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Uncharted Leadership
Lewis and Clark in the Unknown
Obstacles to Effective Decision Making
Version 1.0
CASE STUDY
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CONTENTS
Introduction to this work .....................................................6
Historiography: ....................................................................7
Outline: ..............................................................................10
Outcome of this Work and the Expedition:.........................11
The leadership Within the Lewis and Clark Expedition .......11
Managers in the Making.............................................................11
Lewis and Clark as Leaders: .......................................................11
Meriwether Lewis......................................................................12
William Clark............................................................................13
Personalities ...................................................................................13
Leadership Styles..........................................................................15
The Corps........................................................................................19
leadership Skills In Action.......................................................21
Obstacles to Effective Decision Making: .............................28
Judgement Bias..............................................................................29
Biases within Lewis and Clark................................................29
Groupthink......................................................................................33
Escalation of Commitment............................................................34
90% Complete ..........................................................................36
Perceived vs. Actual Knowledge ...............................................38
Enlightened Geography: ........................................................38
Topography, Biology and Climate of Montana:....................44
Luckiest men west of the Mississippi..................................48
The Marias......................................................................................48
The Cottonwood ............................................................................49
Searching for the Shoshone ........................................................49
An Ambush? ....................................................................................51
Who Was Sakakawea? ..............................................................52
Horses..............................................................................................53
Bitterroots........................................................................................54
Conclusion:.........................................................................55
Concluding remarks ......................................................................55
Bibliography...................................................................................56
Primary Sources:......................................................................56
Secondary Sources (Books):..................................................56
Secondary Sources (Articles):...............................................56
Maps and Images: ...................................................................59
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11- FORT CLATSOP1- CAMP DUBOIS
2- FORT MANDAN
3- MARIAS RIVER
4- GREAT FALLS
5- THREE FORKS
6- TWIN BRIDGES
7- LEMHI PASS
8- SHOSHONE
9- FLATHEAD
10- BITTERROOTS
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO THIS WORK
The expedition of Lewis and Clark has been
forever engrained in the ideals and image of
America and its perceived destiny to conquer the
continent. From the moment the two young
captains and their crew returned to St. Louis from
their journey west on September 23rd 1806, the
romanticized transcontinental crossing embedded
itself into the minds of generations of Americans.
The image of these patriotic American explorers
wandering into the unknown and triumphing over
the obstacles paints a great portrait, but it is never
that simple. By no means does this work attempt to
refute some of the leadership abilities of the
captains or the trials they faced, but the heroic, all
American, manifest destiny, cultural framework that
the expedition is commonly portrayed is simply not
true or even justified.
The thesis for this work is quite broad but is
essential within the larger context of scholarly and
historical work regarding the expedition. The
problematic managerial techniques and leadership
biases displayed by Lewis and Clark along with the
topography, biology, and climate of Western
Montana and Idaho should have crushed the Corps
of Discovery, prematurely forcing them to return to
the East as failures or never returning at all.
However, due to an incredible amount of luck and a
handful of innovative leadership techniques
employed by the young captains, the mission was a
success and they became forever immortalized for
their trials in the west. Some may refute using the
term “luck”, as it is virtually impossible to prove, but
be it luck, divine intervention or statistical
improbability, one has to account for some other
factor that led to their safe return than just sheer
heroics as the expedition is commonly portrayed.
As James Ronda put it so elegantly, “The stars had
danced for Lewis and Clark.”1 Although the trials
and tribulations of the entire expedition were by no
1 James Ronda, Lewis and Clark among the Indians (Albuquerque:
University of New Mexico Press, 1984), 147.
means easy, what the expedition faced in the
daunting shadow of the Rockies was incredible. If it
wasn’t the scorching heat and bone chilling nights,
it was the random rapids and collapsing banks of the
Missouri. If it wasn’t the constant harassment by
grizzly bears, it was the startling surprise of
rattlesnakes in their bed rolls. From prickly pears, to
hail, impassable rivers, to razor sharp cliffs, the
Corps of Discovery, somehow, took all that Western
Montana and Idaho could throw at them, and
survived.
While comparing and contrasting the views
from a variety of scholarly sources, their
interpretations and experiences of the expedition in
Western Montana, the question of luck seems to
never grace the pages. Luck, or what have you, is
never addressed as a major factor of its success.
Scholars seems to be split between the perceived
superior management and leadership skills of the
captains or their overriding sense of courage and
purpose that resulted in success. The scholarship
that does specifically addresses leadership, only
accounts for the positive techniques, but offers no
suggestion into the biases or obstacles that
influenced and inhibited Lewis and Clark. Most of
the scholarship fails to view leadership within a
managerial scientific framework. A majority of
scholars and historians that focus on the leadership
of Lewis and Clark rarely go farther than the claim of
being fantastic managers or leaders in the face of
adversity. This maybe the case in some instances,
but to properly assess leadership, historians must
either incorporate proven managerial science
techniques and theories or refrain from addressing
leadership all together. The study of leadership and
effective decision making is much deeper and must
be used to justify such claims. Jack Uldrich describes
the leadership of the two young captains were “like
the binding of a good book, it provided the
expedition its structure and moved the members of
the Corps of Discovery 8,000 miles over the course
of 863 days towards the actualization of a goal that
was, in its time, equivalent of man landing on the
moon”.2 This is a nice illustration of Lewis and Clark
as managers, but in all fairness, one must look
2 Jack Uldrich, Into the Unknown: Leadership Lessons from Lewis and
Clark’s Daring Westward Adventure (New York: AMMCON, 2004), 5.
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beyond their success and into the obstacles that
clouded their decision making before making such a
statement like that, which by itself is rather
preposterous. Many more variables were in play
during the expedition. It is understandable that
historians offer such blanket views of effective
leadership as they have not been trained to view
history through a managerial lens.
It is also fairly evident that Lewis and Clark’s
geographic perceptions of the west attributed to
their misinterpretations and restricted their thought
processes. James Ronda, in his work Finding the
West summarizes these expectations powerfully
with this passage:
The Explorers expected clarity, the clear, well-defined
lines of imperial ambition etched on maps from
London, Madrid, Philadelphia, or Washington. What
Lewis and Clark found was a West far murkier, far
more complex than they had ever suspected. Without
using the word, the explorers had come upon
ambiguity. Like all travelers, Lewis and Clark learned
that the places and events had many sides and many
explanations. Individuals have many faces. Things
are often not what they seem to be. And in the glare
of the plains sun or the shroud of the North Coast fog,
the lines of imperial ambition blurred. Grounded in
the Enlightenment tradition that celebrated the fact of
precision, Lewis and Clark found ambiguity an
unwelcome discovery.3
Ambiguity flowed freely as the expedition
moved west and every new step challenged their
core principles and knowledge bases.
The expedition’s interactions and
perceptions of the natives in the Rocky Mountains
changed from the beginning of their journey. Was
the perception strictly based off generalized
geographic information or was there a general lack
of communication or possibly racism? For example,
during the desperate search for the Shoshone, Lewis
and Clark did not incorporate Sakakawea. Instead,
groups of heavily armed men wandered around the
country side shouting a Shoshone word that
3 Ronda, “Among the Indians,” 35.
4 Stephen Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas
Jefferson and the Opening of the American West (New York: Simon
and Schuster, 1995), 256.
5 See James Ronda, “Counting Cats in Zanzibar, or Lewis and Clark
Reconsidered,” in The Western Historical Quarterly, 33 (Spring,
2002), 7.
supposedly meant “stranger” or “enemy”. 4 The
expedition seemed less open or willing to accept any
help from the natives in the Rockies, especially
regarding geographic information in their pursuit of
the Pacific without extensively testing it first.
The main focus of this work is centered in
Western Montana and parts of present day Idaho.
The lack of any major scholarship devoted to the
expedition in the Rocky Mountains is rather
intriguing. Most scholarship tends to sum up the
expedition in western Montana into a few desolate
chapters. It seems rather meager to attempt to
describe the events, interactions and hardships the
expedition faced from the Great Falls of the
Missouri to their westward descent into the
Columbia River basin, into a handful of chapters
within a broader context of the expedition. The lack
of coverage devoted to the most challenging facet
of the expedition and the irresponsible
generalizations of leadership from historical
scholars is what fueled the overriding focus of this
paper.
HISTORIOGRAPHY:
Upon their return from the trek across the
continent, the field notes of the Meriwether Lewis,
William Clark and their journals were given to
Nicholas Biddle to publish. Biddle was instructed to
write a comprehensive narrative of the findings
during their voyage west. In 1814 he published the
History of the Expedition under the Command of
Captains Lewis and Clark5. Biddle’s work however,
was a brief summary of the journey, and much of
the scientific and historical data was omitted from
the published work.6 There were various attempts
to organize and produce a more complete account
of the journals, most notably by Bernard DeVoto but
not until 1953, almost a 150 years later.7 Although
DeVoto’s work provided actual excerpts of the
journals of Lewis and Clark, many entries, detailed
explanations of facts, illustrations and
6 See John T. Allen review of “The Lewis and Clark Journals: An
American Epic of Discover,” Journal of the Early Republic 23
(Autumn, 2003), 478.
7 Bernard DeVoto, The Journals of Lewis and Clark (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1953).
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methodologies were not included in his work. The
work produced by DeVoto and others placed
exclusive emphasis on the actual journals
themselves; this left scholars with limited sources to
expand the story of Lewis and Clark. It was not until
the 1980’s that a comprehensive Lewis and Clark
primary source collection began to be assembled.
Gary Moulton began working on a twenty year
collection of the journals in 1983 and published his
thirteen volume collection in 2003.8 He was able to
build off of two generations of Lewis and Clark
scholarship that included seven journals, Lewis and
Clark’s field notes and the personal journals of
Patrick Gass, John Ordway, Charles Floyd and Joseph
Whitehouse, along with previously undiscovered
materials such as correspondence letters, newly
acquired journal materials, sales receipts and
invoices. Much of the scholarship today suggests
that Moulton’s work is the most comprehensive
collection of the journals to date.9
The scholarship that was produced prior to
the 1950s was confined to very narrow viewpoints.
