This document discusses grammatical relations and their morphological mapping. It begins by defining key terms like predicates, arguments, thematic roles, and lexical entries. It then explains that: 1. Thematic roles (theta-roles) represent semantic relations between a predicate and its arguments. There is a small set of syntactically relevant theta-roles like Agent, Patient, etc. 2. Verbs are associated with required theta-roles in their lexical entries to ensure they appear in the correct syntactic frames. 3. Phrase structure rules associate theta-roles with noun phrases. The tree structure shows how theta-roles are mapped from verbs to their arguments.

1. Grammatical Relation I and II
(Subject, Object and Other Grammatical Relations)
Compiled by Group 5:
Syaja’atul ‘Aisyah
Widyashanti Kunthara Anindita
Yucha Febria K
Nunung
Yuni
2012
PPS Universitas Diponegoro Semarang
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2. 1. Subject
Think of a staff meeting, for example. There are different kinds of people, different ages,
sexes, qualifications, etc and partly because of these differences; each person plays a different
role in the meeting. Likewise words in a sentence: there are different kinds of words – nouns,
verbs, adjectives and so on, and they each play a different role in the sentence. Each role gives
contributions to the sentence's meaning. For example, Pat likes beans, the subject Pat contributes
the `like-er' (subject) and the object beans contributes the `like-ee' (object). If we do not know
about the rule, surely we do not know about the meaning of the sentence.
In learning grammatical function, there will have a set of terms of grammatical
description. The terms are subject, object, oblique object, indirect object, complement and
adjunct. In terms of subject, a distinction is frequently drawn between grammatical subject,
logical subject, and thematic or psychological subject.
Grammatical subject is the grammatical forms that can function as the subject. For
example, in English grammar, the grammatical subjects are noun phrases, prepositional phrases,
verb phrases, and noun clauses. Sometimes, the subject of a sentence can be a nominalzed
sentence or sentence like constituent, as in:
- That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is undeniable
- For you to run off with Mary would be madness.
When no such constituent is available to act as subject a ‘dummy’ subject is supplied; this is the
case with ‘weather’ expressions. E.g. It is raining. Where a nominalized sentence is extraposed,
it will become: - That Edinburgh’s New Town is magnificent is undeniable
- It is undeniable that Edinburgh’s New Town
Another item that operates like a dummy subject is there. Existential asserts the existence of
something. Eg. There are glasses in the drinks cupboard. Deictic point to something. Eg. There
is the glass. There are differences between deictic and existential. In deictic, pronounced with
non-reduced form.E.g. there is /ðɛəriz/, there are /ðɛəra/; There need not be a subject (For
instance, The glass is there); There can be questioned (Where is the glass?); Definite NP means
there typically restricted to sentences with definite NP ( the) .
In existential, pronounced with reduced form. Eg. there is /ðəz/, there are /ðəra/; There must
be a subject (For example: There is a glass); There can‟t be questioned (where are the glasses in
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3. the drinks cupboard?); Indefinite NP means there typically restricted to sentences with indefinite
NP ( a and an) E.g. A glass is on the table.
Subject in the grammar of English can be derived from transformational approach to
description. In this approach, we distinguish an underlying from a surface level of description.
Suppose the sentence: Everyone believes that Charlie is handsome
Derived from
Everyone believes (Charlie is handsome) → Underlying structure
Derived from
Everyone believes Charlie to be handsome → Alternative realization
Logical subject is usually related to sentences involving an (agent) participant. Agent is
the "doer" who or what that causes the action.
For instance: William invaded England in 1066.
G L
England was invaded by William in 1066.
G L
There are many typical roles for the subject in logical subject. First, agentive subject
performs the action as in John beat the dog. Second, instrumental subject is used to carry out the
action as in The axe smashed the door. Third, dative subject as in Harry knows that his wife is
unfaithful. Fourth, goal subject where the action is directed towards/from as in Harry received a
gold medallion from the Royal Society. Fifth, source subject is where the action originated as in
The Royal Society presented a gold medallion to Harry. Sixth, locative place subject where the
action occurs as in Edinburgh is cold, wet and windy. Seventh, patient subject undergoes the
action and changes its state as in The butter is melting. Last, neutral subject mindlessly performs
the action as in Mary is very tired.
