The document outlines a guide for analyzing short stories through various literary elements such as plot, character, setting, theme, and point of view. It emphasizes the importance of reader-response theory and encourages personal engagement with a selected story for a writing assignment, requiring the reader to reflect on their individual interpretations and connections. Additionally, it provides a structured approach for writing a literary critique, including specific guidelines for drafting and formatting the essay.

1. Understanding the Short Story
Title
:____________________________________________________
_____________
Plot
1) What does the reader learn during exposition?
2) What is/are the conflict(s)?
3) What complications are introduced?
4) What is the climax of the story?
5) How is the conflict resolved?
Point of view
1) From what point of view is the story narrated? (first person,
third person, etc.)
2) How does the narration influence your understanding of the
story?
Characters
1) Who is the protagonist?
2) Who is the antagonist?
3) Are the characters round or flat?
4) Are the characters static or dynamic?
Setting
1) What is the setting of the story?
2) Does the setting influence other elements of the story?
Theme
1) What is/are the theme(s) of the story?
2) How do you know?
LITERARY TERMS
"Structure" includes all the elements in a story. The final
objective is to see the story as a whole and to become aware of
how the parts are put together to produce a unified effect.
ELEMENTS OF PLOT

2. All fiction is based on conflict and this conflict is presented in a
structured format called PLOT.
Exposition
The introductory material which gives the setting, creates the
tone, presents the characters, and presents other facts necessary
to understanding the story.
Foreshadowing
The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in
the story.
Inciting Force
The event or character that triggers the conflict.
Conflict
The essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts we
encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds. (Man
versus…Man, Nature, Society, or Self)
Rising Action
A series of events that builds from the conflict. It begins with
the inciting force and ends with the climax.
Crisis
The conflict reaches a turning point. At this point the opposing
forces in the story meet and the conflict becomes most intense.
The crisis occurs before or at the same time as the climax.
Climax
The climax is the result of the crisis. It is the high point of the
story for the reader. Frequently, it is the moment of the highest
interest and greatest emotion. The point at which the outcome of
the conflict can be predicted.
Falling Action
The events after the climax which close the story.
Resolution (Denouement)
Rounds out and concludes the action.
CHARACTERIZATION
MAJOR CHARACTERS
Almost always round or three-dimensional characters. They

3. have good and bad qualities. Their goals, ambitions and values
change. A round character changes as a result of what happens
to him or her. A character who changes inside as a result of
what happens to him is referred to in literature as a DYNAMIC
character. A dynamic character grows or progresses to a higher
level of understanding in the course of the story.
Protagonist
The main character in the story
Antagonist
The character or force that opposes the protagonist.
Foil
A character who provides a contrast to the protagonist.
MINOR CHARACTERS
Almost always flat or two-dimensional characters. They have
only one or two striking qualities. Their predominant quality is
not balanced by an opposite quality. They are usually all good
or all bad. Such characters can be interesting or amusing in
their own right, but they lack depth. Flat characters are
sometimes referred to as STATIC characters because they do
not change in the course of the story.
POINT OF VIEW
First Person
The narrator is a character in the story who can reveal only
personal thoughts and feelings and what he or she sees and is
told by other characters. He can’t tell us thoughts of other
characters.
Third-Person Objective
The narrator is an outsider who can report only what he or she
sees and hears. This narrator can tell us what is happening, but
he can’t tell us the thoughts of the characters.
Third-Person Limited
The narrator is an outsider who sees into the mind of one of the
characters.

4. Omniscient
The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter the minds
of more than one of the characters.
CONFLICT
Conflict is the essence of fiction. It creates plot. The conflicts
we encounter can usually be identified as one of four kinds.
Man versus Man
Conflict that pits one person against another.
Man versus Nature
A run-in with the forces of nature. On the one hand, it expresses
the insignificance of a single human life in the cosmic scheme
of things. On the other hand, it tests the limits of a person’s
strength and will to live.
Man versus Society
The values and customs by which everyone else lives are being
challenged. The character may come to an untimely end as a
result of his or her own convictions. The character may, on the
other hand, bring others around to a sympathetic point of view,
or it may be decided that society was right after all.
Man versus Self
Internal conflict. Not all conflict involves other people.
Sometimes people are their own worst enemies. An internal
conflict is a good test of a character’s values. Does he give in to
temptation or rise above it? Does he demand the most from
himself or settle for something less? Does he even bother to
struggle? The internal conflicts of a character and how they are
resolved are good clues to the character’s inner strength.
Often, more than one kind of conflict is taking place at the same
time. In every case, however, the existence of conflict enhances
the reader’s understanding of a character and creates the
suspense and interest that make you want to continue reading.
FORESHADOWING