Most of the motivations or generalizations were
limited by the minimal access to primary
documentation and lack of secondary sources.
Jeannette Mirsky’s The Westward Crossing: Balboa,
Mackenzie, Lewis and Clark written in 1946, is one
such scholar’s writing that falls into this category.
She suggests that the only inherit mission of the
expedition was to find and establish possible means
of commercial and economic expansion. Mirsky
argues that the only reason for the expedition was
to establish new fur trading posts and commerce
with the natives to settle the newly acquired
Louisiana Territory. 10 Another early scholar to
categorize the expedition is Ralph B Guinness.
Guinness suggests that the mission had only political
and commercial motives, in which Lewis and Clark
were to establish fur trading posts and commercial
8 Gary E. Moulton, The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of
Discovery (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
9Allen, review of “The Lewis and Clark Journals”, 478.
10 R. S. Cotterill’s review of Jeannette Mirsky’s “The Westward
Crossing: Balboa, Mackenzie, Lewis and Clark,” The Mississippi Valley
Historical Review 33 (Mar. 1947), 647.
11 Ralph B. Guinness, “The Purpose of the Lewis and Clark
Expedition,” The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 20 (Jun. 1933),
90-100.
12 John Bakeless, Lewis and Clark, Partners in Discovery, (William
Morrow and Co., 1947), 1-498.
ties with native populations for the expansion of
white settlers.11 In John Bakeless’s book Lewis and
Clark, Partners in Discovery12, published in 1947,
suggests that Lewis and Clark were exclusively
conducting a military expedition for the
government, with no regards to any commercial,
political or scientific motivations. 13 Now we
understand that it truly was a mix of all of the above.
The mindset of scholars began to change
around the mid-1950s. Broader views and
motivations of the expedition began to emerge.
More emphasis began to be placed on a generalized
view and the sub topics within the journey. In a
lecture in 1955, Bernard DeVoto called for more
research and specialization to be conducted in the
field of Lewis and Clark. He stated that there is a
much larger story than what the journals can
portray. The expedition was not just the story of
Lewis and Clark, but a mix of many different voices,
motivations, people, and events rather than the
common story portrayed through the eyes of
Jefferson, Lewis and Clark. 14 Recent scholars such
as James P. Ronda15 and P. D. Thomas16 among
others, seem to reiterate the viewpoint that DeVoto
was calling for. James Ronda suggests that
scholarship should be cautious when reviewing the
expedition of Lewis and Clark:
In recent years some have been tempted to reconstruct
the Lewis and Clark journey as a national epic with
places, words and roles for all Americans. Nations
need shared stories but telling the Lewis and Clark
journey as a single narrative promising common
ground for all ignores the profound historical, cultural
and ethnic differences in this and all other exploration
experiences. Denying such differences only widens the
cultural divide, producing a national history that
speaks in one master voice allows only one
predetermined conclusion. What we say about the
many meanings of the Lewis and Clark stories matters
13 In a review by Charles D. Roberts of “Lewis and Clark, Partners in
Discovery,” Military Affairs 12 (Autumn 1948), 186-187.
14 “An Interference regarding the Expedition of Lewis and Clark”,
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 99 (Aug 30,
1955), 185-194.
15 “Counting Cats in Zanzibar, or Lewis and Clark Reconsidered,” The
Western Historical Quarterly, 33 (Spring, 2002), 4-18.
16 “Thomas Jefferson, Meriwether Lewis, the Corps of Discovery and
the investigation of Western Fauna” Transactions of the Kansas
Academy of Science, 99 (Dec. 1996), 69-85.
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as much as what we say about slavery, the civil war,
and the social movements of the 1960’s.17
Currently, more emphasis is being placed on
the people that were directly and indirectly
involved, the discovery/exploratory process and
scientific aspects of the expedition. Some works still
remain focused on the main characters in the story,
like Donald Jackson’s article on Thomas Jefferson
and his relationship with Meriwether Lewis 18 or
James Holmberg’s collection of letters from William
Clark to his brother.19 While other scholars such as
James Ronda, have focused on the impact of Lewis
and Clark and the Native Americans. 20 Gunther
Barth, like Ronda has placed emphasis on the
interactions with the Native Americans, but also
explores other interactions as well. By using the
journals, Barth covers topics that most scholars
overlook. Such as interactions with traders, the
contributions of York the slave, the use of festive
occasions for moral and the sexual relations
between the crew and Native American Women.21
Research has also lead way to a new view regarding
the scientific or lack of scientific aspects of the
expedition. Albert Furtwangler 22 and Paul
Cutright23 portray the mission of Lewis and Clark as
very important figures to the early American
scientific movements. But other scholars such as
James Ronda, argue that the mission had no
scientific objectives and was a failure.24 He states
that because of their lack of training, the scientific
and exploratory process was minimal at best and
the Northwest Passage did not exist.
Along with DeVoto and Moulton, John Allen
is another scholar that has helped build the
17 James Ronda, Finding the West: Explorations with Lewis and Clark
(University of New Mexico Press, 2001), Xvii.
18 “Jefferson, Meriwether Lewis and the Reduction of the United
States Army,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
123 (Apr., 1980), 91-96.
19 Dear Brother: Letters of William Clark to Jonathan Clark (Yale
University Press, 2002) reviewed by Gene A. Smith The Virginia
Magazine of History and Biography 110 (2002), 268-269.
20 James P. Ronda, Lewis and Clark Among the Indians (University of
Nebraska Press, 2002).
21 See The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Selections from the Journals
Arranged by Topic (Bedford/St. Martin’s, 1998).
22 Acts of Discovery: Visions of America in the Lewis and Clark
Journals, (University of Illinois Press, 1993) reviewed by James P.
Rhonda The Western Historical Quarterly, 25 (Summer, 1994), 223-
234.
foundation for new research and ideas in this field
of study.25 Allen has focused much of his research
on the geographical and exploratory processes of
the expedition. His work, Passage through the
Garden: Lewis and Clark and the Image of the
American Northwest,26 examines the geographical
knowledge and exploratory lessoned learned by the
expedition and how it benefited science and the
country. Allen also breaks down the zones of
knowledge and the misconceptions that lead to
failures of Lewis and Clark in the Rocky Mountains.
Martin Bruckner is another scholar who describes
the Lewis and Clark expedition in terms of
geography. However, unlike Allen, Bruckner only
details the impact of the native geographic lore from
Fort Mandan and how that shaped the decision
making during the rest of the journey.27
Other new areas of emerging scholarship
can be associated with such authors as David
Hawke, Stephen Amrbose and Jack Uldrich. David
Hawke’s Those Tremendous Mountains 28 and
Stephen Ambrose’s Undaunted Courage29 portray
the expedition in a very heroic and patriotic light.
Hawke and Ambrose place a large amount of
emphasis on the leadership abilities of Lewis and
Clark and the great odds that the crew overcame to
reach the pacific. Jack Uldrich is another scholar
that exemplifies the leadership roles of Lewis and
Clark. However, Uldrich does incorporate
management principles to offer more concrete
conclusions into the leadership of the captains
during the expedition rather than
overgeneralizations. Uldrich claims that the
expedition is the perfect historical example of
23 Lewis and Clark: Pioneering Naturalists (University of Illinois Press,
1969) reviewed by Richard G. Beidlemann Forest History 13 (Oct.,
1969), 35-37.
24 Finding the West: Explorations with Lewis and Clark (University of
New Mexico Press, 2001) reviewed by Thomas P. Slaughter Journal
of the Early Republic 21 (Winter, 2001), 706-707.
25 See James Ronda, “Counting Cats in Zanzibar, or Lewis and Clark
Reconsidered”.
26 (University of Illinois Press, 1975) reviewed by Donald Jackson The
Western Historical Quarterly, 3 (Jul., 1976), 309-310.
27 See Martin Bruckner The Geographic Revolution in Early America:
Maps, Literacy, and National Identity. (Chapel Hill : Published for the
Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture by
University of North Carolina Press, 2006).
28 The Story of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (Norton, 1980).
29 Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson and the Opening of the
American West (Simon and Schuster, 1996).
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management techniques in the face of extreme
stress and obstacles.30
Current scholarship and research devoted to
Lewis and Clark is still growing and expanding.
DeVoto’s call for a more comprehensive view of the
subject, helped lead the story of Lewis and Clark out
of its infancy stage, while Moulton’s definitive
collection of the journals has produced a more
descriptive scholarship base in recent years.
Scholars like Ronda, Gunther, Uldrich and Allen have
challenged and expanded the limited view the story
which has lead to a more complete story that was
omitted from works prior to the 1950s.
OUTLINE:
In an attempt to answer the questions that
emerged through research, this paper will be
broken into multiple segments. The following work
is not a chronological account of the Corps of
Discovery, rather it is an in-depth observation of
three distinct variables that seem to be overlooked
or given little emphasis by mainstream scholarship.
The first section will address the leadership and
managerial techniques displayed by Lewis and Clark,
and how this played a pivotal role in the overall
return of the expedition. Largely incorporating
works by scholars in both the historical and
managerial science fields, specific leadership traits
and tactics will be clearly defined and examined.31
This work will also inspect the managerial
deficiencies displayed by Lewis and Clark (chapters
two and three).
The second section will clarify the
geographic misconceptions, lore, and
misunderstanding of the west that Lewis and Clark
brought with them. Scholarly works devoted
primarily to the geographic and exploratory aspects
of the expedition will be referenced.32 Zones of
knowledge will be used to describe the information
base and a comparison between Plains Indian
geographic lore with information obtained in the
30 See Preface.
31 Ambrose, Undaunted Courage, Uldrich, Into the Unknown,
Vecchio, Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts.
