Transcultural Themes in Curriculum - Final

Duncan Rose International Education
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Developing a Transcultural IELTS Curriculum
Introduction
Research has drawn attention to the importance of cultural instruction in improving
pedagogical practice in EFL classrooms, as well as recognition that linguistic and cultural instruction
cannot be easily separated (Byram 1991; Valdes 1986; Kramsch 1993).
However, EFL courses are often taught with only tentative nods towards sanitised, politically
correct representations of Anglophone cultures (McGrath 2002; Risager 1990). Teachers, who are
more authentic in their culture representation of their native country, are rarely asked to provide
cultural content and the EFL textbook acts as a window through which ‘mangled’ representations of
cultures are unwittingly projected. Many of these texts offer bland cultural stereotypes which do not
reflect reality (Guest 2002). This may negatively impact students’ language acquisition and denies the
reality students may later experience during acculturation (Giles 1984; Kramsch 1993). Recently
research has suggested that EFL courses may achieve better results and more accurately reflect
reality by employing transculturally resonant themes (Van Hook 2011).
This assignment focuses on the teaching of English to IELTS students in Singapore at an
institute whose stated mission includes raising awareness of British society, and which seeks to build
great cultural understanding while enhancing prospects for students entering higher education
institutes. It examines how these students could be better prepared for university through the
development of a ‘blended culture’ curriculum based around transculturally resonant themes.
The essay begins by considering the context of research, examines the rationale for cultural
instruction in Singaporean IELTS courses and the importance of assessing texts for cultural content.
It then presents a research plan to redevelop an IELTS course by identifying resonant themes and
suitable material from EFL texts around which a transcultural curriculum can be established.
Context – Country and Institute
Singapore has a population of 5 million of which 3.2 million are Singaporeans and 500,000 are
permanent residents (Chua 2011:417). The remainder constitute a migrant workforce, working or
studying in Singapore (Department of Statistics Singapore 2011). Singapore operates a positive
immigration policy for skilled workers and integrates better-qualified permanent residents into society
(Chua 2011:418). A large number of these migrants take IELTS for immigration or educational
purposes.
Singapore’s population consists of a variety of ethnic groups 76.8% Chinese, 13.9% Malay, 7.9%
Indian and 1.4% other (Department of Statistics Singapore 2011). Consequently there are four official
languages. Malay, Tamil and Mandarin are considered to be Mother Tongue Languages (MTLs) while
English has ‘instrumental’ status (Wee 2005). MTLs are taught in school and are assigned to children
based on paternal ethnicity (Jones et al 1999).
Singapore prizes education as a means for advancement within the country and a tool to enable
Singaporean students to access higher education. Singapore is regarded as an education hub with
over 80,000 international students in 2006 (EAHEP 2011). In 2009, 20% of Singaporean university
students were international students, mostly from Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN),

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China and India. Singapore’s bilingual policy contributes heavily to Singapore’s status as a
destination of choice for ‘educational tourism’. Consequently, Singapore is home to satellite branches
of British, Australian and American universities and maintains four well-regarded national universities.
Partnerships with international universities have further strengthened Singapore’s educational image,
Singapore’s latest university SUTD being affiliated with the prestigious American MIT.
Singapore supports a policy of ‘bilingual advantage’:
‘[it] is intended to equip our students with language competencies to access both eastern and
western cultures, and develop a global outlook…..helping them to appreciate their culture and
heritage and connect with people from different backgrounds so that they can thrive in a globalised
world.’ (MOE Brochure 2011:1)
There is a ‘division of labour’ between the official languages (Kuo and Jernudd 1994:30), English
is a ‘working language’ used for instrumental reasons as it is deemed ‘neutral and cultureless’. MTLs
are a ‘demarcation and embodiment of culture, acting as cultural ballast’ (Rubdy 2001:342). MTLs are
designed to infuse Asian values into society and diffuse Westernisation. Minister Tong (2004)
suggested that English ‘enables us to plug into the global grid and access the latest in science,
technology and fashion. But mother tongue helps us access what is critical in us: our roots, culture
and identity’.
The concept of fostering global, cultural and national identities is central to Singapore’s bilingual
policy. However, both culture and language have suffered as a result of the ‘selection’ of English as a
‘cultureless’, working language and the imposition of Mandarin and Tamil as official languages on
cultural groups who traditionally used other dialects. Language is a platform for the construction of
social identity (Weeden 1987) and cultural transmission a two-way process leading to shaping and
reshaping of the original entities (Kumaravadivelu 2008). No culture exists in isolation and
Singapore’s attempt to divorce the culture from English has led to a local pidginised version of
English known as ‘Singlish’ and a widely acknowledged ‘cultural vacuum’, with many inhabitants
unable to identify or define ‘Singaporean culture’ (Wee 2005).
Awareness of the bond between cultural acquisition and linguistic proficiency was not
acknowledged when English was appropriated as a culturally ‘neutral’ language. Consequently,
‘native-like’ English production was compromised. The absence of feedback mechanisms, other than
‘local’ teachers, served to fossilise linguistic errors (Pakir 1994:76) and was exacerbated by home
environments in English was not spoken (Khong Yiu Lan 2004:43). English is produced that may be
deemed ‘inferior’ by those in Kachru’s (1977) inner-circle or by Singaporeans whose cultural capital
allows them access to ‘higher’ forms of English (Bourdieu 1991) . The bilingual policy has often been
revised due to perceived inefficiencies (Tan 2010) with officials expressing concern regarding English
standards and ‘ineffective bilingualism’ ((Cheah 2002; Goh et al 1979). However, little has been done
to address the deficit of culture in English instruction.

