, ensuring stability in high-
temperature environments.
4.Chemical Resistance:
1. Resistant to various chemicals, providing protection to coated surfaces against
corrosive substances.
5.Dielectric Strength:
1. Possesses good dielectric strength, making it effective in insulating electrical
components.
6.Curing Process:
1. The curing process involves the reaction of the polybasic acids and polyhydric
alcohols, forming a cross-linked network that contributes to the material's
strength and stability.
7.Appearance:
1. Glyptal coatings often have a glossy and smooth finish, enhancing their aesthetic
appeal.

57. Specialty
Polymers
Exploring Engineering
Thermoplastics, Conducting
Polymers, Electroluminescent
Polymers, Liquid Crystalline
Polymers, and Biodegradable
Polymers

58. What are Specialty Polymers ?
•Specialty polymers represent a class of materials engineered with specific properties to meet
diverse industrial demands.
•These polymers deviate from conventional ones, offering tailored characteristics for specialized
applications.
Main classes of polymers which fall under
the category of specialty polymers are as
follows:
1. Engineering thermoplastics
(polycarbonates)
2. Conducting Polymers
3. Electroluminescent Polymers
4. Liquid Crystal Polymers
5. Biodegradable Polymers
6. Biomedical Polymers
7. Polymer Composites etc.

59. Bio-degradable Polymers
• Biodegradation of polymer is a process carried out by biological systems (usually bacteria or fungi )
wherein polymer chain is cleaved via enzymatic activity.
• Biodegradable polymers are materials capable of undergoing decomposition by microbial action.

60. Classification

61. Applications :
1. As Packing Material: It can be used in food packing, plastic
bags replacement, foam for industrial packaging, film
rapping, disposable plastic packing material such as single
serve cups, disposable food service items, etc.
2. Medical Applications: Polymers like HB-HV, Polylactic acids
are used in controlled drug delivery because of
biocompatibility & biodegradability. Cell transplantation
using biodegradable polymers scaffolds offers possibility to
create completely natural new tissues & replace organ
function.
3. Agricultural Applications: These polymers are used as time
release coating for fertilizers & pesticides, making films for
moisture & heat retention.
They hold significant importance in addressing global concerns
regarding plastic pollution and waste management. Their ability
to break down naturally contributes to reducing environmental
impact and promoting sustainability.

62. •Electroluminescent polymers are organic materials capable of emitting light when subjected to an
electric field.
•They possess conjugated π-electron systems that facilitate efficient energy transfer and light
emission.
•Electroluminescence occurs due to the recombination of electron-hole pairs within the polymer
matrix, leading to photon emission.
Electroluminescent Polymers
Working Principle and Emission
Mechanisms:
• When an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) voltage is
applied to the electroluminescent polymer layer, electrons are
injected into the polymer's highest occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) and holes into the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
(LUMO).
• As electrons and holes recombine, they release energy in the form
of photons, generating light.
• The emission color of electroluminescent polymers can be tuned by
varying the polymer's chemical structure and doping with different
luminescent molecules.

63. Examples and Applications
 Lighting: Electroluminescent polymers offer
energy-efficient and flexible lighting solutions
for applications such as backlighting, accent
lighting, and decorative lighting.
 Displays: They are utilized in organic light-
emitting diode (OLED) displays, providing
vibrant colors, high contrast ratios, and wide
viewing angles.
 Signage: Electroluminescent polymer panels
are employed in illuminated signs, safety
indicators, and advertising displays due to
their thin profile and uniform light emission.

64. Liquid Crystal Polymers
• Liquid crystalline polymers (LCPs) are a class of materials that
exhibit properties of both liquids and solids.
• They possess long, rigid polymer chains capable of ordering into
distinct mesophases under appropriate conditions.
• LCPs demonstrate anisotropic behavior, meaning their properties
vary depending on the direction of measurement.
Properties and Behavior in Different
Phases:
 Nematic Phase: LCP chains align parallel to each other but
are not fixed in position, allowing for flow while maintaining
directional order.
 Smectic Phase: LCP chains arrange in layers with positional
order within each layer, enabling unique mechanical and
optical properties.
 Cholesteric Phase: LCPs form helical structures, exhibiting
periodic variations in refractive index and color.

65. Examples and Applications
Molecular
structure of
Kevlar :
commercially
used solid form
of LCP.
 Optical Devices: LCPs are utilized in polarizing
films, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and optical
waveguides due to their excellent optical clarity
and birefringence.
 Coatings: LCP coatings offer exceptional barrier
properties, thermal stability, and chemical
resistance, making them suitable for protective
coatings in packaging and electronic components.
 Electronics: LCPs serve as substrates for flexible
electronics, microfluidic devices, and high-
frequency applications due to their low dielectric
constants and dimensional stability.
 High Strength Applications : Kevlar a solid LCP is
used in body armor, parachute lines
,mountaineering ropes and fire-retardant fabric.

66.  Conducting polymers are a unique class of materials that exhibit electrical conductivity while retaining
the flexibility and processability of polymers.
 Unlike traditional insulating polymers, conducting polymers can conduct electricity through
delocalized π-electron systems along their polymer chains.
 Their conductivity can be tuned by doping with dopant molecules or through electrochemical
processes.
Unique Properties
Conducting polymers exhibit a range of unique properties that make them attractive for various applications. These
include:
•Flexibility: Conducting polymers can be flexible and lightweight, making them suitable for applications where
traditional rigid materials are impractical.
•Tunable Conductivity: The conductivity of conducting polymers can be modified by doping or by adjusting the
chemical structure, allowing for fine control over their electrical properties.
•Versatility: They can be processed in various forms such as films, fibers, and coatings, making them adaptable to
different manufacturing techniques and applications.
Conducting Polymers

68. APPLICATIONS:
1. Catalysis: Conducting polymers serve as catalysts or catalyst supports in various
chemical reactions due to their redox activity and high surface area. They are used in
electrocatalysis for fuel cells, water electrolysis, and organic synthesis.
2. Medical Applications: Their biocompatibility and ability to release drugs in response to
external stimuli make them valuable for targeted drug delivery and controlled release
applications. Additionally, conducting polymer-based scaffolds provide structural support
and promote cell growth in tissue regeneration therapies.
3. Sensors: Conducting polymers are extensively employed in sensor technologies for
detecting and monitoring various analytes including gases, chemicals, and biological
molecules. They function as transducing elements offering high sensitivity, selectivity, and
rapid response times.
4. Electronics: Conducting polymers play a significant role in the field of electronics,
particularly in the development of flexible and lightweight electronic devices. They are
used in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells, organic
field-effect transistors (OFETs), and flexible displays. Conducting polymer-based electronic
devices offer advantages such as low-cost fabrication, mechanical flexibility, and
compatibility with large-area processing techniques.