3. WHO BUILT THE FIRST COMPUTER?
The computer is a complex piece of
equipment and many inventors and
inventions contributed to its history and
what it is today. We can summarize in part
milestones in discovery that lead to the
computers today. Devices have been used
as an aid to assist counting of
items,including our very own fingers,tally
sticks,shaped clays and stones. Roman
abacus was used in Babylonia as early as
2400 B.C. and since then many other
calculation boards and tables were
invented. The asian abacus was estimated
to be around since 14th century AD.
4. ABACUS
An abacus is a device used for addition and
subtraction, and the related operations of multiplication
and division. It does not require the use of pen and
paper, and it's good for any base number system. There
are two basic forms for the abacus: a specially marked
flat surface used with counters (counting table), or a
frame with beads strung on wires (bead frame). (5)
The name Abacus derives from the Greek word ABAX
meaning table or board covered with dust. The origins of
the Abacus are buried deep in the history of mankind. But
it is generaly assumed that the origins of the Abacus lies
in the Middle East some where in the period known as the
Early Middle Ages. The model developed during that
period had a wooden frame with several wires each
strung with 10 beads. Three more than the Abaci we know
now from Asia.
5. ABACUS CHRONOLOGY
500-1000
Country of origin and first appearance
unknown. Region of development: Middle East
1300's
Modern Abacus in use in China
1400's
Abacus in use in Korea
1600
Abacus known as Soroban in use in Japan
1700's
Last use of abacus in Europe, driven away by
the introduction of the Hindu-Arabic notation of
numbers.
6. ASIAN ABACUS
The Chinese Abacus is made of 13 columns
with 2 beads on top (heaven) and 5 beads
bellow (earth).
The Japanese copied the Chinese Abacus
around the 14th century AD and adapted it to a
more delicate way of thinking. It has 21 columns
with 1 bead on top (heaven) and 4 beads below
(earth).
7. THIS IS A PICTURE OF A ASIAN
ABACUS
overview
detail
8. ROMAN ABACUS
The Romans developed the Roman hand abacus, a
portable, but less capable, base-10 version of the previous
Babylonian abacus. It was the first portable calculating device
for engineers, merchants and presumably tax collectors. It
greatly reduced the time needed to perform the basic
operations of Roman arithmetic using Roman numerals.
As Karl Menninger says on page 315 of his book,[1] "For more
extensive and complicated calculations, such as those
involved in Roman land surveys, there was, in addition to the
hand abacus, a true reckoning board with unattached
counters or pebbles. The Etruscan cameo and the Greek
predecessors, such as the Salamis Tablet and the Darius
Vase, give us a good idea of what it must have been
like, although no actual specimens of the true Roman
counting board are known to be extant. But language, the
most reliable and conservative guardian of a past culture, has
come to our rescue once more.
9. Above all, it has preserved the fact of the
unattached counters so faithfully that we can
discern this more clearly than if we possessed an
actual counting board. What the Greeks called
psephoi, the Romans called calculi. The Latin word
calx means 'pebble' or 'gravel stone'; calculi are
thus little stones (used as counters)."
Both the Roman abacus and the Chinese suanpan
have been used since ancient times. With one bead
above and four below the bar, the systematic
configuration of the Roman abacus is coincident to
the modern Japanese Soroban, although the
soroban is historically derived from the suanpan.
13. NAPIER’S BONES
Scottish mathematician and
physicist invented a device
used for multiplication and
long divison,called the
Napier’s bones. The device
can also be used to compute
for square root using an
additional bone.
16. SLIDE RULE
The slide rule was invented in 1620 by
William Oughtred an English
mathematician from Cambridge
University in England. The slide rule
perform calculations even faster than
was previously possible and has been
used by mathematicians and
engineers until the arrival of the
pocket calculator around in 1974.
19. PASCALINE
Blaise Pascal a French
mathematician invented the
Pascal’s calculator or the Pascaline
in 1642 at the age of 19 to help his
father in his tax computation. This
machine is credited to be one of the
earliest calculators.