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Recently several factors have emphasised the importance of English for university entrance both
for international students entering Singaporean universities (IS) and Singaporean students entering
UK universities (SS):
1. Singapore’s increasingly pressurised academic environment has limited career options for low-
achieving students (Heng 2001) leading to increased demand for university access
2. ‘Singlish’ is widespread and perceived detrimental to career prospects by parents and
employers (Khong Yiu Lan 2004)
3. Immigration policies led to an influx of foreign nationals utilising the Singaporean higher
education system leading to greater competition for access to Singaporean universities
(Gopinathan 2001)
Entry into ‘satellite’ universities and Singaporean universities is dependent upon achieving
proficiency in English. Both SS hoping to study in the UK and IS hoping to study in Singapore are
expected to hold either a Cambridge Proficiency Examination (CPE) certificate or an IELTS
certificate. In Singapore the majority of students opt for the IELTS examination and a large number
seek courses at the British Council prior to taking the examination.
The British Council is an English language school with charity status in Singapore. It was
established 75 years ago and is well-recognised locally and globally. The British Council co-owns the
IELTS examination and delivers a growing number of IELTS examinations in Singapore. In 2010,
2,819 Singaporean students applied to UCAS for a place in a British university (British Council, 2010).
Approximately 40% of these students sought places on IELTS courses prior to taking the
examination. A total of 3,213 students took IELTS courses at the British Council in 2011. Of these
more than 70% intended to enter a British or Singaporean university. The majority of these students
came from countries which share cultural heritage with Singapore (China, India and Malaysia).
British Council IELTS courses are designed by mid-career, European teachers with an EFL
background. This leads to ethnic and age-related distancing as many teachers are in their 40s and
reflect an image of ‘their’ Britain to teenage Asian students. This image can sometimes be distorted
as result of the teacher’s time spent abroad. Few Asian teachers or Singaporeans are employed as
instructors. This leads to a deficit in ‘local’ cultural awareness and can skew cultural instruction
towards the Eurocentric topics prescribed by the textbooks. The courses utilise Cambridge
examination books and IELTS texts. Little consideration is given to the development of unique
materials and much of the instruction involves following a textbook. Equally, little or no scaffolding is
provided when employing the examination books. Consequently, the current IELTS courses deny two
realties:
1. Asian-Singapore’s cultural context
2. A realistic representation of modern Britain
Therefore, the British Council fails to fulfil its Royal Charter obligations to promote British
culture and foster understanding between cultures.
Improvements may be made through teacher-student collaboration to develop a negotiated IELTS
curriculum. Students and teachers could identify motivating themes of cultural resonance which
bridge the gap between British and Singaporean culture (Brooker and McDonald 1999; Fielding
2004). This enables students to influence course content and allows students’ socio-cultural

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perspectives to be incorporated into the curriculum while avoiding teachers’ or textbooks’ cultural
biases (Giroux 1999). A negotiated curriculum could also increase students’ programme ownership,
teacher’s awareness of cultural topics and aid students’ acculturation at university. Additionally, the
British Council may benefit from increased student registration and greater customer satisfaction
(Flutter and Rudduck 2004).
Interest levels of low-energy students may also be raised (Whitty and Wisby 2007). Many IELTS
students attend classes between 7.30pm and 9.30pm after finishing work or school. This combined
with the perceived ‘dryness’ of exam material can lead to low-energy classes which are frustrating for
teachers and demotivating for students. Developing a course which offers greater cultural relevance
could increase students’ performance and participation. Additionally, student consultation ensures
pupils can develop ‘a stronger sense of commitment to the school and to the task of learning; and
commitment can lead to enhanced effort and enhanced levels of attainment’ (Rudduck and Flutter
2000:82).
Cultural Instruction in EFL
Language and cultural instruction are entwined as ‘culture in language learning is not a fifth skill...
[but] there from day one’ (Kramsch 1993:1). Consequently, it is impossible to teach English without
teaching culture (Byram 1991; Valdes 1986; Kramsch 1993). Culture is consciously or unconsciously
part of teachers’ pedagogical aims. It is transmitted to the students accordingly and exists in the
classroom despite any attempt to remove it (Byram 1997:52; Kramsch 1993:1). Culture is implicitly
taught when teachers correct students (Cook 1999:194-196) and is inherent in teachers’ methodology
and the materials they use (Nault 2006:315).
However, explicit cultural instruction is often an afterthought, with culture in EFL courses being
taught to ‘the extent that it reinforces and enriches’ (Kramsch 1996:105). There is little questioning of
the boundaries of one’s own or other cultures. ‘Normal’ language classes are perceived to have little
influence on learners’ attitudes to other cultures (Byram 1991). If ‘learning a language does not
automatically lead to a heightened cultural awareness’ (Dlaska 2000:250), then explicit cultural
instruction which supports acquisition of the language may broaden learners’ perceptions of other
cultures.
Language learners construct a ‘third place’ between home culture (C1) and foreign language
culture (C2) (Kramsch 1993:205). Language learning occurs in this ‘third place’ as the learner reflects
objectively and subjectively upon both C1 and C2. In this way cultural appropriation is enabled and
the learner is able to adopt and adapt foreign cultures to fit their needs, this ability is considered to be
the first step towards a comprehensive understanding of intercultural communication (Kramsch
1998:81).