32 Primarily the works by John Allen, Passage Through the Garden
and An Analysis of the Exploratory Process, James Ronda, Finding the
mountains, and how it was interpreted, accepted or
denied by Lewis and Clark (chapter three).
The final section will be exclusively focused
on the interpretation of luck. Examining the
situations within Western Montana and Idaho
where the expedition could and in most instances
should have failed. Focusing primarily on the search
and interactions with the Shoshone and Flathead
tribes, the paper will use various journal entries and
scholarly works to demonstrate how Lewis and Clark
were “lucky” to survive the cross over the Rockies
(chapter four).33
By incorporating the journals of Meriwether
Lewis, William Clark, with a large mix of secondary
sources from John Allen, James Ronda, Stephen
Ambrose, Jack Uldrich and others, this paper will
depict the Corps of Discovery in Western Montana
and Idaho. Since much of the scholarship on the
subject of Lewis and Clark does not focus on this
specific geographic area, the use of a variety of
different sources should offer many different
viewpoints of the expedition in its desperate search
for the Columbia over the Continental Divide.
However, like most historians would believe,
the story of Lewis and Clark is not complete. Most
arguments or conclusions that can be offered must
be derived from the journals themselves which tend
to embellish Lewis and Clark as super heroes. Much
of what can be declared as fact is based upon a few
short passages. The view of the expedition has
largely been interpreted through an ethnocentric
standpoint. Other than what little is stated about
Sakakawea and the brief record of natives in the
journals, the Native American voice is omitted from
the story. Although it is accepted that the journals
are very accurate, it is hard to assume that every
aspect, every event, every emotion, and transaction
were transferred to the pages of the journals. But
like most of history, some aspects will always be up
for debate.
West and Martin Bruckner, The Geographic Revolution in Early
America.
33 See works by James Ronda, Among the Indians and Gunther Barth,
The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Selections from the Journals
Arranged by Topic.
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OUTCOME OF THIS WORK AND THE EXPEDITION:
Hopefully, this project will help provide a
deeper understanding of the area that was
completely unknown to Lewis and Clark, the area
between the Great Falls of the Missouri to the
Columbia River Basin. By understanding and
realizing the complexity and difficulties these men
and their only woman, Sakakawea, faced while
viewing tremendous mountain ranges and
impassable rivers, one can begin to understand the
true nature of the Lewis and Clark expedition.
Contrary from the romanticized version, the
expedition was a test of will, strength, endurance
and perseverance without which the outcome could
have been incredibly different. The expedition
directly and indirectly affected a variety of people,
from those within the expedition to the various
Native American tribes that would forever be
changed by the following expansion of the United
States and the whites who saw a blank slate for
expansion. The expedition and the Louisiana
Purchase forever changed the face of the continent
and the country. The story of Lewis and Clark is not
just that of a group of men and their trek into the
unknown west, it is a story of our nation, its people
and its history.
CHAPTER 2
THE LEADERSHIP WITHIN THE LEWIS AND CLARK
EXPEDITION
MANAGERS IN THE MAKING
The leadership and management styles of
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark are an
undeniable factor for the return of the expedition,
but not the only one. The challenge of the continent
created a very unique situation regarding the
implementation of effective managerial techniques.
The fierce rapids of the Missouri River, the
seemingly endless peaks and valleys of the
continental divide, descending the Columbia to
taste the Pacific air, then to cross it again was a
massive task in itself, but the ability to transform a
34 Gunther Barth The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Selections from the
Journals Arranged by Topic (Boston: Bedford/St. Martins, 1998), 48.
rag tag group of famers and black smiths,
professional soldiers and volunteers, illiterate and
educated, Yankees and southerners, immigrants
and mixed-bloods, young and old into an effective
regiment that was able to face the continent and
safely return, reiterates the leadership skills of the
young captains.34 The expedition is a perfect case
study for the implementation of innovative and
effective leadership techniques but also shows how
personal biases can influence and create major
obstacles to effective decision making.
This section will attempt to describe the
leadership characteristics of Lewis and Clark by
applying modern managerial theories and
terminology into the expedition. Although the
captains were most likely unaware of any science
behind their management styles, it is very important
to place their leadership within the boundaries of
managerial sciences. By doing this, one can achieve
a better understanding of the innovative leadership
and the obstacles to effective decision making that
could have easily hampered the entire expedition.
Western Montana proved to be a testing ground for
the techniques instilled upon the party by Lewis and
Clark and also directly tested the deficiencies that
the captains brought with them into the west. To
understand the possible failures of their leadership,
one can better understand the amazing task and
circumstances that had to be overcome. Without
strong leadership, the mission would have surely
failed once they reached the Rocky Mountains,
Meriwether Lewis, William Clark and Sakakawea
would have been lost to the history books.
LEWIS AND CLARK AS LEADERS:
To begin to understand the leadership and
managerial abilities of Lewis and Clark, it is
necessary to understand where these men came
from. Both were products of eighteenth century
Virginia, where a sense of prestige and honor was
implanted in men from childhood. Both the Lewis
and Clark’s families were considered in the upper
echelons of the social and political hierarchy within
Virginian society. The men were also children of the
Enlightenment, where in Virginia the movement
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flourished outwardly into the early colonies and
later states.35 The call of the expedition and its
purpose was a chance for Lewis and Clark to search
for God’s natural order and contribute to the
scientific community.36 The Captains also had very
strong family legacies to uphold as children of the
Revolution. Clark’s older brother was a war hero,
Lewis’s father served as a lieutenant under George
Washington.37 On top of that, Thomas Jefferson,
President and a founding father, entrusted this duty
upon them. Lewis and Clark were driven by a much
higher purpose than their personal ambitions. For
their country, legacies and mankind, Lewis and Clark
were able to instill this same sense of duty on the
men of their expedition.
Lewis and Clark both displayed a high degree
of an internal locus of control. This incredibly
important dimension of personality and is the
degree to which an individual believes that their
lives are controlled by their own actions not their
external environment. Someone who believes
strongly that they personally control the events in
their life, project a high level of internal locus of
control whereas someone who believes they are at
the mercy of their environment displays a high level
of external locus of control.38
It has been shown through studies that
upper-class individuals tend to produce a much
higher internal locus of control versus someone who
comes from less privileged backgrounds.39 Both
Lewis and Clark came out of fairly stable, upper
class, white and patriotic family lineages in Virginia.
The young captains held a greater sense of being,
one in which they could shape their future and the
future of America. These types of personalities,
although enjoy extrinsic rewards, often find
themselves chasing feelings of self-accomplishment
or achievement on larger scales. This could be the
reason for the high sense of arrogance, at least to
some degree displayed by the captains.
On April 7th, 1805 when the main party
embarked from their winter camp at Fort Mandan,
35 Jack Uldrich, Into the Unknown: Leadership lessons from Lewis and
Clark’s Daring Westward Adventure (New York: AMACOM, 2004),
38.
36 Uldrich, 39.
37 Uldrich, 41.
Lewis referred to the “little fleet” as comparable to
the ships of Christopher Columbus and Captain
Cook.40 To place the expedition up the Missouri in
the same breath as Columbus’s world changing
exploration of the American Continents and Cook’s
charting of the Pacific is quite a reach. Yes,
scientific, cartography and cultural records
procured by the expedition had a long lasting effect,
but it is hard to argue the expedition has any major
comparisons to that of Columbus much less Cook,
but duty and arrogance can be precursors to great
leadership.
It is also safe to assume that the “frontier
lifestyle” that many who made up the Corps of
Discovery would be classified in was incredibly
important. This suggests a very high internal locus
of control. It takes an incredibly high level of self-
efficacy and outlook on the world to live a frontier
lifestyle. This mindset was not new, from the
founding of the colonies there had always been a
motive to move in the “wilderness”. Men and
women kept expanding outwards as the colonies
and eventually states grew, these people almost
entirely believed that they could and would control
their own destiny. One can jump to generalizations
fairly easily, but it is safe to assume that if the Corps
and/or Lewis and Clark were made up of individuals
with a high degree of external locus, the results of
the expedition may have been completely different,
especially when things became tough in the shadow
of the Rockies.
MERIWETHER LEWIS
Meriwether Lewis was born in 1774 in
Albemarle County, Virginia. His father had severed
as a lieutenant in the Continental Army during the
War for Independence but had died from
phenomena when he was just five years old. His
mother remarried, another army officer and raised
Meriwether and his siblings on a plantation just 10
miles from Thomas Jefferson’s home of Monticello.
Lewis spent his youth exploring the Virginia
countryside and learning skills of exploration,
38 Vecchio, Robert P. Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts (Mason:
Thomson, 2006), 31.
39 Vecchio, 32.
40 Bernard DeVoto, The Journals of Lewis and Clark (Cambridge: The
Riverside Press, 1953), 92.
13. P a g e | 13
survival, studying flora and fauna while also
interacting with Natives which would later suit him
well during the expedition.41 He received no formal
education until the age 13 and then graduated from
Liberty Hall University in 1793.42
By age twenty, Lewis followed in his father’s
footsteps and enlisted in the Frontier Army and
would raise the ranks of Captain by 1800. After
posting on the frontier and helping put down the
Whiskey Rebellion, Lewis would be reunited with his
childhood idol in 1801 when he was appointed
President Thomas Jefferson’s personal secretary.
Lewis saw the world much like Jefferson. He was a
staunch Republican, craved education, longed for a
sense of exploration and understanding of the
natural order in the world. Jefferson personally saw
that Lewis received the top education possible for
the expedition and procured experts in biology,
topography, geography, cartography, astronomy
and navigation to aid in preparing the young captain
for his journey.43
Expedition Emphasis = Planning/Reporting
WILLIAM CLARK
William Clark was born in 1770 in Carline
County, Virginia, neighboring Lewis and Jefferson’s
home counties. He was the ninth or ten children.