Thematic subject is characterized by textual considerations – this is what the sentence is
about. For example;
1. John (G,L,T) took the largest kitten
2. The largest kitten (G,T) was taken by John (L)
3. The largest kitten (T), we (G,L) gave away.
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4. 2. Object
In active declarative sentence with unmarked word order, these four grammatical features
characterize the object:
1. Directly follows the verb
2. Not in construction with a preposition
3. Can become the subject of the corresponding passive sentence
4. An obligatory constituent with transitive verbs
One kind of objects is object of result and it is also called an „effected‟ or „factitive‟ object.
e.g.
• Maggie move the table
• The workmen are cleaning the horse cages
It can become the subject of a passive sentence, and there are no paraphrases involving
preposition.
Meanwhile, the other object is „cognate object‟. The relevant NP in this object usually contains a
noun morphologically derived from (and hence cognate with) the verb stem.
e.g.
• Mother sewn a sewing
• She draw a beautiful drawing
The other object is called „object of concern‟. They are clearly neither affected (direct) nor
affected (resultant) objects.
e.g.
• Nunung is sipping his coffee
• Nindi is watching Troy
There is a hierarchy of „objecthood‟. The considerable example is the Direct Object (DO).
The characteristics are:
• Has a particularly close tie to the main verb
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5. • Is an obligatory sentence constituent
• Immediately follows the main verb
• Will not occur in a paraphrase involving a preposition
• Can be the subject of the corresponding passive sentence
Study this example:
1a America supplied tanks to the Israelis
1b America supplied the Israelis with tanks
In 1a, tanks is a DO (direct object) while Israelis is an (OO) oblique object. On the other hand, in
1b, tanks is an OO while Israelis is a DO.
Since those sentences are close in meaning –both of them describe events of supplying tanks- we
can see them as containing the same roles (agent, patient, neutral). They differs only to which
role is chosen as direct object and so that presented as more central, because more closely related
to the verb.
Note that they cannot occur with a preposition in this position, instead of they could become
the subject of the corresponding passive:
2a *America supplied with tanks to the Israelis
2b *America supplied to the Israelis with tanks
2c Tanks were supplied to the Israelis by America
2d The Israelis were supplied with tanks by America
Then,
2e *America supplied with tanks
But when the PP is omissible, they will become:
2f America supplied tanks
2g America supplied the Israelis
The NP in the PP is an OO because the NP in the PP might, as it were, have become the object,
had the other NP not done so. The OO is omissible, as we have observed, and cannot generally
become the subject of a passive sentence:
2h *The Israeli were supplied tanks to by America
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6. The effect of becoming an object is important. The syntactic effect has been discussed; but there
is also a semantic effect, which varies from cases like number 2.
3. Indirect Object
a) Exist when a verb is followed by two NPs, neither of which is associated with a
preposition. See this sentence:
3 Yucha gives Nindy (IO) a candy (DO)
b) May occur as an OO (Oblique Object), and can usually be omitted without affecting the
grammaticality of the sentence, whereas the DO cannot be omitted [see the example on
page 326-328]
Below are the passive formation cases on DO and IO:
4a Nunung lent that map (DO) to Yuni (OO)
4b That map was given to Yuni by Nunung
While,
4c Nunung lent Yuni (IO) that map (DO)
4d Yuni was lent that map by Nunung
But not always like those, because we can see these sentences:
5a Nindy asked Yucha a help
5b ?Yucha was asked a help by Nindy
And also study these:
6a Sister played me Dakon
6b *I was played Dakon by sister
The NP that immediately follow the verb has a privileged status, both syntactically and
semantically. When only one NP is available for this role (that is, in two-place propositions)
there would seem to be a hierarchy of „objecthood‟. When two NPs are available for the role in
three-place propositions, the situation is more complex.
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7. 4. Complement
These sentences below are Attributive complement because they describe the class membership
of the subject noun, or ascribe an attribute to it:
7a Cinderella was pretty
7b Cinderella was a princess
Those can also be called „subject complement‟ cause it relate back to the subject noun. Then, in
7b the noun „a princess‟ is a „nominal complement‟. Those complements are „state complements‟
since they are found in stative sentences and describe states.
Those sentences below are the type of „result complements‟:
8a The mangoes are turning yellow
8b Yucha became a bachelor of english department
The complement cannot become the subject of a passive sentence.
Meanwhile, the identify complement can be shown in:
9a Nunung is the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.