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Kramsch (1993:205-206) lists four main strands to cultural instruction:
1) ‘Establishment of a sphere of inter-culturality’, allowing student to reflect upon both the target
and native cultures
2) ‘Teaching culture as an interpersonal process’, encourages understanding of ‘foreignness’ or
‘otherness’ instead of over-simplified presentations of cultural facts and behaviours
3) ‘Teaching culture as difference’, demonstrates that national characteristics must be viewed in
relation to other cultural factors such as age, gender, regional origin, ethnic background and
social class
4) ‘Crossing of disciplinary boundaries’ encourages teachers to broaden their reading of
anthropology and sociology in order to disseminate a comprehensive and balanced view of
cultures they are teaching
Implementing these four strands develops English speakers who competently converse with
native speakers while reflecting their own beliefs and culture, leading to teachers and learners who
are capable of mediating cultures. This represents a suitable approach for students in Kachru’s
‘expanding circle’, who may never need to emulate an ideal native speaker. The goal of cultural
instruction is not moving ‘from the learner’s native culture to the culture of the native speaker’ but
raising awareness of ‘difference’ (Alptekin 1993:142).
Transcultural curriculums bridge the divide between cultures and allow students the opportunity to
reflect upon their own culture, while learning shared aspects of other cultures (Van Hook 2011).
Freire (1993) postulated an educational curriculum that united the educator and students through
resonant themes, images, symbols and words. It is considered possible to identify archetypes that
transcended cultural differences and ‘reproduced themselves in any time or part of the world’ (Jung
1968:58; Campbell 1988). Furthermore, it is believed that transculturally resonant themes may
enhance classroom instructional effectiveness (Meskill and Swan 1996; Meyer 2002).
However, difficulties arise in the identification of resonant themes and their incorporation into a
curriculum to ensure accurate depictions of cultures. Additional issues arise from the confusion of
‘culture’ with ‘nationality’. The measures of culture are vast (Van Hook 2011) and culture can be
distorted by the narrow lens of nationality.
Which cultures to teach?
Originally the use of English as a second language was confined to countries in Kachru’s
(1977) ‘outer circle’, countries with a history of colonisation by an ‘inner-circle’ country such as
Singapore. However, the ‘cultural capital’ of English has enhanced its role as global lingua franca and
blurred such boundaries.
English instruction in Singapore focuses on the following areas:
 Education and better career opportunities
 International business and tourism
 International communication links
 Instrumental i.e. a language ‘devoid’ of culture to counteract the role of MTLs

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It should be noted that English usage in many of these cases is with other speakers from the
‘outer’ and ‘expanding’ circles of Kachru’s diagram. Only students taking IELTS for entry to
Anglophone nations’ universities are likely to receive greater exposure to speakers from the ‘inner
circle’.
When considering cultural instruction we should examine the appropriacy and relevance of the
cultures we teach to our learners in relation to their goals. IS are studying English for use within
situations that mainly involve interactions with other non-native speakers, the appropriacy of solely
teaching Anglophone cultures must therefore be questioned. Additionally, as English no longer
belongs to any single nation or group (Crystal 2001:21,130, Jenkins 2003 162-168) it is a fallacy to
assume the right to impose Anglophone cultural instruction. Mackay (2002:98) notes, one of the
primary goals of language learners is not to assimilate or acculturate to a particular nation but to a
discourse community. Knowledge of British or American culture is of little practical use for students
learning English for local not global use (Nault 2006:318) while confining English to ‘one of its native
settings…is unrealistic and misleading’ (Alptekin 1993:141). Therefore, we must acknowledge that
many students will not communicate with ‘inner-circle’ speakers and teaching only Anglophone
culture may be deemed imperialistic.
There is an emphasis in cultural instruction for students to adapt to Western norms (Phillipson
1992) and learners who approximate natural speech patterns of British English are praised more
highly as effective learners (Cook 1999:194-196). This can be viewed as ‘attempt to devalue,
subjugate or undermine non-Western culture’ (Phillipson 1992). However, in Singapore this
‘imperialism’ is supported by the government’s desire for ‘Standard English’ and Singaporeans who
seek access to the cultural capital that ‘Standard English’ brings. Such leanings are exemplified by
the Singaporean government’s Speak Good English Movement and the volume of English tuition
centres across Singapore promoting ‘Standard’ or ‘British’ English.
The teaching of English without reference to English-speaking countries’ cultures (Alptekin and
Alptekin 1984:16) is advocated in support of World Englishes such as Singlish. This is because
English ‘represents many cultures and can be used by anyone to express any cultural heritage and
value system’ (Alptekin 1993:140). However, the sole use of learners’ native culture could be a ‘trap,
leading to a gross impasse’ (Valdes 1996:121). Explicitly divorcing language from culture denies the
learner the fundamental purpose of language learning, which is to give the learners the opportunity to
cope with experience in a different way (Byram 1991). This is exemplified by Singapore’s ‘culturally
neutral’ instruction which has contributed to the production of ‘Singlish’ and issues relating to cultural
identity.
Singaporean grandparents attempt to straddle cultural gap left by the imposition of a MTL which is
different from the family’s ancestral language and strive to redress the cultural imbalance caused by
English instruction (Kennedy 2006). Despite this, cultural gaps have formed between generations
which speak different languages and led to households with linguistic and cultural chasms between
generations (Pakir 1993). This suggests that there are gaps for Singaporeans regarding their cultural
heritage and that the instruction in ‘Asian culture’ which addresses the demographic reality of
Singapore’s multi-ethnic community would be valid. As Singaporean ‘culture’ is by nature difficult to
define this would consists of aspects of Malay, Chinese and Indian culture.