The Clark Family were planters in Virginia, in the
middle classes of society. The family owned a
moderate sized estate and had several slaves. Five
of Clark’s brothers fought in the War for
Independence and held prominent ranks in the
Virginia militia after the war. 44 Oddly enough,
Jefferson tried to enlist the services of Clark’s older
brother George to lead a similar expedition west of
the Mississippi in 1783 but he had declined.45 When
Clark was 15, his family moved to the frontier of
Kentucky where he learned wilderness and survival
skills.
41 “Meriwether Lewis.” New Perspectives on the West.
http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/i_r/lewis.htm (Accessed
April, 2014).
42 “Meriwether Lewis.”
http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/lewisandclark/biddle/biographies_ht
ml/lewis.html (Accessed April, 2014).
43 PBS. “Meriwether Lewis, New Perspectives on the West”
At age 19, Clark joined the Kentucky militia
to fight in the Northwest Indian War. He would be
propelled through various ranks within state militias
and this is where he would befriend Meriwether
Lewis. By 1792, Clark would became an officer
within the regular army where he served in various
military engagements along the frontier.
Lewis requested the services of Clark to co-
captain the expedition in 1803. At this time, Clark
had resigned from a military life to return home and
manage his family’s plantation. Although Congress
would not raise his official ranking to captain for the
expedition, the members of the Corp were unaware.
Clark would officially join Lewis near Wood River in
Illinois and begin the great expedition into the
west.46
Expedition Emphasis = Rules/Structure
PERSONALITIES
Each manager and leader has unique,
independent and special personality traits that
guide their actions and interactions within their
environment. These personality traits can be
defined as a relatively stable pattern of behavior
when certain ideas, objects and people within an
44 ”William Clark.”
http://www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/lewisandclark/biddle/biographies_ht
ml/lewis.html (Accessed April, 2014).
45 “Jefferson’s Letter to Meriwether Lewis” Library of Congress.
http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/journey/jefferson-transcript.html.
(Accessed April, 2014).
46 “William Clark”, New Perspectives on the West.
http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/a_c/clark.htm (Accessed
April, 2014).
14. P a g e | 14
environment are presented to the individual.47 Each
circumstance can change the outcome of behavior
for a manager and/or leader, but it is important to
identify that the behavioral traits are common or
averaged over a long period of time. It is also
imperative to state that not every manager can be a
leader and traits may be exhibited in one or both
areas.
A leader is one who can bring change and
provide motivation or integrity for an organizations
members, while a manager maintains stability and
creates efficiency. 48 Luckily for the expedition,
Lewis and Clark possessed complimentary
leadership and management skills as a duo.
Personalities are seen at the core of a leader’s
behavior traits. Commonly referred to as the Big 5
Personality Dimensions, which frames the context
of a person’s personality and how that impacts their
leadership or managerial behaviors. Situations may
change in the environment, but a person’s core
personality in the five areas of emotional stability,
openness, extraversion or introversions,
agreeableness and consciousness fall within a long
term pattern of behavior, feelings or thinking.49
Lewis and Clark were similar in some
respects, at least to their backgrounds and
personality dimensions, but dramatically differed in
terms of their emotional traits. Pairing these two
together offered a balanced approach to leadership
47 Alkahtani, Ali. “The Impact of personality and Leadership Styles on
Leading Change Capability of Malaysian Managers.” Australian
Journal of Business Management and Research 1, no. 2 (May 2011):
71.
Alkahtani, “The Impact of personality and Leadership Styles on
Leading Change Capability of Malaysian Managers.” 73.
within the expedition. Although the appointment of
both captains was probably not planned entirely by
their complimenting nature of their leadership skills
and personalities, it is important to mark the
differences of their personalities.
Lewis exhibited much more of an emotional
leadership style within the expedition. He instilled
the mission’s epic grandeur and importance among
the men to shape their passion and motivation of
the journey. By heart, he was a hopeless romantic
48 Alkahtani, “The Impact of personality and Leadership Styles on
Leading Change Capability of Malaysian Managers.” 71.
49Oliver, John and Srivastava, Sanjay. “The Big-Five Trait Taxonomy:
History, Measurement, and Theoretical Perspectives.” (March 2009):
3.
Extraversion
23%
Agreeableness
20%
Consiousness
23%
Emotional
Stability
10%
Openness
24%
PERSONALITY PERSONA: LEWIS
0 5 10 15 20
EXTRAVERSION
AGREEABLENESS
CONSIOUSNESS
EMOTIONAL STABILITY
OPENNESS
Personality Ratings
0-20 Scale
Clark Lewis
Extraversion
21%
Agreeableness
11%
Consiousness
25%
Emotional
Stability
26%
Openness
17%
PERSONALITY PERSONA: CLARK
15. P a g e | 15
for nature, knowledge, God and country. Clark on
the other hand was more rigid and by the books.
Clark essentialy was the backbone and held up the
emotional short comings of Lewis. It can be
presumed that this emotional stability between the
leadership styles of Lewis and Clark was one of the
many factors that lead to the expedition completing
their journey over the mountains and back. Due to
the highly ambiguous situation, the balance that
Clark was able to offer Lewis allowed for effective
leadership. Similarly, if there had been a severe
lack of personality balance among the captains it is
hard to assume that the expedition would have
been successful.
Imagine a leadership core driven by two hard
headed leaders similar to Clark. This may have led
to constant infighting, struggling for dominance,
with a shortcoming for the human relationships
with the members of the Corps. Or two emotional
unstable leaders such as Lewis where difficulties
may have arisen from the lack of true rigid
leadership when times become tough.
Compare the two journal passage below to
gain a slight insight into the different personality
and leadership identities of the captains:
Lewis, August 18th 1805
This day I completed my thirty first year, and
conceived that I had in all human probability now
existed about half the period which I am to remain in
this Sublunary world. I reflected that I had as yet done
but little, very little indeed, to further the hapiness of
the human race, or to advance the information of the
succeeding generation. I viewed with regret the many
hours I have spent in indolence, and now soarly feel
the want of that information which those hours would
have given me had they been judiciously expended.
but since they are past and cannot be recalled, I dash
from me the gloomy thought and resolved in future, to
redouble my exertions and at least indeavour to
promote those two primary objects of human
existance, by giving them the aid of that portion of
talents which nature and fortune have bestoed on me;
or in future, to live formankind, as I have heretofore
lived for myself
50 Uldrich, 202.
51 Warrick, D. D. “Leadership Styles and their Consequences.”
Journal of Experiential Learning and Simulation 3, no. 4 (1981) 155
Clark, July 14th 1805
a fine morning Calm and worm musquetors & Knats
verry troublesom. The Canoes arrive at 12 oClock &
unloade to Dry &c. finished & Lanced the 2 Canoes,
Some rain this afternoon. all prepareing to Set out
on tomorrow.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
The mission from the beginning was founded
on the notion of innovative leadership, which the
captains made sure of. This leadership had to be
uniquely different from the traditional rank and file
system of the military, adaptation was the key to
survival.50 Upon the appointing of William Clark as
Lewis’s co-commander, which technically was not
an official title, it was very obvious this mission
would be of unordinary sorts. This co-commandant
clearly shows the overwhelming allegiance to the
mission and its success. It is hard to imagine that a
strict military style of leadership and discipline
would have been successful in light of all the
obstacles that lay ahead of them. This was not a
traditional military campaign where the outcomes
were straight forward and the scenarios were
somewhat standard. As much as the captains would
have probably disagreed, they had no real idea of
what to expect, so flexibility was essential.
Few leaders understand the full significance of how
influential their leadership style is on the performance
and satisfaction of their employees. Leaders control
both the interpersonal and material rewards and
punishments that often shape employee behavior and
influence an employee’s performance, motivation and
attitude. They can affect an employee’s self-image
and resulting potential in either a positive or negative
way by being supportive, fair and encouraging or
unsupportive, inconsistent and critical.51
When referring to leadership there are two
key components, style and skills. Effective leaders
may change their skills depending on the situation
and their requirements to lead a group, but they will
maintain a consistent leadership style over a long
period of time.52 Which seems to be the case, as the
captains displayed fairly steady and consistent
leadership qualities through the expedition. A solid
52 Warrick, 170.
16. P a g e | 16
leadership core was established which helped the
Corps navigate through the unknown and accept
that they did not know what lay ahead of them, a
“comfort with discomfort”.53
However, personalities tend to shape
leadership styles and as we have established, both
Lewis and Clark held different personality
characteristics. As a result, we see differences in
their leadership styles as well. Effective leaders will
not change their styles, rather they will adjust their
skills to manage the situation at hand. In
managerial science, there are four basic leadership
styles that leaders and managers will fall into when
faced with differing situations both internally and
externally:54
HUMAN RELATIONS LEADER –
Low emphasis is placed on performance, but
a high emphasis is placed on the person
within the organization. This style relies on
teamwork, participative decision making
and harmony amongst all in the group to
finish a task.
LAISSEZ FAIRE LEADER –
Low emphasis is placed on performance and
people. This style assumes people will rise
to the occasion to get a job done, and
leaders tend to stay out of the way. Little to
no motivation activities take place.
AUTOCRATIC LEADER –
High emphasis is placed on performance, but
little is placed on people. Central planning,
organizing and controls should be
accomplished by the leader with minimal to
no employee involvement. Leaders use
authority, power, and manipulation to
complete a task.
DEMOCRATIC LEADER –
High emphasis is placed on both
performance and people. Strives for a well-
organized and challenging work
environment. Tasks are completed through
motivating individuals and groups to their
53 White, Randall and Shullman, Sandra. “Ambiguity Leadership: It’s
OK to be Uncertain.” Chief Learning Officer (April 2010): 18
54Warrick, 160.
full potential. Both the organization and
individual benefits from their efforts.
The leadership model within the expedition
transitioned over time as the group moved west.
What had initially started as autocratic transformed
into democratic by the time the expedition left
Mandan in the spring of 1805. Lewis and Clark
would have both fallen into the category of a
democratic leader by this point, although they both
were pulled to different corners of the leadership
spectrum. Lewis cared deeply about the task at
hand, and leaned more towards the human
relations leader side of the democratic spectrum.