22. STEP RECKONER
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz a German
mathematician created the mechanical
calculator known as the Step Reckoner
and inside it is the Leibniz Wheel. The
wheel has been used in many calculating
machines for the next 200 years. It was
the first mechanical calculator that can
perform all mathematical
operations:addition,subtraction,multiplic
ation and division with fairly good
accuracy and speed.
26. ANALYTICAL ENGINE
Charles Babbage was an English
mathematician and mechanical engineer; he
was credited to build the first mechanical
computer made out of hand-made brass
parts. He made two machines,the Difference
Engine number 1 and Difference number 2
and then the unfinished Analytical Engine.
His work had a lasting impact on computing
technology. His use of the punched card as
a storage device was 100 years ahead of his
time. He worked with Ada Lovelace the first
computer programmer.
31. NEC VACUUM TUBE
Thomas Edison perfected the light
bulb,and in his many inventions have
direct effect on the computer industry.
Electric power was made available to all
and his work on the bulb led the discovery
of the vacuum tube by Sir John Ambrose
Fleming (1849-1945) an English physicist.
The vacuum tube is a building block of the
early computers. American inventor Lee
DeForest (1873-1961) improved on
Fleming’s design and the Audion tube was
made.
34. HOLLERITH PUNCHED CARD
Herman Hollerith,an Amrican-born son of
German immigrants won the counting
contest for the 1890 census data by the US
government; he used the idea of punched
cards and invented the card reader
population. Later on, he formed the
company International Business machine
(IBM) to sell these machines. IBM later on
would pioneer many computers available
all over the world today.
37. WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
A computer is one of the most brilliant inventions of
mankind. Thanks to the computer technology, we were
able to achieve an efficient storage and processing of
data; we could rest our brains by employing computer
memory capacities for storage of the information. Owing
to computers, we have been able speed up daily
work, carry out critical transactions and achieve accuracy
and precision in work output. The computers of the
earlier years were of the size of a large room and were
required to consume huge amounts of electric power.
However, with the advancing technology, computers have
shrunk to the size of a small watch. Depending on the
processing powers and sizes of computers, they have
been classified under various types.
Let us look at the classification of computers!
40. ANALOG COMPUTERS
These are almost extinct today.
These are different from a digital
computer because an analog
computer can perform several
mathematical operations
simultaneously. It uses continuous
variables for mathematical
operations and utilizes mechanical
or electrical energy.
42. HYBRID COMPUTERS
These computers are a
combination of both digital and
analog computers. In this type
of computers, the digital
segments perform process
control by conversion of analog
signals to digital ones.
44. MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
Large organizations use
mainframes for highly critical
applications such as bulk data
processing and ERP. Most of the
mainframe computers have the
capacities to host multiple
operating systems and operate as a
number of virtual machines and can
thus substitute for several small
servers.
46. MICRO COMPUTERS
A computer with a microprocessor and its
central processing unit is known as a
microcomputer. They do not occupy space
as much as mainframes. When
supplemented with a keyboard and a
mouse, microcomputers can be called as
personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard
and other similar input output
devices, computer memory in the form of
RAM and a power supply unit come
packaged in a microcomputer. These
computers can fit on desks or tables and
serve as the best choices for single-user
tasks.
48. DESKTOPS
A desktop is intended to be used on
a single location. The spare parts of
a desktop computer are readily
available at relative lower costs.
Power consumption is not as
critical as that in laptops. Desktops
are widely popular for daily use in
workplaces and households.
50. LAPTOPS
Similar in operation to desktops, laptop
computers are miniaturized and
optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on
a single battery or an external adapter
that charges the computer batteries.
They are enabled with an inbuilt
keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse
and a liquid crystal display. Its portability
and capacity to operate on battery power
have served as a boon for mobile users.
52. PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANTS
(PDAS)
It is a handheld computer and
popularly known as a palmtop. It
has a touch screen and a memory
card for storage of data. PDAs can
also be effectively used as portable
audio players, web browsers and
smart phones. Most of them can
access the Internet by means of
Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.
54. MINICOMPUTERS
In terms of size and processing
capacity, minicomputers lie in between
mainframes and microcomputers.
Minicomputers are also called mid-range
systems or workstations. The term began to be
popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively
smaller third generation computers. They took
up the space that would be needed for a
refrigerator or two and used transistor and core
memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8
minicomputer of the Digital Equipment
Corporation was the first successful
minicomputer.