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Therefore, two cultures could be considered for instruction within British Council IELTS courses:
1. Modern British Culture (MBC)
2. Singaporean – Asian Culture (SAC)
These cultures offer several benefits. MBC allows a more realistic reflection of Britain and fulfils
not only the British Council charter but assists in the acculturation of students entering British
universities. SAC ensures that Malay, Chinese and Indian students’ cultures are reflected and
mitigates the cultural identity issues experienced by Singaporeans. Additionally, it offers cultural
points of reference for Asian students entering Singaporean society. Consequently, around 90% of
students’ enrolled on such a course would have their cultural needs fulfilled.
Benefits
Culture is described as a powerful motivator in the classroom as ‘cultural content…creates the
motivation to learn a foreign language’ [and] ‘indirectly promotes inter-lingual competence’ (Buttjes
1988:52 cited in Byram 1994:13). Interest in other cultures is described as integrative motivation and
though students are influenced by instrumental factors such as career considerations ‘integrative
motivation [is] most likely to ensure successful language learning’ (Coleman 1996:91-99). ‘The more
a student admires a culture….the more successful the student will be in the L2 classroom’, implying
that cultural instruction is essential for successful language instruction (Cook 2001:115). Additionally,
application of resonant cultural themes and images may better engage student’s attention in the
learning process (Van Hook 2011:6).
Further benefits arise from raised awareness of other cultures’ behaviours and conventions.
‘Knowledge of a person’s language is no guarantee of mutual understanding’ if one does not ‘gain an
understanding of the person’s culture’ (Kramsch 1996:99). Indeed, Asian students often struggle if the
discourse style fostered in their own culture differs dramatically from the Western style they need to
acculturate to (Kramsch 1998:51).
Additionally, productive and passive skills of learners suffer, if the relevant cultural background
assumptions are missing as 'reading turns into a time consuming, laborious and frustrating
experience’ (Alptekin 1993:137). As university students often read academic material in English,
explicit cultural instruction to expand discourse style awareness and students’ schemata is crucial in
assisting students’ studies. Full bilingualism is also associated with higher cognitive abilities (Baker
2006:148) with culture playing a major role in developing cognition (Alptekin 1993:137).
Furthermore, cultural instruction includes the comprehension of culturally fostered traits aiding
learners by enabling them to avoid miscommunication. Teachers and learners tasks are to
‘understand in ever more sensitive ways why they talk the way they do’ (Kramsch 1993:245). This
benefits students studying English for travel and communication as it increases students’ ‘cultural
capital’ (Bourdieu 1991). Such ‘cultural knowledge will stand graduates in good stead in the global
economy whether they ultimately live and work in the culture or not’ (Dlasaka 2000:248).
Cultural instruction also aids multiculturalism (Baker 2001:403) and those ‘who own more than
one culture are more sensitive and sympathetic, more likely to build cultural bridges than barricades
and boundaries’. This concept is supported by the European Union’s efforts to integrate culture into
language learning to forge harmonious cultural relationships (Dlaska 2000:252). It also fits both the

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British Council and Singaporean government’s agendas for promoting cultural understanding and
racial harmony. The teaching of culture in most cases serves to reduce social stereotyping and
nationalism, ‘with multiculturalism at its best…out goes racism and in comes empathy and sensitivity’
(Baker 2001:403). This is of importance as recent graduates of Singapore’s education system have,
despite the stated aim of the bilingual policy, displayed racist tendencies (Barr 2006:16-17)
Additional benefits can be derived from reductions in ‘culture shock’ and ‘culture bumps’ for
students who migrate. Culture shock occurs when students must survive outside their primary culture
(Brown 1986:35). However, culture bumps may be experienced locally by students who operate in
cultures close to their own. A culture bump is an uncomfortable situation which arises when
interacting with members of a foreign culture (Archer 1986:170). These bumps are frequent and can
be generated by unfamiliar behaviours, habits or language selection. ‘Bumps’ are short lived but can
impact on speaker’s relationships if not handled with care (Archer 1986:170). An understanding and
awareness of other cultures may assist in diminishing these ‘bumps’ facilitating smoother intercultural
communication.
Problems
Time constraints in curriculum delivery may lead teachers to unconsciously essentialize other
cultures. Additionally, it is unrealistic to assume that a comprehensive overview of cultures can be
disseminated within a single IELTS course. Cultural bias is exacerbated by textbook writers who write
about their own culture ‘where they are at home’ (Alptekin 1993:139). Stereotyping is not confined to
Anglophone cultures but covers all cultures represented within texts. In EFL materials ‘foreign
cultures are otherized and essentialized, reduced to static monolithic caricatures’ (Guest 2002:159).
Teachers fail to challenge stereotypes given to students as they focus predominantly upon the
linguistic content. ‘Culture has often become invisible to them’, and they unwittingly accept the
stereotype presented by the text (Kramsch 1993:48).
Sometimes teachers fail to challenge stereotypes and disseminate idealized/simplified
versions of cultures. This may leads to students drawing ill-founded conclusions about those cultures
and can reinforce national prejudices. One such example involves the perpetuation of imperialistic
doctrine in countries with histories of Anglo-American colonialism. This may lead to students feeling
alienated by insensitive attempts to teach those cultures (Nault (2006:317).
‘English should be taught in a culturally sensitive manner’ (McKay 2002), as culturally
insensitive teaching can dampen enthusiasm and create ‘divergence’ (Giles 1984 cited in Ellis
1997:38). Students may emphasise the differences between themselves and the target culture
resulting in decreased learning, acculturation and ultimately rejection of the culture and the language.
For these reasons explicitly stressing social and cultural differences is taboo as it ‘raises fears of
reviving age old ideological conflicts’ (Kramsch 1996:100). This supports the notion of employing
transcultural resonant themes which do not simply highlight differences (Van Hook 2011).
Ultimately, insensitive instruction may lead to linguistic and cultural rejection. It should be
acknowledged that disseminating Western values is not always appreciated and can be met with
resistance (Dogancay-Aktuna 1998:36). Moroccan students became discontented when comparing
their culture and Anglophone ‘idealized cultures’ promoted by EFL texts. They questioned the validity
and suitability of introducing Westernized ideology, values and patterns of behaviour to their youth
(Adasouku et al 1990). Any cultural teaching in Singapore must therefore be sensitive to Asian