Whereas Clark pulled more towards the autocratic
style. In reality, this combination worked well as the
two complimented each other leadership styles and
become one of the many key components that lead
to the success of the expedition.55
The initial autocratic leadership was
primarily used at Camp Dubois and Mandan to
create the structure and rules within the enlisted
men.
The formal, centralized structure was
created under this style which established the tight
controls and hierarchy within the group.56
Obedience was the norm and relations
remained very formal at Camp Dubois. But as the
expedition moved up the Missouri there was a clear
shift towards a democratic style. Democratic
leadership produces high employee productivity,
cooperation and commitment. It reduces the needs
for controls and formal rules. Towards the fall and
winter of 1805, there was little need to reinforce the
structure of the group and its mission. Everyone
was working for the common goal and Lewis and
Clark were leading from within rather than from the
top.57
55 Warrick, 170.
56 Warrick, 162.
57 Warrick, 161.
17. P a g e | 17
Democratic Leadership Description in the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Management Skills Outcomes or Actions During the Expedition
Planning and Setting
Objectives
Planning ahead and establishing clear objectives are
essential to effective performance and are best
accomplished with heavy employee involvement
Camp Dubois
Mandan
Organizing
Decentralized and flexible structure is used to clearly define
roles and responsibilities.
Great Falls
Marias
Three Forks
Decision Making
Leaders are decisive decisions makers in some instances,
other times will involve group
Marias
Twin Bridges
Shoshone
Motivating Provide good working conditions and assure that the jobs
are challenging an offer growth, and recognition
Throughout the Expedition
Developing Emphasizes personal and team development Mandan
Rewards and
Punishments
Good work is rewarded, punishment is a means of last
resort
Dubois
Mandan
Conflict Conflict is handled in the open Dubois
Mandan
Interpersonal
Relationships
Maintain close, but objective relationships with employees Throughout the Expedition
Power and Authority Power and authority are earned, not legislated Special Missions Throughout the
Expedition
19. P a g e | 19
THE CORPS
It is also essential to understand the makeup
of the expedition as they are often secondary to
Lewis and Clark. Although this was a military
expedition, it was far from the traditional view of a
military unit as we see even today, especially in the
1800s.
With the authority of the United States
Government, Jefferson turned to the Army for this
expedition because they possessed the
organization, logistics, toughness, training,
discipline and teamwork necessary to handle such a
massive endeavor. Few national institutions existed
at the time, much less any that were formal enough
to complete such a task of gathering detailed
information on the geography of the new territory,
flora, fauna and information about its inhabitants.58
The regular United States Army was in a
transition period during the late 1700s and early
1800s. With the War for Independence fresh in the
minds of the newly formed country, citizens did not
look favorably towards a large standing army for
defense. It was a common view that a militia could
support the needs of defense. 59 Even being
surrounded by the imperial ambitions of Spain,
France and England, America had a false sense of
security (which would be shattered during the war
of 1812). The Army went through five major
reorganizations from 1784 through 1803 as it
struggled to find its place and structure within the
new nation.60 It began to take shape as more of a
contemporary view of the Army of the 1800s under
Jefferson’s presidency. Growing as the country’s
defense needs changed with the rapidly changing
frontier borders.
The fluid situation of contracting and
expanding frontier borders and threats from foreign
super powers positioned much of the military on the
frontier protecting forts and garrisons from natives
and formal enemy army posts for much of the 1700s
and early 1800s. The Army’s primary role was to
58 Charles, Collins Jr. “The Corps of Discover: Staff Ride Handbook for
the Lewis and Clark Expedition.” Combat Studies Institute (2003): 1
59 Collins, 19.
60 Collins, 19.
protect the forts, negotiate treaties with Indian
tribes, administer frontier law and manage affairs or
disputes among white settlers and local tribes in the
blurred lines of the new world.61
The Army, because of its remote frontier assignments,
had the proven ability to organize, equip, train and
lead a small unit into the unknown West. The
captains, Lewis and Clark, had the logistics skills
needed for planning executing a major operation.
The captains and their sergeants had the leadership
skills needed to build and maintain a functioning team.
Most importantly, the individual soldiers and the team
as a whole had the tenacity, training and
determination needed for the journey into the
unknown.62
Traditional soldiers during this time period
were volunteers and usually came from a rural
backgrounds and were much older as the average
member was 26 in 1803.63
Jefferson commissioned Lewis with the
authorization to recruit noncommissioned officers
and men from any of the western army posts to fill
the company. The Corps of Discovery were a very
interesting and diverse group of individuals. All
volunteered (other than Lewis, Clark and his slave
York) along various frontier posts as the expedition
moved west. Camp Dubois served as the final
recruitment location for the official military roster,
but additional resources such as interpreters,
explorers and natives were added in Mandan. The
Corps ranged from 17 to 44 years of age. Each
member varied in background, skill, and ethnicity. It
is important to identify that the US army in 1803 had
no existing model for such an expedition.64 Lewis
and Clark formed several modified versions of a
military unit throughout the expedition depending
on the situation. There were four different
formations of the Corps which varied due to the
goals at hand. The Camp Dubois and Mandan
formations included several people that were
brought into the Corps for local or short term
support. The main expedition that left Mandan and
61 Collins, 19.
62 Collins, 21.
63 Collins, 20.
64 Collins, 21.
20. P a g e | 20
crossed the mountains will be the main focus for this
paper. The captains organized the Corps into a
modified infantry company. Multiple squads were
organized to provide flexibility while allowing
officers to accomplish their tasks and soldiers to
focus on their work.65
65 Collins, 21.
Lewis and Clark were at the top, but work
was delegated down to the men placed into three
units, led by Sergeants Gass, Ordway and Pryor.
There was also a “support” column outside of the
standard rank and file which included York,
Sakakawea and interrupters that the captains would
call upon for various situations.
21. P a g e | 21
LEADERSHIP SKILLS IN ACTION
Effective leaders, once they have established
their styles, will often change their skills and the
way that they are applied depending on a certain
situation.
The leadership of Lewis and Clark
complimented each other well, but precedent was
established by Clark, who remained very rigid.
Discipline was tough, especially in the early stages
of the expedition. Clark made sure that men were
on constant alert of their actions and its impact on
the expedition. Each had tasks to accomplish on
both the river and land. Insubordination was dealt
with swiftly, but rewards for distinguished work
were common. While Lewis focused on planning
and recording their journey, Clark ran the men. It
seemed to be incredibly effective only five
infractions were recorded during the two and half
year expedition.66 This was nearly unheard of at a
time when army units, especially those on the
frontiers, displayed many issues of insubordination
and misbehavior due in part to the rough and rowdy
culture of early America. Clark typically led the men
from the boats while Lewis walked the shore to
record his scientific observations throughout the
journey.67
Camp Dubois was established December 13,
1803 outside present day St. Louis, Missouri. This
winter camp comprised almost everyone that would
make up the main party of the expedition after Fort
Mandan. Camp Dubois served as a boot camp and
training facility for the mission. The standard army
methods did not suit the assignment, Lewis and
Clark had to be creative and innovative in their
disciplinary actions and training techniques. “They
often lectured the men on the fatal consequences of
disobedience, negligence and drunkenness both for
themselves and for the outcome of the
expedition.” 68 Constant training and drills
eventually sank in daily routine and became
habitual.69 The captains used various disciplinary
66 Collins, 5.
67 Collins, 6.
68 Barth, 45.
69 Barth, 45.
techniques than the standard operating procedures
they were accustomed to.
A democratic system, unheard of in the
traditional military command system, was used
when large decisions needed to be made. This
included giving votes to York, Clark’s black slave and
Sakakawea, an Indian Woman long before any such
notion would be accepted in the east. Ethnicity was
not an issue, those who were mixed blood, Indian,
black or white all received equal rewards and
punishments under Lewis and Clark.70
A great example of this was seen June 1804,
as one private was court martialed for becoming
intoxicated while on duty, another was caught
stealing whiskey from the cache without being
authorized. Lewis and Clark deemed the
punishment to be issued out by their peers.71 By
allowing the enlisted men to make the decision,
Lewis and Clark made it obvious to the other
members of the expedition that the success of the
mission rested on everyone adhering to the rules
issued by the captain’s.
PATH-GOAL THEORY
The primary innovative leadership technique
displayed by the captains was their proactive
approach to decision making.72 The captains were
primarily in the mix, overseeing and planning. One
leadership theory that Lewis and Clark
demonstrated and excelled in is known as the Path-
70 See Barth chapter 2
71 Uldrich, 114.
72 Uldrich, 134.
22. P a g e | 22
Goal Theory. This theory suggests that leaders can
directly influence the satisfaction, motivation and
performance of their subordinates through four
main leadership roles and can be adopted
differently depending on the situation:73
The Path-Goal Theory can also help leaders
clarify paths to expected outcomes by removing
various obstacles to the performance of their
subordinates,74 in other words it allowed Lewis and
Clark to establish means for the members of the
expedition to complete and understand their tasks
within the overall goals of the mission.
The more ambiguous the situation, the more
direction or initiation of structure by leaders is
needed. When levels of ambiguity are high on the
tactical level rather than the strategic level,
employees tend to follow leaders who are perceived
to have larger involvement in decisions and remain
flexible to the circumstances.75
Leaders become much more effective when
they engage in behaviors that complement the
environment or the subordinate’s abilities to
minimize their deficiencies.76 This is why the impact
of Path-Goal Theory can be contributed as another
major factor for the success of the expedition. Tasks
that become highly repetitive, like hauling boats,
canoes and goods up the Missouri River every day,
and areas with weak formal authority, as there was
no other formal support systems or chain of
command in place that far into the west. The Path-
goal Theory is truly a theory, as it is incredibly
difficult to prove since many different variables
affect leadership. However, Path-goal is a great
base to begin to understand and conceptualize
leadership in action.77 It only scratches the surface
of leadership, but it can provide fairly clear and
invaluable insights into leadership and how leaders
73 Vecchio, 162.
74 Vecchio, 162.
75 Sagie, Abraham and Koslowsky, Meni. “Organizational Attitudes
and Behaviors as a Functional Participation in Strategic and Tactical
Change Decisions: An Application of Path-goal Theory.” Journal of
Organizational Behavior 15, Vol. 1 (Jan, 1994): 40.