The NP is always a definite NP. That sentence can be reversed:
9b The man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet is Nunung.
Let us study this:
9c Nunung is (to be identified as) the man with a bunch of dollar in his wallet.
The locative complement can be shown in:
10 Yuni is in her study room
Locative complement is usually a prepositional phrase. Sometimes it is used as a place adverb.
Corresponding on that, we can also recognize a „directional complement‟ in sentences, like:
11 Nindy hid under the table
12 Yucha walked across the hospital
Directional complements only occur in nonstate sentences.
The italicized constituents in the sentences in 12 are also often called complements:
12a Nunung comes back home safe
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8. 12b Yuni talked the issue honest
12c Nindy always buys her spinach fresh
12d Yucha coloured her book green
12 a and 12 b are intensive to the subject, then others to the object. In some cases, they can be
substituted by adverbs. We can also make paraphrase constructions like:
12 e Nindy always buys her spinach in fresh condition
12 f Yuni was honest when she talked the issue, etc.
5. Adjuncts
Adjuncts are usually adverbials, whether they are adverb phrases, PP, adverbs, or subordinate
clauses of time, place, manner, and so on, that distributionally function like adverbials.
Adjuncts are clearly a rather „mixed bag‟, in that syntactically there are numerous subclasses
which have different and overlapping distribution, and they fill a variety of semantic roles.
Morphological Mapping of Grammatical Functions
Introduction
How are grammatical functions mapped onto morphological representation?
We will begin with a preliminary discussion intended to provide the necessary background
for understanding the key syntactic and semantic concepts that are involved. First introduce
the notions of thematic roles, grammatical relations and the theory of case assignment, next
explore the morphological effects of syntactic rules that change the canonical pairing of
thematic roles with grammatical function. And the final part of the chapter will take the
discussion further afield through an investigation of the phenomenon of incorporation
whereby the syntax requires the inclusion of one word within another.
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9. Predicates, arguments and lexical entries
Normally, sentences are constructed in such a way that some constituents identify particular
individuals or things (or more abstract entities like ideas) and other constituents which
indicate individuals or entities are called referring expressions, while those which attribute to
them properties, processes, actions, relations or states are called predicates.
e.g : a. my sister cried
b. she will go
c The car crashed
the sentence a refers to an individual and predicates the property crying of that individual at
some time in the past. In sentence b the property of going is predicated of the individual she.
Finally, sentences c the property of crash is attribute to an entity. Predicates take referring
expressions as their arguments (my sister, she, the car).
1. Theta-roles and lexical entries
Language use syntax and inflectional morphology to encode some of the semantic relations
which obtain in sentence between a predicate and its arguments. We will use the term theta-
roles (0-rules) for these semantic relations. (they are also called (abstract) case relations or
thematic relations in the literature.)
Recognition of 0-rules is essentially based on the intuition which is widely shared among
linguists that there is a relatively small number of syntactically relevant semantic properties
that play a role in the transitivity systems of language.
Gruber (1965,1976) and Fillmore (1968) define of Theta-roles:
Agent is the case of the individual (usually animate) that instigates the action identified by
the verb. e.g., (d) Mamat killed the chicken
Instrumental is the case of the inanimate instrument used to bring about the state of affairs
described by the verb. e.g., (e) mother whished with a brush
Patient is the case of the entity or individual that undergoes the process or action described
by the verb. e.g., (f) Toni punched the board
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10. Benefactive is the case of the individual who gains from the action or process described by
the verb.e.g., (g) Kai gave his girlfriend letter.
Theme is semantically the most neutral case. e.g., (h) Hari gave Mia new hand phone.
Locative is the case that indicates the location, direction or spatial orientation of the event, state
or action identified by the verb e.g., (i) Tomorrow I will go to Beijing.
Theta-roles are essentially used to characterize transitivity. They specify the parts
played by the arguments representing different participants is the action, state or process
indicated by the verb.
Intransitive verbs are one-place predicates. They occur in frames with one argument.
e.g., (j) Agung slept.
Transitive verb are two-place predicates. e.g., (k) Mamat killed the duck.
Intransitive verbs are three place predicates. e.g., (l) Mother put the ice cream in the
freezer
In order to ensure that a verb appears in the right syntactic frames, the lexicon must
specify the 0-roles which it requires.