5. An author’s use of hints or clues to suggest events that will
occur later in the story. Not all foreshadowing is obvious.
Frequently, future events are merely hinted at through dialogue,
description, or the attitudes and reactions of the characters.
Foreshadowing frequently serves two purposes. It builds
suspense by raising questions that encourage the reader to go on
and find out more about the event that is being foreshadowed.
Foreshadowing is also a means of making a narrative more
believable by partially preparing the reader for events which are
to follow.
IRONY
Irony is the contrast between what is expected or what appears
to be and what actually is.
Verbal Irony
The contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.
Irony of Situation
This refers to a happening that is the opposite of what is
expected or intended.
Dramatic Irony
This occurs when the audience or reader knows more than the
characters know.
TONE/MOOD
Tone
The author’s attitude, stated or implied, toward a subject. Some
possible attitudes are pessimism, optimism, earnestness,
seriousness, bitterness, humorous, and joyful. An author’s tone
can be revealed through choice of words and details.
Mood
The climate of feeling in a literary work. The choice of setting,
objects, details, images, and words all contribute towards
creating a specific mood. For example, an author may create a
mood of mystery around a character or setting but may treat that

6. character or setting in an ironic, serious, or humorous tone
SYMBOLISM
A person, place or object which has a meaning in itself but
suggests other meanings as well. Things, characters and actions
can be symbols. Anything that suggests a meaning beyond the
obvious.
Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the same
thing to all readers.
For example: bright sunshine symbolizes goodness and water is
a symbolic cleanser.
THEME
The main idea or underlying meaning of a literary work. A
theme may be stated or implied. Theme differs from the subject
or topic of a literary work in that it involves a statement or
opinion about the topic. Not every literary work has a theme.
Themes may be major or minor. A major theme is an idea the
author returns to time and again. It becomes one of the most
important ideas in the story. Minor themes are ideas that may
appear from time to time.
It is important to recognize the difference between the theme of
a literary work and the subject of a literary work. The subject is
the topic on which an author has chosen to write. The theme,
however, makes some statement about or expresses some
opinion on that topic. For example, the subject of a story might
be war while the theme might be the idea that war is useless.
Four ways in which an author can express themes are as
follows:
1. Themes are expressed and emphasized by the way the author
makes us feel. By sharing feelings of the main character you
also share the ideas that go through his mind.
2. Themes are presented in thoughts and conversations. Authors

7. put words in their character’s mouths only for good reasons.
One of these is to develop a story’s themes. The things a person
says are much on their mind. Look for thoughts that are
repeated throughout the story.
3. Themes are suggested through the characters. The main
character usually illustrates the most important theme of the
story. A good way to get at this theme is to ask yourself the
question, what does the main character learn in the course of the
story?
4. The actions or events in the story are used to suggest theme.
People naturally express ideas and feelings through their
actions. One thing authors think about is what an action will
"say". In other words, how will the action express an idea or
theme?
IMAGERY:Language that appeals to the senses. Descriptions of
people or objects stated in terms of our senses.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
Whenever you describe something by comparing it with
something else, you are using figurative language. Any
language that goes beyond the literal meaning of words in order
to furnish new effects or fresh insights into an idea or a subject.
The most common figures of speech are simile, metaphor, and
alliteration.
Simile
A figure of speech which involves a direct comparison between
two unlike things, usually with the words like or as. Example:
The muscles on his brawny arms are strong as iron bands.
Metaphor
A figure of speech which involves an implied comparison
between two relatively unlike things using a form of be. The
comparison is not announced by like or as. Example: The road
was a ribbon of moonlight.

8. Alliteration
Repeated consonant sounds occurring at the beginning of words
or within words. Alliteration is used to create melody, establish
mood, call attention to important words, and point out
similarities and contrasts. Example: wide-eyed and wondering
while we wait for others to waken.
Personification
A figure of speech which gives the qualities of a person to an
animal, an object, or an idea. It is a comparison which the
author uses to show something in an entirely new light, to
communicate a certain feeling or attitude towards it and to
control the way a reader perceives it. Example: a brave
handsome brute fell with a creaking rending cry--the author is
giving a tree human qualities.
Onomatopoeia
The use of words that mimic sounds. They appeal to our sense
of hearing and they help bring a description to life. A string of
syllables the author has made up to represent the way a sound
really sounds. Example: Caarackle!
Hyperbole
An exaggerated statement used to heighten effect. It is not used
to mislead the reader, but to emphasize a point. Example: She’s
said so on several million occasions
ENGL102 Garcia-Brown
Writing Assignment #1: Responding to Short Fiction
Many ways of understanding literature, its creation, and its form
exist. Collectively, these are known as literary theory. The act
of explaining literature to others is called literary criticism.
There are many “schools” of literary criticism, each with a
different approach to the text. Reader-response theory states
that the text (the story itself) does not truly exist unless a reader
interacts with it. That is, if a story is just words on a page but