76 Knight Andre, Steynberg, Gary and Hanges, Paul. “Path Goal
Anaysis” Encyclopedia of Leadership (Feb 2011). 1164.
77 Anderson, Marian. “Path-Goal Theory Approach.” University of
Arkansas (Presented 2013).
can begin to at a minimum, monitor their leadership
skills in different environmental situations.
The Path-Goal Theory and its application is
clearly visible throughout the entire mission,
although Lewis and Clark were probably unaware of
their changing leadership roles.
The first role, directive leadership, involves
giving specific orders or setting strict rules for
subordinates to follow.78 This was used primarily in
the early stages of the mission, at Camp Dubois and
Fort Mandan to instill rules, routines and shape
behaviors of the men.
Goals = Reduce role ambiguity, clarify effort and
goal attainment, link goals to extrinsic rewards.79
Supportive leadership, the second
technique, this includes being friendly and sensitive
to the needs of subordinates.80 The captains paid
particular attention to the moral of the group.
Liquor played an important role in the lives of the
men. Coming from a very hard drinking society,
alcohol was a cure all for hunger, pain, cold,
loneliness and fear.81 The captains would often
issue an extra gill of whiskey after particularly
strenuous days, which were quite often.82 Festive
occasions were also used as a means to reduce
stress and build camaraderie. “Nostalgic memories
of holidays and home, good food, hard liquor and
fiddle music” were the means to which supportive
leadership was used.83
Goals = create an enjoyable environment,
understand personal needs, increase value and
worth. Investing in the employee will increase
effort.84
When the expedition came upon the flooded
Marias River where it flowed into the Missouri, the
78 Vecchio, 162.
79 Knight Andre, Steynberg, Gary and Hanges, Paul. “Path Goal
Anaysis” Encyclopedia of Leadership (Feb 2011). 1166.
80 Vecchio, 162.
81 Barth, 50.
82 Barth, 50.
83 Barth, 75.
84 Knight, 1166.
23. P a g e | 23
correct fork to take was not apparent to the party.
In response, both Lewis and Clark took separate
parties to investigate and survey the land. Before
making their final decision, they included everyone
in sharing the gathered information and consulted
the group before making a final executive
decision.85 By sharing information and consulting
their subordinates, Lewis and Clark exhibited
participative leadership. 86 This leadership style
reiterates that subordinates, although not in charge,
have something to offer to the overall mission.
Goals = Show lack of strict hierarchy, understand
value of subordinates work and efforts, seek out
input and opinions.87
The final leadership behavior is called
achievement-oriented leadership, which entails
using challenging goals and emphasizing excellence,
while simultaneously showing confidence that
85 Gary E. Moulton. The Journals of the Lewis & Clark Expedition
(Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987, 234.
86 Vecchio, 162.
87 Knight, 1166.
subordinates can perform the task at hand.88 Lewis
and Clark demanded excellence and personal
responsibility on all tasks, such as hunting or
building canoes. Established early in the mission,
laziness, work that was not excellent, or the lack of
personal responsibility for ones actions would lead
to failure or death of the entire expedition.
Goals = enhance follower performance through
inspiration and self-motivation.89
The Path-Goal Theory proved, in the case of
Lewis and Clark, to be a very effective tool in a very
stressful and unique environment. In ambiguous
situations, subordinates will be more satisfied and
trustworthy of a leader who can differentiate their
leadership techniques,90 and it was very obvious
that this theory contributed to the overall success of
the expedition. Path-Goal places exclusive
emphasis on the behaviors of leaders and managers
rather than their personality traits.91
88 Vecchio, 162.
89 Knight, 1167.
90 Vecchio, 162.
91 Knight, 1166.
25. P a g e | 25
SUBORDINATE MATURITY
Path-goal theory in the general sense works,
as leaders can adjust their skills for the
environments that face a group of people.
However, this is idealistic and suggest that all
members are ready and willing to accept the
leadership and all are on the same level of maturity.
The level of subordinate maturity will
dictate if the leadership application of Path-goal will
actually work. This important concept is defined as
an individual’s capacity to set high, but attainable
goals, the willingness to accept responsibility
combined with their relevant knowledge, skills and
abilities.92 A leader’s leadership skills will evolve
and change over time as a follower’s maturity
increases, requiring less direct leadership.
Subordinates who exhibit immature
behavior tend to not have the needed technical
skills or psychological levels required to navigate
properly within their environment. Thus, the most
effective way to obtain the desired results requires
a more directive and autocratic leadership skill.
These immature subordinates need a task oriented
based direction to understand their expectations
and learn the needed knowledge, skills or abilities to
perform.
Overtime, as the subordinate matures both
physically and psychologically, a leaders then is able
92 Vecchio, 163.
93 Vecchio, 164.
to adjust their skills towards more of a delegating
structure. Possessing the skills, subordinates
become more self-motivated to perform and can be
trusted much more to rely on their own abilities as
they have been molded to understand the
organizational structure.93
CHARISMATIC BASED LEADERSHIP
Ideally, a leader will hope (and maybe pray)
that a group will mature together, thus making their
ability to influence the subordinate’s outcomes
much easier. In reality, this is much different. As a
result, great leaders often will display high levels of
fervor to temporarily boost a subordinates maturity
or dedication for a desired result and/or behavior.
To influence via emotions, a leader can enact
motivation with personal pride, patriotism or
enthusiasm and create a temporary impulse of
passion.94 Why is it that some of history’s most
famous leaders have been figures that seem larger
than life? Charisma plays a huge role in perceived
leadership and its effectiveness.
Another incredibly important, but difficult to
measure leadership skill is that of a charismatic
leader or value based leader. Developed from the
Path-Goal theory, this leadership skill is attributed
to someone who is able to tap into and appeal to a
subordinates cherished values, self-efficacy, and
94 Clauswitz, Carl Von. “On War.” 1832. 37.
26. P a g e | 26
self-worth by leveraging the mission or vision of the
leader.95
A great force of mind and influence is
incredibly important when leaders venture into the
unknown. Subordinates look towards their leaders
when ambiguity consumes them. Leaders must
possess a strong reliance on self and be able to stand
up to the pressures facing a group, or at least
enough to have subordinates perceive a strong self.
Prussian military leader of the 19th Century, Carl Von
Clauswitz elaborates on the importance of a strong
and charismatic leaders, called a “chief”, and their
effects on a group:96
As long as his men full of good courage fight with
zeal and spirit, it is seldom necessary for the Chief to
show great energy of purpose in the pursuit of his
object. But as soon as difficulties arise – and that
must always happen when great results are at stake –
then things no longer move on themselves like a well-
oiled machine, the machine itself then begins to offer
resistance and to overcome this the commander must
have a great force of will. By this resistance we must
not exactly suppose disobedience and murmurs,
although these are frequent enough with particular
individuals; it is the whole feeling of dissolution of all
physical and moral power…….As the forces in one
individual after another comes prostrated, and can no
longer be excited and supported by an effort of his
own will, the while inertia of the mass gradually rests
its weight on the Will of the Commander: by the spark
in his breast, by the light of his spirit, the spark of
purpose, the light of hope must be kindled afresh in
others: insofar only as he is equal to this, he stands
above the masses and continues to be their master;
whenever that influence ceases, and his own spirit is no
longer strong enough to revive the spirit of all others,
the masses drawing him down with them sink into the
lower region of animal nature, which shrinks from
danger and knows not shame. These are the weights
which the courage and intelligent faculties of the
Military Commander have to overcome if he is to
make his name illustrious.
95 House, Robert. “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership: Lessons, Legacy
and a Reformulated Theory.” Leadership Quarterly 7, Vol. 3 (1996):
327.
96 Clauswitz, 42.
97 Clauswitz, 38.
98 House, 343.
This leveraging of personal ideals leads to a
short or medium term motivation that increases
productivity based on a heighten sense of
emotion.97 This becomes much more effective in
situations that requires a highly involved leadership
plus emotional commitment and extraordinary
effort from both the leaders and followers.98 Which
almost entirely sums up the requirements of the
expedition. Jefferson instilled this sense of duty into
Lewis, who handed it off to Clark, who both
influenced their men.
The Marias River decision, almost exclusively
exhibits the charismatic influence of Lewis and
Clark. Everyone in the expedition believed that the
right fork of the river was the Missouri. Lewis and
Clark thought it was the left fork and did not leave it
up to a vote (like later decisions). Lewis noted in
early June 1805 that the men “were ready to follow
us anywhere we thought proper to direct”99
Leaders can use the following means to motivate
through charisma:100
Articulating a vision of a better future, or
claiming a moral right
Self-sacrifice in the interest of the vision as a
collective
Confidence in self and vision which is
persistent to the overall vision or mission
Extraordinary personal risks in the interest of
the collective vision
Symbolic behaviors that emphasize values of
the vision
Frequent positive evaluation within the
context of the original vision
SUBSTITUTES FOR LEADERSHIP
As it has been stated earlier, many scholars,
opinions, interpretations and overgeneralizations
are commonly seen in regards to Lewis and Clark’s
leadership qualities, and are sometimes overblown
99 National Geographic. “Reliving Lewis and Clark: At A Fork in the
Missouri River.” Accessed April, 2014.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0713_050713_l
ewisclark11_2.html
100 House, 343.
27. P a g e | 27
in this author’s opinion. These estimations often
come pre-wrapped in red, white and blue flags
waving a banner of American exceptionalism. Not
to downgrade the great feat of trudging up the
Missouri River and crossing the Rocky Mountains,
but one can argue other factors were just as
responsible for a successful expedition than simply,
great leadership, like a high group maturity and
ample neutralizers which were very visable.