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societal values and taboo issues in order to be valid and acceptable to both SS and IS while
attempting to accurately reflect MBC.
Culture in EFL Materials
Textbooks inform students’ perceptions of the target culture and demonstrate how other
cultures are viewed by the target culture (Clarke and Clarke 1990). Most EFL books are developed,
printed, and marketed by American or English publishers who dominate the global EFL market.
Consequently, Anglophone culture permeates EFL texts.
IELTS texts usually originate in Europe and have a European ‘flavour’ which is not appropriate
for the majority of students studying English in Singapore. Other cultures are reduced to ‘monolithic
caricatures’ (Guest 2002:154) as the Anglophone writers perpetuate their interpretation of other
cultures. As a result, textbook writers unconsciously transmit ‘the values, beliefs, attitudes and
feelings of their own English-speaking society’ (Alpetkin 1993:138) through their selection of cultural
markers in the text.
In certain cases ‘essentialized cultures’ may aid learners’ motivation (Prodromou 1992). Some
learners feel that by acculturating through a text they will expand their schematic knowledge. This
may lead to higher grades in examinations set by bodies such as Cambridge, as students feel better
equipped if they have studied the culture of the country that set the examination (McKay 2002:86-87).
However, this relies on the essentialized cultures being relevant to the students’ needs and the
culture not being grossly-distorted or over-simplified.
Many EFL textbooks still reflect White, Anglo-Saxon, Protestant England (McGrath 2002:212)
and exclude ethnic and social groups to present an ‘idealized’, ‘sanitised’ version of Britain. This
leads EFL students ‘to arrive at distorted conclusions based on the comparison between a false
reality and their own lived experience in their own culture’ (Dendrinos 1992:153). The majority of
textbooks are plagued with stereotyping, constituting ‘a denial and devaluation of among others,
women, black Britons and those living north of Shakespeare’s birthplace’ (Clarke and Clarke
1990:35). Such textbooks present a ‘fragmented, superficial depiction of cultures reducing the social
function of the learner to tourist, visitor and customer’ (Risager 1990:189).
Stereotyping and cultural bias in textbooks also aid the spread of cultural imperialism. EFL
materials are never neutral and contain cultural views emanating from the West (Pennycook
1994:178). These views devalue, subjugate and undermine non-Western cultures (Phillipson 1992).
The emphasis on Western values leads to texts being unsuitable for use in developing countries
where images and ideas conveyed have lack cultural relevance. Other cultures reject texts for being
morally and culturally insensitive (Adaskou et al 1990). Ultimately, the financial incentive behind the
development of a culturally inoffensive text for international sale often outweighs learners’ cultural
needs or the desire to accurately represent cultures.
The ‘PARSNIP’ acronym is employed by EFL writers to avoid references to taboo subjects
such as politics, alcohol, religion, sex, narcotics, isms and pork. This comes from the fears that ‘the
content of some materials will cause offence to some learners’ (McDonough and Shaw 1993:74).
However, this denies the social reality of the cultures being portrayed (Gray 2002). Despite this, texts
are still ‘highly wrought cultural constructs and carriers of cultural messages’ (Gray 2002:152). The
result is a societal image which exacerbates the difference between cultural imagination and cultural

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reality (Kramsch 1993:207). Gradually, practitioners are becoming more aware that textbooks pass
on aspects of the culture in which they were developed as well as that society’s perception of other
cultures (Cortazzi and Jin 1999:200).
As students consider textbooks to contain indisputable facts it is important that teachers select
material to avoid perpetuating stereotypes (Clarke and Clarke 1990:31). However, complete
impartiality is unobtainable as texts contain subjective representations of cultures (Alpetkin and
Alpetkin 1984). Four main problems have been identified in EFL texts:
1. Cultural bias: cultures shown consistently in an overtly positive or negative way
2. Stereotyping: cultural groups portrayed as exhibiting one set of values, behaviours and roles
3. Invisibility: omission of information regarding any of the main variables of societies being
portrayed (Ndura 2004:146). These variables make up our individual and collective cultural
identity and relate to the PARSNIP acronym
4. Unreality: avoiding controversial topics which may offend learners in favour of a distorted
reality of society (Sadker & Sadker 2001:36)
Any transcultural course will have to consider these issues during the selection of EFL material to
represent the transcultural themes identified by students.
Research Design
Theoretical Framework
The rationale for the research design is based on research which underlines the benefits of
transcultural resonant themes, negotiated curriculums and inter-culturality. The main tenants of the
framework are as follows:
 Cultural variations exist and can be quantified. Therefore it is also possible to measure cultural
commonalities (Hall 1989; Hofstede 1980)
 Certain themes may transcend cultural variations (Campbell 1988; Van Hook 2011)
 Certain themes may enhance resonance and effectiveness in the classroom (Freire 1993;
Meyer 2002)
 Transcultural themes may be defined and assessed through qualitative and quantitative
measures (Van Hook 2011:6)
 Negotiated curriculums lead to enhanced student attainment (Richards 2009; White 1988;
Boomer 1982)
 A transcultural course will enable students to more effectively negotiate university and become
more culturally aware (Kramsch 1993)
 A transcultural course would more effectively fulfil the British Council’s remit

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1. Introduction
The research project is divided into stages:
1. Identification of transcultural themes
2. Evaluating materials for cultural authenticity
3. Curriculum Design
4. Teacher Training
5. Curriculum Refinement
6. Evaluating Impact
A full discussion of methodology and rationale will be undertaken at each stage of the research plan.
2. Identifying Transcultural Themes
Before rewriting a course it is necessary to achieve awareness of the cultural themes which
resonant with students. The method for the identification of transculturally resonant imagery proposed
by Van Hook (2011) can be employed. Van Hook selected images which were rated and assessed by
both students (quantitatively) and researcher (qualitatively) to assess their transcultural qualities. This
methodology can be employed with regards to ‘themes’ which make up the majority of EFL texts.
EFL texts have a generic set of reoccurring topics that form the framework around which most
activities are based. Topics such as travel, food, festivals, sports and family are frequently found in
EFL texts’ chapter lists. The current British Council IELTS course is thus organised. However, for this
project the course will be supplemented by additional materials to reflect the realities of SAC and
MBC culture which may currently be ‘invisible’ i.e. religion, government. These additional topics and
materials will be suggested by a team of five British and Singaporean teachers. When identifying
themes it is important to consider the researchers’ subjectivity in labelling each chapter or activity.
Students will therefore be given the opportunity to label activities with their own concept of the ‘theme’
for triangulation purposes during the research process.
The research will be conducted upon IELTS students in a supplementary class running alongside
their regular class. In exchange for attendance students will be expected to contribute feedback in the
form of:
1. A completed Likert-scale instrument (after each activity)
2. Oral feedback in semi-structured interviews (after the course)
Informed consent will be obtained after clarifying the nature of the research project to students
(Farrell 2005; Ford 2007; Bell 2010:59). Students from all British Council IELTS classes will be invited
to a presentation on the research project. The outline of the research project will be conveyed via
Powerpoint before allowing students the opportunity to sign-up. From the sign-up list the researcher
will identify students’ cultural backgrounds and demographically balance the research group.
Additionally, the researcher will balance the group between students aiming for UK universities and
those wishing to enter Singaporean universities. The class composition would reflect the general
profile of IELTS classes at the British Council and contain around 16-20 Asian and Singaporean
students.