9. is left unread, it does not have meaning. Do you remember the
age-old question that asks whether a tree that falls in a forest
when no one is around to hear it actually makes a sound?
Reader-response theory is something like that. Just think of the
story as the tree. Whether or not you agree with reader-
response theory, it is one way of thinking about the literature
that we read. Everything depends on the reader, rather than the
story alone.
Here are some questions that a reader-response critic might ask
himself/herself when trying to analyze a piece of literature:
1) Who is the intended audience (the ideal reader) for this text?
How can I tell?
2) What are the differences, if any, between the “ideal reader”
and the “actual reader” (me, the critic, in this case)? Might
these differences—should they exist—influence the way I
experience the text?
3) What life experiences, cultural attitudes, or prior knowledge
do I, as a reader, bring to this story that may shape the way I
view the text?
4) What questions does this text inspire for me? Am I able to
answer them from within the text, or am I left wondering?
5) As I read this text, do I find myself making associations
between myself, my own life, my own experiences, or my own
emotions and the characters in the text?
For this essay, you will choose any one of the works of short
fiction from this anthology and view it as a reader-response
critic would. You may choose any story from pages 20-668 in
The Norton Introduction to Literature.
You will:
1) Select a story from our text that you would like to explore
for this assignment and post the title, author, a one-sentence
summary of the story, and a one-sentence explanation of why

10. you have selected it to the Assignment #1 discussion thread.
2) Read the story carefully several times, annotating the text as
you go.
3) After reading, do some prewriting by completing
Understanding the Short Story, a document which can be found
in the Assignment #1 handouts folder.
4) Continue your prewriting by answering questions #1-5 above
for yourself on a sheet of paper, remembering that you are the
literary critic and the reader. As long as you can offer textual
support for your ideas that is both substantial and plausible,
those ideas are valid.
5) Discover as you read and brainstorm on these questions what
point or points in the text begin to most “speak” to you as the
reader and try to understand why.
6) Identify the elements of the story that are significant to you
in literary terms: character, plot, theme, point of view, imagery,
figurative language, setting, etc. An excellent website for
literary terminology is
http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms.html. There is also a
handout about literary terms in the Writing Assignment #1
Readings folder.
7) Demonstrate how and why these literary elements are
significant to you the reader in this particular story. Cite
specific examples from the text to support your discussion. An
explanation on how to incorporate evidence smoothly into your
paper can be found here:
http://leo.stcloudstate.edu/research/usingquotes.html
8) As you draft your essay, remember that it should have a solid
introduction with a clear thesis statement, body paragraphs that
support the thesis and introduction, and strong, coherent
conclusion that will leave a powerful impression on your reader.
There are a number of sample essays in our text, but two good
reader response-style papers may be found on pages 46-51.
Another sample essay with audio annotations may be found
here:
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/litweb11/section/liter

11. ature/sample_writing_fiction.aspx
9) Note: If you choose a story for this assignment that has a
corresponding sample essay in our text, I will be scrutinizing
your paper very carefully to make sure it is not too closely
modeled on the sample essay.
10) The essay should be a minimum of three pages
(approximately 750 words) long and should follow the
manuscript form prescribed in your syllabus. All quotations
from the text should be properly cited using MLA-style format,
and a works cited page should accompany your paper. If you
are uncertain about how to use MLA-style documentation, visit
the following website to learn more about research and
documentation style:
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/2/11/
11) Once you have completed a rough draft, edit and revise
carefully. There are guidelines for revision on pages 1866-1867
of our text, and there is a self-editing checklist in the Writing
Assignment #1 Handouts folder.
12) The final draft of your essay should be saved in .docx or
.doc format and uploaded to the Writing Assignment #1
Assignment Dropbox by the date indicated on the course
calendar. When naming your file, please title it with your last
name and the assignment number (ex. Garcia-Brown1).
13) This assignment is worth 15 of the 100 points available for
this course. The scoring rubric can be found in the assignment
dropbox if you would like to see how points will be distributed.
You will be graded on manuscript format, content, organization,
documentation of sources, and grammar, spelling, and
punctuation.