The lexical entries for the verbs in e.g. (j) must contain the following information.
e.g.,
(k) sleep V (agent)
kill V (agent patient)
put V (agent goal theme )
.0-rules are associated directly with NPs by phrase structure rules, as shown in
e.g.
a. S NP VP
(agent)
b. VP  V NP
<patient>
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11. c. NP  Det N
d.N  Nsg, Npl
e. Det - the
f. V  Vtrns (i.e. transitive verb)
The tree should look like this
S
NP VP
(agent)
V NP
<patient>
Det N[sg] V[trns] Det N[pl]
The clown tickled the children
We will require each lexical entry for a verb to include the 0-roles which that verb
assigns to its arguments. To this and, a well formedness principle called the Theta-Critorion will
be incorporated in the grammar and given the task of ensuring that: a verb is only used in frames
where the requisite arguments are present, and those arguments all have the prescribed 0-roles.
Symbols X and Y are used as variables to represent any entity or individual that can
function as arguments of these predicates with the 0-rules of agent, patient, theme etc.
The entry for a verb in the lexicon will include a subcategorization template showing its
argument structure requirements.
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12. a. tickle V
#TICKLE (X? Y?)
e.g., The clown tickled the children
b. wash: V
# WASH 1 (X?)
e.g., This curtain washes well
# WASH2 (X? Y?)
e.g., peter washed the curtains
The lexical entries in tell us which senses of wash and tickle require two arguments, and
which particular 0-roles hold between those arguments in a particular sense of the verb. To solve
this problem we need to add a further dimension to the model of grammatical analysis, namely
that of grammatical relations.
2. Grammatical relations
Syntactic categories like noun phrase and verb phrase specify the syntactic type of
particular constituents. The syntactic type of a constituent is determined by the category of the
head of that constituent. A noun phrase is a constituent whose head is a noun while a verb phrase
is a constituent whose head is a verb, and so on.
o-roles, specify a semantic relationship between a predicate ad its arguments
Grammatical relations indicate the grammatical relationship that holds between two
syntactic constituents in a sentence. They are determined, not by semantic considerations, but by
the syntactic position of the particular constituent. The grammatical relations that we shall use
are verb phrase, subject, object, second object and oblique. They are defined in turn below
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13. The easiest grammatical relation to recognize is verb phrase (VP). The term VP is
commonly used ambiguously by generative grammarians to refer both to a syntactic category,
and to a grammatical relation as we are doing here. The grammatical relation VP has a verb as its
syntactic head e.g., Andi came. Andi is S and came is VP
All declarative sentences en English must have a subject (S).the subject is the topic
about which the rest of the sentence says nothing, the subject is the NP has the 0-role of agent, if
that role is present, the subject is the NP that precedes the VP, and with which the verb agrees in
number.
In reality, however, many subjects do not have all these properties, as we shall soon see.
The NP that immediately follows the verb is the object and the NP that comes after that object
NP is called the second object. e.g., Andi send Ani latter.
Grammatical relations is surrounded by a degree of theoretical controversy, there is
widespread agreement about the purpose which the serve.
Once the need for grammatical relations is recognized, grammars must perform the two tasks:
1. they must state how 0-roles are mapped on to grammar of a particular language. For
example, English mapping principles may take this form:
0-role correspondents grammatical function
agent subject
patient object of verb
locative oblique NP
2. They must state how grammatical functions are made on the surface, e.g. by word order,
prepositions or case inflection.
Various syntactic rules which may mask the grammatical function of a particular NP. Much
of the morphological complexity found in languages arise from the making og such masked
grammatical function.
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14. Grammatical Function Changing Rules
Grammatical functions are hierarchically ordered across languages. The hierarchy
depends on the relative likelihood of NPs associated with particular grammatical functions being
affected by certain syntactic rules. Keenan and Comrie (1977, 1979) have established this
hierarchy:
Subject > direct object > non-direct object > possessor
Such rules mask the relationship between the surface manifestation of grammatical
function (GF), which is often marked case or word order, and the semantic role of an argument.
GF changing rule tend to have significant morphological repercussions which typically affect
verbs more than other word-classes. These are some repercussion:
1. Passive
Often sentences expressing the same proposition can be realized in a variety of ways,
depending on how grammatical relations are encoded using the syntax and morphology.