56. SUPER COMPUTERS
The highly calculation-intensive tasks
can be effectively performed by means of
supercomputers. Quantum physics,
mechanics, weather forecasting,
molecular theory are best studied by
means of supercomputers. Their ability
of parallel processing and their well-
designed memory hierarchy give the
supercomputers, large transaction
processing powers.
58. WEARABLE COMPUTERS
A record-setting step in the evolution of
computers was the creation of wearable
computers. These computers can be worn on
the body and are often used in the study of
behavior modeling and human health. Military
and health professionals have incorporated
wearable computers into their daily routine, as a
part of such studies. When the users’ hands and
sensory organs are engaged in other
activities, wearable computers are of great help
in tracking human actions. Wearable computers
are consistently in operation as they do not
have to be turned on and off and are constantly
interacting with the user.
59.
60. Input and output devices enable us to
interact with a computer.
Input devices and Output devices are
computer hardware that enable an
operator to interact with the computer.
Without input devices, a computer
user would not be able to feed
instructions to, or send and store
information in, a computer; without
output devices, the computer would
not be able to give processed
information back to the user.
62. Input is the term denoting either an
entrance or changes which are inserted
into a system and which activate/modify
a process. It is an abstract concept, used
in the modeling, system(s) design and
system(s) exploitation. It is usually
connected with other terms, e.g., input
field, input variable, input parameter,
input value, input signal, input port, input
device and input file (file format).
70. Output is the term denoting
either an exit or changes
which exit a system and
which activate/modify a
process. It is an abstract
concept, used in the
modeling, system(s) design
and system(s) exploitation.
76. WHAT IS EDP?
Electronic Data Processing (EDP) can
refer to the use of automated methods to
process commercial data. Typically, this
uses relatively simple, repetitive
activities to process large volumes of
similar information. For example: stock
updates applied to an inventory, banking
transactions applied to account and
customer master files, booking and
ticketing transactions to an airline's
reservation system, billing for utility
services.
77. EDP (electronic data processing), an
infrequently used term for what is today
usually called "IS" (information services or
systems) or "MIS" (management information
services or systems), is the processing
of data by a computer and its programs in
an environment involving electronic
communication. EDP evolved from "DP"
(data processing), a term that was created
when most computing input was physically
put into the computer in punched card form
and output as punched cards or paper
reports.
79. HARDWARE:
Your PC (Personal Computer) is a
system, consisting of many components. Some
of those components, like Windows XP, and all
your other programs, are software. The stuff
you can actually see and touch, and would
likely break if you threw it out a fifth-story
window, is hardware.
Not everybody has exactly the same hardware.
But those of you who have a desktop
system, like the example shown in Figure
1, probably have most of the components
shown in that same figure. Those of you with
notebook computers probably have most of the
same components. Only in your case the
components are all integrated into a single
book-sized portable unit.
80. Your PC (Personal Computer) is a
system, consisting of many components. Some of
those components, like Windows XP, and all your
other programs, are software. The stuff you can
actually see and touch, and would likely break if you
threw it out a fifth-story window, is hardware.
Not everybody has exactly the same hardware. But
those of you who have a desktop system, like the
example shown in Figure 1, probably have most of
the components shown in that same figure. Those
of you with notebook computers probably have
most of the same components. Only in your case
the components are all integrated into a single
book-sized portable unit
85. CPU
It is basically
the brain of
your
computer. The
CPU is a used
to process
everything
from basic to
complex
functions in a
computer.
86. RAM
RAM is memory
that attaches to
the
motherboard.
RAM is
hardware used
to temporarily
store and
access data.
87. Motherboard
A Motherboard
is the most
important
component in a
computer
system. All of
the other
hardware in a
computer
system connect
to the
motherboard.
89. Hard Drive
A Hard Drive
is used for
permanently
storing files
and
programs.
90. Disk Drives
Disk Drives
can be a
floppy
drive, CD
drive, DVD
drive or other
possible file
storage
devices that
are used in a
computer.
91. The system unit is the actual computer;
everything else is called a peripheral device.