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British Council translators will be utilised to ensure no miscommunication occurs between the
researcher and students during the sign-up stage. Finally, students will be asked to sign a consent
form which outlines their responsibilities and the data protection which will be afforded to their
responses. This form will be available in both English and will be translated by staff into the students’
native languages. Students will keep a copy of this form.
The first stage of the research involves the identification of transcultural themes through observed
interaction patterns. The methodology is based on Williams’ (2001) work into explicit language
definitions and their impact upon learners. Williams developed a concept known as the LRE
(Language Related Episode) in which reactions of students to language instruction were gauged and
recorded subjectively by a researcher. Here the researcher will identify incidents of positive
transcultural resonance (PTR) and negative transcultural resonance (NTR) exhibited by the students
during the teaching of the selected material.
PTRs might be defined as:
1. Unified agreement
2. Discussion without disagreement
3. Laughter
4. Questioning in a non-hostile manner
While NTRs may be defined as:
1. Disagreements
2. Challenges to the teacher or other students
3. Rejection of ideas
4. Cultural one-upmanship
The researcher will observe the class being taught the augmented IELTS course and record
qualitative data in a journal classifying and exemplifying students’ reactions to the instructional topics.
This data is a subjective gauge of transcultural resonance and needs further triangulation.
A simple quantitative method is employed to discern students’ opinions regarding the cultural
resonance of individual activities within each themed module. The ‘measurement instrument being a
reliability-tested simple seven-point summated scale where participants rated their
reactions…choices ranged from strongly dislike to like’ (Van Hook 2011:10).

13
The students complete the instrument at the end of each activity. An open-ended question
allows them to qualify their answer should they wish. Students are also asked to identify the topic of
each activity. This is because interpretations of topics vary according to individual perspectives. One
student may interpret a passage on Pasteur as ‘health’ another as ‘science and technology’ or
‘history’. The data from this instrument is then compiled and assessed using basic statistical analysis
which enables the researcher to determine students’ positive, negative and neutral resonance to
aspects of the course.
Text and Page: Reasons for score.
Topic:
Strongly
Dislike
Moderately
Dislike
Slightly
Dislike
No Opinion Slightly Like Moderately
Like
Strongly
Like
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Data analysis consists of interpreting the mean class average for each activity using the Likert-
scale. Group responses with a mean greater than or equal to 5 are classified as positive, those less
than 3 as negative and other scores as neutral. Van Hook (2011:11) further analysed data sets by
establishing scores for resonance based on a variance (VAR). Variations within a data set greater
than 3 points are deemed dissonant while those less than 3 resonant. The following grading system is
employed:
Class Mean VAR Result
>5 <3
Positive
Resonance
>5 >3
Positive
Dissonance
>3 but 5< <3
Neutral
Resonance
>3 but 5< >3
Neutral
Dissonance
<3 <3
Negative
Resonance
<3 >3
Negative
Dissonance
Analysis of the data sets in relationship to this table identifies those topics which hold the
greatest positive transcultural resonance. The researcher also uses the students’ identification of
‘topic’ to further inform their awareness of suitable transcultural themes.
Further triangulation is achieved post-course through semi-structured interviews with students
employing open-ended questions relating to both the qualitative and quantitative data obtain. The
rationale is to gain clarification of the identified themes and student’s reactions to them. For example
if the topic was ‘music’ and the focus was ‘1960s American pop’ did that increase cultural alienation
and negatively affect the students’ opinions towards the ‘theme’ of music as a whole?

14
It is important to remember that many of these students many have limited English use and
this may cause them to omit details that are ‘difficult to put into words or appear to the respondent
insensitive’ (Gaskell 2002:44). Therefore, the researcher will probe for deeper insight and where
required employ translators to ensure the validity of the data obtained.
The collected data is then used to identify and rank themes according to transcultural
resonance before identifying material in IELTS texts which accurately portray SAC and MBC.
3. Evaluating Materials for Cultural Authenticity
Checklists to evaluate cultural content are seldom used and often rudimentary (Harmer 2001; Ur
1996). However, some attempts have made to produce workable instruments. (Sheldon 1988; Sercu
1998) Sadker and Sadker (2001) identified seven forms of bias (invisibility, linguistic bias,
stereotyping, imbalance, unreality, fragmentation and cosmetic bias) which may be present in terms
of gender bias in texts. These categories can be used to assess cultural bias (Ndura 2004:146).
Textbooks are generally intend for three target groups (Cortazzi and Jin 1999:208); source culture
(C1), target culture (C2) or international cultures. Part of any textbook analysis must consider which
one of these categories the text is based upon/aiming for. In this case the text will be assessed in
reference to both MBC and SAC.
Sheldon (1988:245) remarks that, ‘course book assessment is fundamentally a subjective, rule of
thumb activity’ as ‘culture is ‘invisible’ to teachers of the language (Kramsch 1993). Therefore,
aspects of culture are often overlooked, and to gain an accurate perspective it is necessary to
triangulate with several researchers from differing cultures. Equally, no one has ever designed a
comprehensive way of assessing a textbook as researchers approach texts from different
perspectives.
The initial analysis of the textbooks will be conducted by five teachers consisting of younger
British teachers and Singaporean teachers. Younger British teachers are essential because of their
proximity to the ‘reality’ of MBC. They have spent less time away from Britain and have the least
idealised or essentialized image of Britain. This will mitigate problems caused by unreality and
invisibility which may not be obvious to teachers who have distanced themselves culturally from
Britain by virtue of extensive periods of time abroad. Singaporean teachers are required to ensure
that aspects of SAC are accurately assessed and identified as well as ensuring Western stereotypes
are not perpetuated.
Teachers are given a number of IELTS texts deemed appropriate for use by the British Council
academic team. The academic team will have assessed the material for educational content and
ensured that the activities are suitable for use in a newly constructed IELTS course. The research
team then assesses each text individually. One limitation to this approach is that course book
assessment is best not carried out in isolation, but over a period of usage (Sheldon 1988:245).
However, the scale of this research project and time constraints make this impossible.
Firstly, the researchers identify elements of texts which match the previously identified
transculturally resonant themes. They then assess the identified sections using a simple checklist
system which facilitates data analysis. The analysis of the material is divided into three stages:

15
1. Image and text analysis categorizing cultural content into groups; MBC, SAC, country
specific and generic. Culture specific passages and pictures contained an element which
identified a specific country other than the MBC or SAC. If a picture has a ‘flavour’ of a
country it is held to be generic. Generic pictures depict scenes with no inherent cultural
content and which may be commonplace globally.
Culture Page and Topic
MBC 6 Children, 10 Food
SAC 2 Festivals,
Generic 25 Travel
Country Specific 30 Marriage
2. Each item of identified MBC and SAC material is reassessed using the following checklist.
The checklist is coded for reference with the name of the text and page number to aid
compilation and triangulation.
Text: Pages:
Yes No Comments
1. Does the material contain reference to
the transcultural themes identified for
SAC or MBC?
2. Do you believe the cultural information
is accurate?
3. Are there any references which could
be seen as inappropriate?
4. Does the material contain
generalizations about the culture(s)?
5. Is any culture present as being good or
bad?
3. The researcher then reassesses each identified section in relationship to the following
criteria.
a) Cultural bias
b) Stereotyping
c) Invisibility
d) Unreality

16
Notes on these areas are taken and marked for ‘reinforcement’ and ‘subversion’. Reinforcement is
defined as ‘supporting an established bias or stereotype’ and subversion as ‘challenging traditional
stereotypes or the PARSNIP code of the publishing industry’. The data is tabulated using a simple
colour code. Red indicates ‘reinforcement’ and green ‘subversion’. This enables course developers to
effectively subvert stereotypes in favour of realistic representations of MBC and SAC when
constructing the course outline. Notes are recorded thus:
Text: Pages:
Stereotyping Cultural Bias Invisibility Unreality
Traditional English
wedding cartoon
Four pictures of
jobs. Only 1 is
female. She is a
nurse.
References to
drinking at
weddings may not
be suitable for
some Muslim
students.
Mention of drug
taking.
Photograph: Boy
in bowtie
Arguments are
shown at the
wedding. A lesbian
couple are guests.
Upon completion the text is passed to the next researcher who repeats the process without
reference to other researcher’s work. This enables a rich collection of qualitative data to be collected
and assessed for patterns in order to ascertain which materials are the most suitable for course
inclusion. The researcher compiles the notes from the teachers’ assessments into a spread sheet or
database and uses a process of elimination based on the commentary provided by the teachers to
identify suitable material for inclusion. The material selected must be:
1. Part of an identified transcultural theme
2. Accurate in its representation of MBC or SAC
Triangulation is achieved through a group discussion session in which results are presented and
objections and clarifications can be made by the teachers before course construction commences.
This system ensures that the inherent bias of any individual researcher is not transposed into the
material’s selection. Further triangulation regarding appropriate selection of material is later gathered
when trialling lessons.
4. Course Development
An IELTS course at the British Council is 12 weeks long and consists of 48 hours of material.
Each week of the course represents a module. Skills are integrated into each module to balance
reading, writing, listening and speaking tasks. Each writer will be assigned a four-hour module based
around a single theme. Data sets from the evaluation of material will be woven into a curriculum-
planning document outlining themes and skills for the course. This will be completed by the
researcher in consultation with the academic team. Here it is necessary to consider the components
of the IELTS examination and the potential course material furthered assessed to ensure adequate
coverage of all parts of the IELTS examination not just access to culturally resonant topics. Coverage
of topics and skills across the 12 week course will be ensured by mapping them onto a curriculum

17
planning document. Potential course material will be entered into the framework as shown below and
gaps identified e.g.
Week Theme Speaking Listening Reading Writing
1 Food ?
Asian Fusion
foods – p74
Ready for IELTS
?
The procedure
for the
preparation of
Nasi Lemak – p8
International
IELTS
2 Festivals
Describing a
festival from
your culture – p6
Cambridge
IELTS Exam
Papers 6
?
Bonfire Night –
p7 International
IELTS
?
The culturally resonant EFL material identified in the cultural evaluation stage of the research
may not be sufficient to construct an entire course and there may be gaps caused by the rejection of
dissonant themes or materials which fail to reflect MBC or SAC. Therefore, after selecting materials it
may be necessary to write additional material. However, the use of pre-existing EFL materials is
essential as the volume of work required to develop an entire IELTS course is extensive and would
deny students access to materials specifically designed by experts for the IELTS examination.
Additionally, identifying suitable existing material gives course writers a reference point for the
production of material to fill the identified gaps and reduces the time and cost of course development.
Writers will be asked for suggestions to complete the course outline. To ensure both MBC and
SAC viewpoints are represented suggestions are taken in a group meeting with British and
Singaporean teachers. The idea is be to balance SAC and MBC in each module. As a course writer I
have found that a cultural ‘faux pas’ is more likely to occur when writers determine materials without
consulting others. Consultation enables other perspectives to be considered and reduces the chance
of insensitive or inappropriate material being employed.
The writing process will take three to four months, during this period, free lessons will be
conducted for teachers to trial their modules and collect feedback from the students to further refine
their work. To ensure feedback collection is standardised the previously used Likert-scale instrument
with open-ended question (Van Hook 2011) will be used. Ensuring viewpoints are heard allows
students to continue to have input past the data collection stage, so that their data actively informs
the curriculum design (Tinsdale and Davis 2004). Reflective periods are essential to the project’s
success as they ensure the course does not stray from the data obtained during the research phase.
After trialling individual lessons it is necessary to pilot the completed course. This should also
be a non-fee paying group. The process for student recruitment and informed consent is similar to the
‘identification of transcultural themes’ stage previously described. Owing to the time period for this
project it is unlikely that the researcher will be able to utilise the same students who identified the