Normally, where such choice exists, one way of expressing a proposition is marked and
another is unmarked.
a. Active voice Patient/ object
Agent/ subject accusative
Nominative Esmeralda
The Vet examined Her
She examined
b. Passive voice
Patient/ subject Agent
Nominative Oblique NP
Esmeralda was examined by the Vet
She was examined by her
The sentence above, with the subject as agent preceding the verb and the object, who is
patient, following the verb, is unmarked. The agent, who is also the subject, receives
nominative case and the patient, who is object, receives accusative case. Passive can be
semi-formally stated as in:
a. Subject  oblique (or null)
b. Object  subject
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15. 2. Antipassive
The antipassive is the process used in ergative languages to turn a transitive verb
into an intransitive verb. It causes the object NP to be realized as an oblique NP, or to be
deleted. The effect of the antipassive is comparable to that of the passive. Just as the
passive demotes the original subject to an oblique NP in a nominative accusative
language, the antipassive demotes the original object of a transitive sentence to an
oblique NP and the underlying agent NP argument which should otherwise be in the
ergative is put in the absolute.
This can be seen in the example of Eskimo languages below:
yara- barri-
a. bala yugu baɳgul ɳgu gunba-n baɳgu ɳgu
tree- man- cut- axe-
it-ABS ABS he-ERG ERG PAST it-INST INST
the man cut the tree with an axe'
b. Antipassive
barri-
bayi yara gunba-l-ɳa-nyu bagu yugu-gu baɳgu ɳgu
man- cut-ANTIPAST- tree- axe-
he-ABS ABS PAST it-DAT DAT it-INST INST
the man cut the tree with an axe'
ABS = absolute; ANTIPAST = antipassive; ERG = ergative; INST = instrumental; DAT = dative
3. Applicative
The applicative is another common GF-changing rule with significant morphological
consequences. It characterizes using this schema:
Oblique
Indirect object  object; object  2nd object
Null (or oblique)
Some of applicative are:
(i) Benefactive: a NP in the benefactive case that has the GF of second object can be
realized as a direct object when the applicative rule applies. For example:
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16. Andrew
a. gave the flowers to Helen
agent theme benefactive
subject object oblique NP
Andrew
b. gave Helen the flowers
agent benefactive theme
subject object 2nd object
(ii) Locative: in many languages the applicative can be used with locative meaning
which is expressed in English using propositions like in, on, at, etc. This is the
example from Kinyarwanda languages.
mu
a. Umwaana y-a-taa-ye igitabo maazi
child SP-past-throw-ASP book in water
the child has thrown the book in to the water'
b. Umwaana y-a-taa-ye-mo amaazi igitabo
SP-past-throw-ASP-APPL
child (in) water book
the child has thrown the book into the water
(iii) Possessor: when possessor raising take takes place, an NP which function as the
„possessor‟ modifying the head of a possessive noun phrase is turned into the
object of the verb. The original object is shunted into a new slot and becomes the
second object. Possessor raising is shown below:
a. NP possessor in possessive NP  object of verb
b. Object of verb  2nd object
This is example from Bantu Language:
a. a-li-menya okugulu kw-a Kapere
s/he-fut-
break leg of Kapere
s/he will break Kapare's leg
b. a-li-menya Kapere okugulu
s/he-fut-
break Kapere leg
s/he will break Kapare's leg
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17. 4. Causative
The changes in grammatical function caused by the causative GF process can be stated in
this way:
a. Null  subject
b. Subject  object
c. Object  2nd object
This is the example from Luganda language
a. Abalenzi ba-li-fumb-a lumonde
SP-futore-cook-
boys BVS potatoes
the boys will cook potatoes'
b. kaparea-li-fumb-is-a abalenzi lumonde
boys SP-future-
cook-BVS boys potatoes
Kapere will make the boys cook potatoes.'
SP = subject prefix; BVS = basic verbal suffix
From the example above, the causative introduces a new agentive NP as subject in [b]. The
original subject becomes the object and the original object becomes a second object. Equally
important, the verb receives the causative suffix –is-.
Miror Principle
Introduction
The traditional view on morphology is that word-formation takes place in the lexicon, and that
morphological rules are different in nature and operate on different primitive elements than
syntactic rules: morphology operates on stems and morphemes to produce words, while syntax
operates on words to produce phrases and sentences. In other words, the essential property of
morphology is, it is concerned with the structure of words; the essential property of syntax is, it
is concerned with the structure of sentences.