Your computer's system unit probably has at
least one floppy disk drive, and one CD or DVD
drive, into which you can insert floppy disks
and CDs. There's another disk drive, called the
hard disk inside the system unit, as shown in
Figure 2. You can't remove that disk, or even
see it. But it's there. And everything that's
currently "in your computer" is actually stored
on that hard disk. (We know this because there
is no place else inside the computer where you
can store information!).
92.
93. The floppy drive and CD drive are often referred
to as drives with removable media or removable
drives for short, because you can remove
whatever disk is currently in the drive, and
replace it with another. Your computer's hard
disk can store as much information as tens of
thousands of floppy disks, so don't worry about
running out of space on your hard disk any time
soon. As a rule, you want to store everything
you create or download on your hard disk. Use
the floppy disks and CDs to send copies of files
through the mail, or to make backup copies of
important items.
94. Video Card
A Video Card
is the part of a
computer
system that
converts
binary code
from the CPU
so you can
view it on a
monitor.
95. Monitor
The part of a
computer that
allows you to
see what the
computer is
processing.
99. SOFTWARE:
Computer software, or just software, is a collection
of computer programs and related data that provide the
instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do
it. In other words, software is a conceptual entity which is a
set of computer programs, procedures, and associated
documentation concerned with the operation of a data
processing system. We can also say software refers to one
or more computer programs and data held in the storage of
the computer for some purposes. In other words software is
a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and
its documentation. Program software performs
the function of the program it implements, either by directly
providing instructions to the computer hardware or by
serving as input to another piece of software. The term was
coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning
physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is
intangible, meaning it "cannot be touched". Software is also
sometimes used in a more narrow
sense, meaning application software only. Sometimes the
term includes data that has not traditionally been associated
with computers, such as film, tapes, and records.
116. PEOPLEWARE:
Computers operate using a combination
of hardwareand software. However, without user
interaction, most computers would be useless
machines. Therefore, "peopleware" is
sometimes considered a third aspect that takes
into account the importance of humans in the
computing process.
Peopleware is less tangible than hardware or
software, since it can refer to many different
things. Examples of peopleware include
individual people, groups of people, project
teams, businesses, developers, and end users.
While peopleware can mean many different
things, it always refers to the people who
develop or use computer systems.
120. Doctors uses computers
when a patient is admitted
to a clinic or hospital for
any reason, the clinic or
hospital staff takes a
medical history from the
patient and verifies
information related to
insurance and contact. This
information is then entered
into the clinic or hospital's
computer system for easy
retrieval. The doctor can
log new information about
the patient into the
computerized patient file
and then pull up that file
again as needed for case
assessment and review. In
some cases, computers are
in the exam rooms, and the
doctor pulls up the file
electronically to discuss it
with the patient.
121. Scientists use
computers to
record, analyze, and
capture experimental
data. They use
computers to
automate calculations
and create simulations
to test hypotheses.
Computers can also
be used by scientists
for visualization. They
also use computers to
coordinate and
communicate with
other scientists and to
prepare scientific
publications.
135. WHAT IS KEYBOARDING?
Learning how to utilize a
keyboard for computer
functions and typing.
The curriculum is now offered
to elementary school students
due to the importance of
computer literacy in today's
world.
Keyboarding is the act of typing
at a keyboard.
136. WHAT IS A KEYBOARD?
In computing, a keyboard is a typewriter-style
keyboard, which uses an arrangement of
buttons or keys, to act as mechanical levers or
electronic switches. Following the decline
of punch cards and paper tape, interaction
via teleprinter-style keyboards became the
main input device for computers.
Despite the development of alternative input
devices, such as the mouse, touchscreen, pen
devices, character recognition and voice
recognition, the keyboard remains the most
commonly used and most versatile device used
for direct (human) input into computers.
137. A keyboard typically has
characters engraved or printed on the keys
and each press of a key typically
corresponds to a single writtensymbol.
However, to produce some symbols
requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence. While most
keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or
signs (characters), other keys or
simultaneous key presses can produce
actions or computer commands.