Substitutes or neutralizers of leadership
allows an observer to keep a proper perspective on
the role of leadership within work groups.101 Yes,
leadership is incredibly important and critical to
performance, but understanding leadership
substitutes and neutralizers is just as important.
These factors make the overall study of leadership
theory fairly irrelevant if one does not at least factor
in these relationships as well. A person can argue,
just as strongly as the diehard Lewis and Clark
leadership advocates, that during the most trying
times of the expedition, between Great Falls and the
Columbia River, that the expedition had no choice
but to make it over the mountains. Winter was
closing in fast, leaving the Corps three options, find
horses to cross the mountains, die trying to cross on
foot or return home. Obviously this is an
overgeneralization, but it is hard to believe that
when the Corps found themselves in 10 foot high
snow drifts, bitter cold, starving and no end to the
mountains in sight, that Lewis and Clark where
simply willing the men to make it over the mountain
out of love for country and purpose.
There are three factors that may result in
substitutes or neutralizers for leadership within
groups: the characteristics of the individual
subordinates (or group), the characteristics of the
task at hand and the characteristics of the
organization102.
SUBORDINATE CHARACTERISTICS –
Experience, ability or previous training can
reduce a leader’s impact if the subordinate
has the same or better knowledge, skills and
101 Vecchio, 170.
abilities to handle the environmental
factors.
o Many of the members of the Corp
had specific talents as hunters,
interpreters, fishermen, etc.
Indifference toward the organizational goals
and rewards.
o In the case of the Lewis and Clark
expedition, the indifference towards
goals and rewards would be dying in
the mountains. I doubt any member
really cared about honor or prestige
at this moment, survival was their
only motivation.
TASK CHARACTERISTICS –
Structured tasks or routine tasks can also
become substitutes. Once a behavior or
process is learned, leadership efforts to
reproduce the activity will diminish over
time. It becomes habitual or second nature.
ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS –
Cohesive work groups can replace leaders
and the team can evolve into its own
separate entity. Once established, a change
leader may find it difficult to penetrate to
cohesiveness of such a group.
Once goals and plans become formalized
leadership is less important to reiterate the
mission or vision of tasks leading to that
goal. The goals are obvious, if every member
buys into the final plan, a leader will become
repetitive and unneeded to motivate as they
have already established motivation to
reach the end result.
o When the expedition was traveling
with the current back to St. Louis in
1806, it is hard to imagine that the
men needed any motivation. They
were hell bent on reaching St. Louis
as fast as possible, Lewis and Clark
did not need to display any
leadership to get them there.
102 Vecchio, 169.
28. P a g e | 28
Decision Making Process
Rigid rules and procedures can also replace
leadership if the group buys into them. If
accepted, norms and culture are understood
within the context of the rules. Leadership
will be ineffective to reinforce what is
already accepted as the model.
Humans can achieve amazing results when
faced with extreme options. Why is it so often that
some of history’s most famous leaders tend to
emerge in life and death situations? Should this
change the lens we view leaders through?
Something to consider.
CHAPTER 3
OBSTACLES TO EFFECTIVE DECISION MAKING:
The decision making process is driven by two core
principles:103
Decision Inertia –
Refers to inertia that is driving a specific
course of action or decision. As things
are moving a particular direction,
decision makers will be reluctant to
change as new or contradictory
information flows in. Even if the new
information is perceived to be correct.
Decision Distortion –
Refers to the distortion of new
information to the initial decision. When
decision makers become entrenched in
an outcome, they may begin to
improperly weigh new information in
order to justify their initial belief or
decision. Simply ignoring contradictory
evidence, while amplifying supporting
evidence.
Although Lewis and Clark were very effective
in establishing group cohesion, responsibility, and
variable leadership techniques within the Corps,
103 Keil, Mark, Dpledge, Gordon and Rai Arun. “Escalation: The Role
of Problem Recognition and Cognitive Bias.” Decision Sciences 38,
Vol. 3 (Aug. 2007): 394.
there were several major managerial faults
displayed by the Captains. These faults could have
dramatically changed or altered the outcome of the
mission. We can see observable problems with their
leadership skills on multiple occasions. But
somehow the obstacles to effective decision making
that Lewis and Clark brought with them into the
American West did not lead the party astray. The
following theories are difficult to specifically apply
for every decision or outcome that was seen within
the expedition, but it is important to understand
these obstacles and the conceivable outcomes that
may have resulted. Obstacles to effective decision
making must be viewed in a fluid sense as one may
be seen in multiple environments and applications
and often play off each other.
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JUDGEMENT BIAS
Leaders, managers and decision makers are
routinely forced to make judgment calls with
insufficient information, facts, outcomes or
incomplete relationships. 104 This is not a new
phenomenon, but the effectiveness of the decisions
are dependent on the degree to which the decision
maker is influenced (in a negative way) by their
biases. These biases are ingrained in each person
and some may have more dominant biases than
others due to their past experiences in life, business
and personal interactions. They are often unaware
of the presence or even the effect of their cognitive
biases on their decision making, but it is important
to note that:105
Information is not simply data, it is data that has
will be interpreted by an individual. Then this
interpreted data will be used to formulate or
justify decisions both in the short and long term.
Managerial judgments are often very
difficult to change, especially when it becomes
institutional within an organization or trade.
Decision makers are often cut off from core
experiences which may led them to alter, abandon
or revise their judgments.106 They become trapped
in the same, reoccurring thought patterns which
reinforce bad habits over the long run. Known as
institutional overconfidence, people and
organizations become locked in patters of similar
behavior which can lead to a misinterpreted
environment. Positive short-term results mask
long-term risks. 107 The demises of industries,
organizations and individuals when reality finally
catches up is usually not a pretty sight.
104 Brownie, Douglas and Spender, Jason. “Managerial Judgment in
Strategic Marketing: Some Preliminary Thoughts.” Management
Decision 33, Vol. 6 (1995): 42.
105 Brownie, 41.
106 Brownie, 47.
107 Rizzi, J.V. “Behavioral Bias: The Hidden Risk in Risk Management.”
Commercial Lending Review 18, Vol. 6 (Nov 2003): 3.
108 Adapted From Glover, Steven and Prawitt, Douglas. “Enhancing
Board Oversight: Avoiding Judgment Traps and Biases.” Committee
of Sponsoring Organization of the Tread way Commission (March
2012): 3.
Typical Judgment Process:108
Decisions makers often will skip step 1 in a typical
judgment process because of an artificially
constrained set of alternatives or experiences that
are drawn upon. A set of judgments bias triggers are
activated which can mask the situation or validity of
a proper problem definition.109
Steps to Avoid Biases:110
1.) Become aware of your judgment biases.
2.) Review/evaluate past decisions to see if you
are susceptible to certain biases.
3.) Use the input of unbiased parties.
4.) Establish means to get rapid feedback.
5.) Identify your habitual frames
BIASES WITHIN LEWIS AND CLARK
Biases are intensified when placed into the
context of unstructured problems or ambiguous
situations.111 This is one of the main culprits to why
109 Huning, Tobias, and Thomson, Neal. “Escalation of Commitment:
An Attribution Theory Perspective.” Proceeding of the Academy of
Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict 16, Vol. 1
(2011): 3.
110 Borchardt, John. “An Examination of Cognitive Biases that Cause
us to Make Poor Decisions.” Contract Management (June 2010): 60.
111 Keil, Mark, Dpledge, Gordon and Rai Arun. “Escalation: The Role
of Problem Recognition and Cognitive Bias.” Decision Sciences 38,
Vol. 3 (Aug. 2007): 409.
30. P a g e | 30
we see such a high degree of judgment biases within
the expedition, since ambiguity was overflowing for
Lewis and Clark. The Captains went westward with
major judgment biases that clouded their thought
processes. Decision makers often find themselves
influenced by a cognitive bias that will cause them
to misinterpret a situation due to the lack of proper
problem recognition which leads to improper
decisions or behaviors. Biases have a much greater
impact in areas of ambiguity, especially when there
is little to no negative feedback for the decision
maker.112 Difficulties arise when feedback is unclear
or not observable. Sometimes decision makers
simply are not aware of the feedback. Other times,
this lack of awareness is shaped by simple cognitive
blocks via judgment biases or lack of problem
recognition/definitions.
There were many observable judgment
biases exhibited by Lewis and Clark, but the most
common biases were their implicit favorite,
selective perception and personal experience
biases.
IMPLICIT FAVORITE BIAS
The first bias that Lewis and Clark were guilty
of possessing is called an implicit favorite bias,
which creates a preferred alternative in the mind of
the decision maker and redirects following decisions
to conform to the preferred or desired
alternative.113 This preferred alternative judgment
bias can be seen in their desperate attempt to forge
up the almost impassable Jefferson River from
August 4th through the 17th looking for the
112 Keli, 409.
113 Vecchio, 188.
headwaters of the Missouri, and Lewis’s overland
trek up to Lemhi pass where he was convinced that
he would see the Columbia River, but instead was
only greeted by mountains are far as he could see
(picture 1 and 2).
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION BIAS
The selective perception bias, the second
bias, results in the decision maker to be influenced
by prior expectations and to interpret only selected
information in order to meet their perceptions.114
The expedition was informed by the Natives at Fort
Mandan during the winter of 1804 and spring 1805
that the Missouri River would continue to flow west
until it reached the mountains. But on August 3rd
the River changed its course from westerly to
southwesterly. They were also well-informed of the
Great Falls, but instead of finding just one fall they
found five. From this point on Lewis and Clark’s
perception of Native geography drastically changed,
they no longer would trust it without properly
testing the information for themselves.