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18. The Mirror Principle
The idea of Mirror Principle was proposed by Baker (1985). His argument is that derivation of
words and their relationship in a sentence and in meaning couldn‟t be based only on functional
matter. Reviewing that the morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation
and the syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation. In other words,
syntactic and morphological orderings stand in a symmetrical relation. Unfortunately, Baker
does not specify according to which general principles are affixes merged into syntactic structure.
He argued that the Mirror Principle is the result of the strict locality of head movement (of cyclic
head movement) through incorporation of a lexical root to a morpheme. It this condition syntax
operates on both words and morphemes, and a complex word can be formed by syntactic rules,
and more specifically head movement. In short, if the morphological structure of a complex word
is derived through head-movement of the lexical root to the heads where the morphemes are
base-generated, the MP follows straightforwardly: “the order of morphemes in a complex word
reflects the natural syntactic embedding of the heads that correspond to those morphemes”
The rule of Mirror Principle (Baker 1985):
The order of affixes reflects the order in which the associated syntactic
‘operations’ apply.
Morphological derivations must directly reflect syntactic derivation and the
syntactic derivation must directly reflect morphological derivation
1. The evidence of Mirror Principle
Mirror Principle was applied in Luganda‟s major language, Bantu.
Verbal extensions in Luganda
Name Shape Example Gloss
Causative /-is-/ n-a-mu-zin-is-a „I made him dance‟
Applicative /-ir-/ a-n-zin-ir-a „he is dancing for me‟
Reciprocal /-agan-/ ba-a-kub-agan-a „they hit each other‟
Passive3 /-ibu-/ n-a-kub-ibw-a „I was beaten‟
Transitive4 /-i-/ y-a-ba-kaab-y-a „she made them cry‟
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19. Stative /-ik-/ ga-nyw-ek-a „it (water) is drinkable‟
Reversive /-ulul-/ oku-pang-ulul-a „to unstuck (take things off a
pile)‟
The data above is analyzed with : Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive (CARP), where the
affixation can be classified.
As in Luganda language, the changing of affixation can be clearly recognize even there are some
inconsistent form. Compare with the sample below, the changing of affixation in Sundanese,
Mirror principle cannot be applied perfectly.
Name Shape Example Gloss
Causative */-keun-/ Abdi merintahkeun maneha gerua „I made him hit‟
gebug eta
Applicative Maneha gebug keur abdi „he is hitting
something‟
Reciprocal /gebug- Sadayana gebug-gebukan „they hit each other‟
gebugan/
Passive3 /-kena-/ Abdi kena gebug „I was hit
Transitive4 Maneha merintahkeun sadaya gerua „she made them hit‟
gebug eta
Stative Cai eta tiasa dile‟leut „it (water) is
drinkable‟
Reversive Jalma eta mindahakeun cai „she move the
drink.‟
Analysis using C A R P (Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive)
Causative Applicative Reciprocal Passive
Causative -
Applicative -
Reciprocal -
Passive -
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20. a. Causative-Applicative combination
b. Causative-Reciprocal
c. Causative-Passive
d. Applicative-Causative
e. Applicative-Reciprocal
2. The counter arguments against Mirror Principle
However, as Baker has lacking explanation of his idea on mirror principle, it raises some
counter arguments.
Federico Damonte (1998) claims:
that argument structure changing affixes in Pular are merged in a fixed hierarchy of
theta-related functional heads and that the complements they introduce are merged in
the specifiers of these functional projections.
Von Stechow (2002) and Zeijlstra (20007):
the position of affixes does not correspond to the position where they take scope from.
Sadock (1985):
propose a theory of auto lexical syntax that overview the autonomous of morphology
and syntax although they are held together.
Hyman and Katamba (1992):
Morphological position and phonological position infer the changing order of
morpheme in words.
3. Conclusion
It seems that mirror principle seems to be essentially correct, but languages may show variation
in the way which they set their own parameter. As seen from the examples above, comparing
Luganda and Sundanese language, the affixation which is essential in Luganda in changing
grammar doesn‟t appear in Sundanese. It is an evident that mirror principle can be applied in
certain languages. Moreover, the grammars of many languages provide alternative ways of
expressing the same kind of proportional meaning.
#END#
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