138. In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text
and numbers into a word processor, text editor or
other program. In a modern computer, the
interpretation of key presses is generally left to the
software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each
physical key from every other and reports all key
presses to the controlling software. Keyboards are
also used for computer gaming, either with regular
keyboards or by using keyboards with special
gaming features, which can expedite frequently
used keystroke combinations. A keyboard is also
used to give commands to the operating system of a
computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-
Delete combination, which brings up a task window
or shuts down the machine. Keyboards are the only
way to enter commands on a command-line
interface.
141. FUNCTION OF F1:
This key is used as Help Key. You
can get help of any programmes by
pressing F1 key. When you press F1
key you will come to know the help
topics of the programme which you
need to know for performing the
programming task. So this F1 key is
a very important key for you.
142. FUNCTION OF F2:
In general this key is used for
renaming any files and folder. In
Microsoft word Alt+ctrl+F2 Key is
used for opening any new file. You
can get print preview of word by
pressing ctrl +F2 And F2 press for
entering bios system of the PC.
143. FUNCTION OF F3:
This key allows you to get
search option for Microsoft
word or others programme.
Shift + F is press for making
Microsoft word's letter big to
small or capital letter for all
beginning words of a sentence.
144. FUNCTION OF F4:
You can repeat last action
performed while doing type
in Microsoft word. You can
Closed all running
programmed using Alt + F4
key and Ctrl + F4 press for
closing all active window.
145. FUNCTION OF F5:
This is very common key. You
can see a lot of time we do
refresh our PC by pressing F5
key. This is a key for refreshing
Microsoft window or Internet
browser window To start power
point slide show we can use F5
key. In word we can use it for
find replace and go to options.
146. FUNCTION OF F6:
This key is used for moving
mouse cursor to writing web
address at the address bar
to start writing any address
Ctrl + shift + F6 is used for
active other open document
in MSword.
147. FUNCTION OF F7:
This is a very important key for
checking grammar and spelling
in word. In FireFox you can
start caret browsing using this
key Shift+F7 is used for starting
a dictionary for finding any
synonym or antonym of the
word or forms of word.
148. FUNCTION OF F8:
This key is very
essential to start a
operating system. In
general for booting
from safe mood this
key is used.
149. FUNCTION OF F9:
In quark express 5.0 To open
measurement Toolbar you
can use this key. Some time
while set up windows we
have to press this key for
boot from CD. This is not
same in every PC.
150. FUNCTION OF F10:
You can select menu bar from
any open browser by pressing
this key. In a selected word or
image move the mouse cursor
over it then to get right button's
task of mouse we need to press
shift + F10.
151. FUNCTION OF F11:
We can see our
web browser in
full screen by
pressing F11 key.
152. FUNCTION OF F12:
In MSword we can used
this key for saving our
document. To save any
ms word file we can press
shift + F12 To print a file
we need to press ctrl
+shift + F12
154. WINDOWS SYSTEM KEY
COMBINATIONS:
F1: Help
CTRL+ESC: Open Start menu
ALT+TAB: Switch between open
programs
ALT+F4: Quit program
SHIFT+DELETE: Delete item
permanently
Windows Logo+L: Lock the
computer (without using
CTRL+ALT+DELETE)
156. MOUSE CLICK/KEYBOARD MODIFIER
COMBINATIONS FOR SHELL OBJECTS
SHIFT+right click: Displays a shortcut
menu containing alternative commands
SHIFT+double click: Runs the alternate
default command (the second item on
the menu)
ALT+double click: Displays properties
SHIFT+DELETE: Deletes an item
immediately without placing it in the
Recycle Bin
157. GENERAL KEYBOARD-ONLY
COMMANDS
F1: Starts Windows Help
F10: Activates menu bar options
SHIFT+F10 Opens a shortcut menu for the
selected item (this is the same as right-clicking
an object
CTRL+ESC: Opens the Start menu (use the
ARROW keys to select an item)
CTRL+ESC or ESC: Selects the Start button
(press TAB to select the taskbar, or press
SHIFT+F10 for a context menu)
158. CTRL+SHIFT+ESC: Opens Windows Task
Manager
ALT+DOWN ARROW: Opens a drop-
down list box
ALT+TAB: Switch to another running
program (hold down the ALT key and
then press the TAB key to view the task-
switching window)
SHIFT: Press and hold down the SHIFT
key while you insert a CD-ROM to bypass
the automatic-run feature.