18
transcultural themes in the initial stage of the research as many will have left the British Council.
Therefore, a similar group of students will need to be identified.
5. Teacher Training
A transcultural cultural syllabus is unlikely to achieve its aim without cultural instruction for
teachers (Byram 1991). As the teacher is a physical representative of the cultures being taught, they
must be seen to project a positive, non-biased view of those cultures.
Teachers are ‘social and cultural interpreters rather than ambassadors’ (Fennes and Hapgood
1997:49; Sercu 1998:256) but are often placed in the difficult position of expressing a culture with
which they have had little contact (Brumfit 1980:95). British Council teachers are unlikely to ‘know
enough about the target culture’ to give unbiased instruction on SAC (Kramsch 1996:103). Equally,
we must ask if ‘native speakers [are] truly qualified to teach about their own culture’ (Kramsch
1996:99). Cultural biases may be perpetuated without additional training to raise awareness of
stereotyping, invisibility and unreality.
Teachers should receive cultural training in line with Kramsch’s (1993:205-206) fourth strand of
cultural instruction to develop a better understanding of SAC if they are British, and MBC if they are
Singaporean. In the British Council this could be achieved through a pooling of knowledge between
British and local teachers in MOE schools. This would assist in breaking down cultural stereotypes
and moving teachers away from passing on their own culturally biased viewpoints. While a
strengthening of ties between the British Council and local teachers could further fulfil the British
Council’s remit of fostering cultural ties.
A collaborative partnership with local schools could be setup with teachers from the UK
reviewing local material for linguistic content, while Singaporean teachers review British Council
material for cultural content. This would satisfy the needs of both communities and facilitate cultural
exchange which goes beyond superficiality. Additionally, cultural sharing sessions can be set-up for
Singaporean and British teachers within the British Council in order to clarify aspects of each other’s
cultures. This can involve background reading and question and answer sessions to enhance cultural
awareness of SAC and MBC.
6. Refinement
Following the initial pilot, feedback should be sought during subsequent runs of the course.
Questionnaires can be employed to gauge students’ reactions to the course. Further, revisions to the
material will be made based on the data collected and analysed by the researcher. This stage may be
repeated a number of times until the lessons comply with the original intention of the research and
meet the needs of the students. British Council students frequently use the online survey tool ‘Survey
Monkey’ for feedback and it will be relatively easy to compile open-ended questions on each of the
transcultural themes so that students could reflect at length on the appropriacy and effectiveness of
the materials within the course. This would be triangulated by focus groups or semi-structured
interviews.

19
7. Evaluating Impact
Effective assessment of the validity of the course will only be achieved from students who obtain
their required IELTS grade and enter university in the UK or Singapore. Therefore, it will be
necessary to do a follow-up survey with students between 6 months and a year after completing the
course. This online survey can be sent by email and should examine how well the course reflected
reality and if students felt that the cultural component of the course enabled them to navigate
between their own culture and the target culture of the country they chose to enter. This stage of the
research may necessitate rewriting sections of the course students felt to be biased, of little relevance
or ‘unreal’. An additional gauge of impact could be achieved by assessing the average IELTS scores
for classes before and after the implementation of the new course. However, these may be impacted
by a myriad of other factors including class composition.
Limitations
The scale of SAC and MBC mean that attempts to reduce them into a 48 hour course will
ultimately lead to simplification and generalisation. It is never possible to fully replicate the reality of
society in such a limited time frame. Additionally, irrespective of the vetting process it is likely that
some materials will still contain cultural bias. The subjective methodology employed in the selection of
transcultural themes and identification of suitable material means that doubt may be cast upon the
results. However, attempts have been made to mitigate subjectivity through culturally balanced teams
and reflection periods. Ideally, a greater number of researchers would be employed for the textbook
assessment in order to gain a wider perspective. However, the number of Singaporean teachers
available limits this.
Equally, it is possible that students identify themes which simply replicate the generic themes
selected by EFL textbook writers. However, the results of Van Hook’s (2011) research in this area
suggest that not all of these themes resonate and that there is scope for surprise with images relating
to ‘relationships’ obtaining strong resonance despite cultural issues regarding sexualised Western
imagery. Additionally, Van Hook (2011) found that humour and religion were dissonant and yet
humour is a mainstay of MBC and religion strongly woven into SAC. Therefore, such topics may not
be adequately represented in the finished product leading to a degree of invisibility.
Future Implications
This study goes some way towards identifying transcultural themes which allow the British
Council to fulfil its remit as a cultural body. However, many other educational institutions purport to
have cultural aims and yet fail to reflect them in their courses. Instead they employ additional events
and activities which pay lip service to the cultures they represent such as ‘culture days’. If successful
the research techniques employed here could be utilised to develop courses with stronger cultural
content throughout the British Council network. The collation of global results across so many
cultures and groups of students with different motivations for study could contribute help ascertain the
validity of themes currently employed by EFL textbook writers and may ultimately provide greater
impetus to localised rather than globally themed textbooks for EFL instruction.
The development of cultural resonant courses is both challenging and complex. The variables
related to culturally resonant courses ensure that a ‘perfect course’ is unobtainable. However, the
anaemic versions of cultures portrayed in textbooks for EFL students deny them reality and attempts

20
to teach English without culture have proved horribly misguided. Where appropriate every effort
should be made to address the students’ culture and the culture they aim to acculturate to. Through
this we may yet develop not only better speakers but transcultural ambassadors who negotiate
cultures with the same ease as they code-switch.
8458 Words (including figures)

21
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