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE BIAS
Their personal experience bias also, became
a factor in the
decision making of
the party which can
cause past
experiences to shape
current decisions. 115
From the experiences
interacting, trading
and communicating with the plains tribes, Lewis and
Clark felt very confident that they would be
welcomed by the Shoshone and could easily
communicate with them through signs. The
personal experience bias can be seen in the
overwhelming confidence of the captains of their
Indian diplomacy that they did not include
Sakakawea, their Shoshone guide in any of their
overland searches for the Shoshones.
114 Vecchio, 189.
115 Vecchio, 189.
1
2
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GROUPTHINK
Lewis and Clark were able to form a highly
cohesive group, which can be an effective tool, but
can also pose a major threat to any organization.
One cannot deny that the expedition was suffering
from groupthink, but due to the lack of evidence it
is difficult to determine how much it actually
affected leadership.
This managerial term suggests that highly
cohesive groups, by nature, can create serious
errors in effective decision making. A deterioration
of mental efficiency, reality and judgments due to
pressures of groups becomes evident over time.116
Decision making processes in groups operating
under groupthink have a tendency to be slanted
towards seeking consensus rather than seeking
correct or alternative forms of action. 117
Commonly, groupthink is seen with groups that
remain very insulated from others, and this
insulation can lead to uniformity in decision making,
loss of perspective and objectivity and closed
mindedness.118 The expedition falls well within the
bounds of groupthink. You cannot get much more
insulated that being alone, a thousand miles from
white civilization. The symptoms and defects of
groupthink on effective decision making bare many
resemblances to what is portrayed during the Corps
of Discovery.
Symptoms of Groupthink119
An illusion of invincibility
An unquestioned belief in the group’s
inherent mortality
Collective efforts to rationalize
Stereotyped views of rivals as evil, weak or
stupid
Self-censorship and a lack of deviating from
the groups consensus
116 Neck, Christopher and Moorhead, Gregory. “Groupthink
Remolded: The Importance of Leadership, Time Pressure and
Methodical Decision-Making Procedures.” Human Relations 48, Vol.
5 (May 1995): 548.
117 Robert Vecchio, Organizational Behavior: Core Concepts (Mason:
Thompson South-Western, 2006), 190.
118 Neck and Moorhead, 548.
Shared illusion of unanimity
Direct pressure on members who express
arguments against the norm
Groupthink Decision Making Defects120
Incomplete survey of alternatives
Incomplete survey of objectives
Failure to examine risks of preferred choice
Failure to reappraise initially rejected
alternatives
Poor information search
Selective bias in process the information
Failure to work out contingency plans
Steps to Avoid Groupthink:121
1.) Lead group from an impartial stance.
Leaders should minimize their options or
leading of group discussions
2.) Encourage members to add their own
solutions/ideas
3.) Divide into smaller groups for more accurate
and safe input from members
4.) Assign someone to be a devil’s advocate for
each idea presented
5.) Include an impartial outsider’s criticism
6.) Continually to question all outcomes,
processes, evaluations and information
LEWIS AND CLARK, LEWIS OR CLARK, LEWIS CLARK?
Small groups develop a set of shared
illusions and norms that will interfere with their
critical thinking skills and alter reality.122 And as the
expedition was confronted with contradictory
information, they seemed to brush it off. This is
easily seen searching for the Shoshones. The group
was so convinced that the tribe would be between
Great Falls and Three Forks, but day after day
119 Neck, Christopher. “Letterman or Leno: A Groupthink Analysis of
Successive Decision Made by the National Broadcasting Company.”
Journal of Managerial Psychology 11, Vol. 8 (1993).
120 Neck, 2.
121 Tronshaw, Oubria. “How to minimize Groupthink.” Accessed
April, 2014. http://www.ehow.com/how_12038603_minimize-
groupthink.html
122 Sims, Ronald. “Linking Groupthink to Unethical Behavior in
Organizations.” Journal of Business Ethics 11, Vol. 9 (Sept. 1992): 532
34. P a g e | 34
passed. It was clear that Lewis and Clark had not
developed a contingency plan. Anxiety is one of the
possible causes, as it seems to be a precursors for
concurrence seeking among individuals and group.
There is no doubt that as the expedition entered
Southwest Montana that they were operating under
high levels of anxiety and stress.123 They were going
to find the Shoshone, that was the plan. What
would happened had they not met the Shoshone?
Would they have just wondered aimlessly around
the headwaters of the Missouri still searching?
Decision makers often do not even realize
when they have fallen into this trap for effective
decision making. 124 Leaders frequently see
everything as fine, until well after a failure. Quick
agreements and overconfidence build over time,
until it explodes usually catastrophically. It is
somewhat unclear to the role groupthink may have
played within the expedition, primarily because the
only real record of group dynamics are the official
journals which are most likely oozing groupthink
from every page. It is safe to assume that because
they were being kept for military purposes, that
things were subjective or entirely omitted within the
journals. However, groupthink seems to be very
prevalent between Lewis and Clark or at least it
appears that way. Their journals offer no entries
that suggest any major differences or
confrontations between the captains. This could be
interpreted that Lewis and Clark had a tendency to
seek a consensus among each other. There is also
no real evidence within the journals of issues or
insubordination that would hurt the group after
Mandan with the members of the expedition. If this
is the case, the Corps were operating in dangerous
areas of groupthink and somehow this did not affect
the outcome, but in all likelihood could have. It is
under the author’s opinion that the levels of group
think did not remain steady throughout the entire
expedition, as many of the daily tasks were routine.
123 Chapman, Judith. “Anxiety and defective decision making: an
elaboration of the groupthink model.” Management Decisions 44,
Vol. 10 (2006): 1399.
124 Glover, Steven and Prawitt, Douglas. “Enhancing Board Oversight:
Avoiding Judgment Traps and Biases.” Committee of Sponsoring
Organization of the Tread way Commission (March 2012): 5.
However, when times of key decisions or when
information was presented to the expedition, it
seems that they were unwilling to waver from their
original ideas or plans.
ESCALATION OF COMMITMENT
As people invest
more time, energy, money
and resources into a
project or outcome, they
begin to feel a need to
justify and rationalize their
initial course of action.125
It is as if these individuals
will put on blinders and
shelter themselves from
the truth, to show
themselves or the world
that they were right. In an
all-out blitz to avoid failing,
they become entrenched
in behaviors and activities
that can in fact, lead to a higher degree of failure.
Escalating behaviors can been seen
throughout our history. Simply look at any major
event that failed or lasted an extended period of
time. One of the most famous examples in modern
time is the buildup in Vietnam (picture 3).
Drivers to Escalate Behavior:126
Cost of Withdrawal –
Decision makers will be considered
failures by others
o Lewis and Clark held the nations
hopes and dreams on their
shoulders
Sunk Cost effect
o The US invested too highly in this
new territory to fail
125 Ku, Gillian. “Learning to De-escalate: The Effects of Regret in
Escalation of Commitment.” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 105 (2008): 221.
126 Pan, Shan, Pan, Gary, Newman, Michael, and Flynn, Donal.
“Escalation and De-Escalation of Commitment to Information
Systems Projects: Insights from a Project Evaluation Model.”
European Journal of Operational Research 173 (2006): 1142.
3
35. P a g e | 35
Rewards for Success
To be viewed as a success, gain status or
promotion
o Return home as American heroes
The organization will reap the benefits of
the project
o Returning will verify Jefferson’s
idea of the west and the country
can grow
Proximity to Goal
the completion effect
o Lewis and Clark believed that the
Pacific was closer than originally
anticipated, but knew it was
there
Ambiguity
The confidence that the project can be
turned around
The visibility of project completion
o The end goal was the Pacific, it
was not an ambiguous outcome
Steps to Avoid Escalating Activities:
1.) Remove originating decision makers from
the project group.
2.) Establish key milestones
3.) Make sure negative feedback is properly
being identified and used.
4.) Establish policies that require ongoing
projects to be regularly evaluated at
different steps that include people that were
not responsible for the initial decisions.
5.) Oversight managers must be aware that
their direction may impact the framing of an
outcome.
127 Ku, Gillian. “Learning to De-escalate: The Effects of Regret in
Escalation of Commitment.” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 105 (2008): 223.
128 Rutledge, Robert. “Escalation of Commitment in Groups and the
Moderating Effects of Information Framing.” Journal of Applied
Business Research 11, Vol. 2 (Spring 1995): 20.
LEWIS AND CLARK, THE ESCALATORS
Pairing the judgment biases of Lewis and
Clark, particularly their selective perceptions and
illusions of control, with the symptoms of
groupthink and the increased stress of Southwest
Montana, you can see the steady escalation of
commitment as knowledge levels fall when the
expedition enters into the unknown. The party was
informed by the natives at Fort Mandan and by
Sakakawea that they would find the Shoshone near
Three Forks. As miles and days went by, it is fairly
obvious that desperation began to set in. If they did
not find the Shoshones and obtain horses, they
would not be able to cross the mountains before
winter set in. Although it is speculation, since they
were able to find the Shoshone, the escalation of
commitment to reach the Columbia may have led
the expedition to attempt to push through the
mountains on foot in late fall, where they surely
would not have survived the winter.
Escalation of commitment suggests that
people in decision making situations become
unwilling to change their course of action due to
their fear of failing or the refusal to see reality. The
over commitment is also followed by an attempt by
managers or leaders to justify their original plan.127
Escalation behavior is common when negative
feedback is returned through ambiguous
messages. 128 Leaders may also find themselves
much more committed to an outcome if they are the
ones responsible for the original outcome or where
the leader appointed for the project.129 As Lewis
and Clark were the originating leaders (Note:
Jefferson was an originating source, but he was not
inside the group, so would not apply in this
situation), their commitment levels were much
higher than someone who had not been an
originating framer of the goals 130 . It was also
difficult for them to intake the information
presented to them as the ambiguity created mixed
129 Rutledge, 21.
130 Huning, Tobias, and Thomson, Neal. “Escalation of Commitment:
An Attribution Theory Perspective.” Proceeding of the Academy of
Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict 16, Vol. 1
(2011): 13.