159. ALT+SPACE: Displays the main
window's System menu (from
the System menu, you can
restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or
close the window)
ALT+- (ALT+hyphen): Displays the Multiple
Document Interface (MDI) child
window's System menu (from the MDI child
window's System menu, you can
restore, move, resize, minimize, maximize, or
close the child window)
CTRL+TAB: Switch to the next child window of a
Multiple Document Interface (MDI) program
ALT+underlined letter in menu: Opens the menu
160. ALT+F4: Closes the current window
CTRL+F4: Closes the current
Multiple Document Interface (MDI)
window
ALT+F6: Switch between multiple
windows in the same program (for
example, when the
Notepad Finddialog box is
displayed, ALT+F6 switches
between the Find dialog box and the
main Notepad window)
161. SHELL OBJECTS AND GENERAL
FOLDER/WINDOWS EXPLORER SHORTCUTS
F2: Rename object
F3: Find all files
CTRL+X: Cut
CTRL+C: Copy
CTRL+V: Paste
SHIFT+DELETE: Delete selection
immediately, without moving the item to
the Recycle Bin
ALT+ENTER: Open the properties for the
selected object
162. To copy a file
Press and hold down the CTRL
key while you drag the file to
another folder.To create a
shortcut
Press and hold down
CTRL+SHIFT while you drag a
file to the desktop or a folder.
163. GENERAL FOLDER/SHORTCUT
CONTROL
F4: Selects the Go To A Different Folder box and
moves down the entries in the box (if the toolbar is
active in Windows Explorer)
F5: Refreshes the current window.
F6: Moves among panes in Windows Explorer
CTRL+G: Opens the Go To Folder tool (in Windows
95 Windows Explorer only)
CTRL+Z: Undo the last command
CTRL+A: Select all the items in the current window
BACKSPACE: Switch to the parent folder
SHIFT+click+Close button: For folders, close the
current folder plus all parent folders
164. WINDOWS EXPLORER TREE
CONTROL
Numeric Keypad *: Expands everything under
the current selection
Numeric Keypad +: Expands the current
selection
Numeric Keypad -: Collapses the current
selection.
RIGHT ARROW: Expands the current selection if
it is not expanded, otherwise goes to the first
child
LEFT ARROW: Collapses the current selection if
it is expanded, otherwise goes to the parent
166. ACCESSIBILITY SHORTCUTS
Press SHIFT five times: Toggles StickyKeys on
and off
Press down and hold the right SHIFT key for
eight seconds: Toggles FilterKeys on and off
Press down and hold the NUM LOCK key for
five seconds: Toggles ToggleKeys on and off
Left ALT+left SHIFT+NUM LOCK: Toggles
MouseKeys on and off
Left ALT+left SHIFT+PRINT SCREEN: Toggles
high contrast on and off
167. MICROSOFT NATURAL
KEYBOARD KEYS
Windows Logo: Start menu
Windows Logo+R: Run dialog box
Windows Logo+M: Minimize all
SHIFT+Windows Logo+M: Undo
minimize all
Windows Logo+F1: Help
Windows Logo+E: Windows Explorer
Windows Logo+F: Find files or folders
168. Windows Logo+D: Minimizes all open
windows and displays the desktop
CTRL+Windows Logo+F: Find computer
CTRL+Windows Logo+TAB: Moves focus
from Start, to the Quick Launch toolbar, to the
system tray (use RIGHT ARROW or LEFT
ARROW to move focus to items on the Quick
Launch toolbar and the system tray)
Windows Logo+TAB: Cycle through taskbar
buttons
Windows Logo+Break: System
Properties dialog box
Application key: Displays a shortcut menu for
the selected item
169. MICROSOFT NATURAL KEYBOARD WITH
INTELLITYPE SOFTWARE INSTALLED
Windows Logo+L: Log off Windows
Windows Logo+P: Starts Print Manager
Windows Logo+C: Opens Control Panel
Windows Logo+V: Starts Clipboard
Windows Logo+K: Opens Keyboard
Properties dialog box
Windows Logo+I: Opens Mouse
Properties dialog box
Windows Logo+A: Starts Accessibility
Options (if installed)
Windows Logo+SPACEBAR: Displays the list
of Microsoft IntelliType shortcut keys
Windows Logo+S: Toggles CAPS LOCK on
and off
170. DIALOG BOX KEYBOARD
COMMANDS
TAB: Move to the next control in the dialog box
SHIFT+TAB: Move to the previous control in the
dialog box
SPACEBAR: If the current control is a
button, this clicks the button. If the current
control is a check box, this toggles the check
box. If the current control is an option, this
selects the option.
ENTER: Equivalent to clicking the selected
button (the button with the outline)
ESC: Equivalent to clicking the Cancel button
ALT+underlined letter in dialog box item: Move
to the corresponding item
171.
172. WHAT IS BUSINESS?
Business is an economic system in
which goods and services are
exchanged for one another
or money, on the basis of their
perceived worth. Every business
requires some form of
investment and a sufficient number
of customers to whom
its output can be sold at profit on
a consistent basis.
174. CORPORATION:
A corporation provides limited liability for the
investors. Except as indicated below, none of
the shareholders in a corporation is obligated
for the debts of the corporation; creditors can
look only to the corporation's assets for
payment. The corporation files its own tax
return and pays taxes on its income. If the
corporation distributes some of its earnings in
the form of dividends, it does not deduct the
dividend in computing its taxes, but the
shareholder recipients must pay taxes on those
dividends even though the corporation has paid
taxes on its earnings. A corporation has some
tax benefits such as deductibility of health
insurance premiums.
175. COOPERATIVE:
A cooperative (also co-operative or co-op) is
a business organization owned and operated by
a group of individuals for their mutual benefit. A
cooperative is defined by the International
Cooperative Alliance's Statement on the
Cooperative Identity as
"an autonomous association of persons united
voluntarily to meet their common
economic, social, and cultural needs and
aspirations through jointly owned and
democratically controlled enterprise". A
cooperative may also be defined as a business
owned and controlled equally by the people
who use its services or by the people who work
there. Various aspects regarding cooperative
enterprise are the focus of study in the field
of cooperative economics.
176. PARTNERSHIPS:
A partnership is the relationship existing
between two or more persons who join to carry
on a trade or business. Each person contributes
money, property, labor or skill, and expects to
share in the profits and losses of the business.
A partnership must file an annual information
return to report the
income, deductions, gains, losses, etc., from its
operations, but it does not pay income tax.
Instead, it "passes through" any profits or
losses to its partners. Each partner includes his
or her share of the partnership's income or loss
on his or her tax return.
177. SOLE PROPRIETORSHIP:
A sole proprietorship is one person alone. He
or she will have unlimited liability for all debts
of the business, and the income or loss from
the business will be reported on his or her
personal income tax return along with all other
income and expense he or she normally reports
(although it will be on a separate schedule).
Although proprietorship avoids the expense of
forming a partnership or corporation, many
start businesses this way because they are
unfamiliar with the other forms of organizations.
178. INCORPORATED:
A firm or company that
has been formed into
a legal corporation by
completing the required
procedures.
180. Assets, liabilities and owners' equity are the three
components that make up a company's balance sheet.
The balance sheet, which shows a business's financial
condition at any point, is based on this equation:
Assets = Liabilities + Owners' EquityThis equation is
also the framework for keeping track of money as it
flows in and out of your company. Starting with the first
penny you earn, you'll record in a general ledger each
and every transaction using a double-entry system of
debits and credits. Assets get recorded on the top or the
left side of the balance sheet; liabilities and owners'
equity are recorded on the bottom or the right side of the
balance sheet.
The information on each company's general ledger is
unique to that business; however, all companies classify
their general ledger accounts as assets, liabilities or
owners' equity. Businesses use more specific accounts
within each classification, for example, "current assets"
or "long-term liabilities," to organize and track their
finances.
181. WHAT ARE ASSETS?
An asset is anything of value that your
company owns — including cash. Assets
get recorded on the balance sheet in
terms of their dollar values.
Remember, even if you used credit to
purchase an asset, you still own it. Its
full dollar value gets recorded on one
side of the balance sheet as an
asset, and the amount you owe gets
recorded on the other side of the balance
sheet as a liability.
182. THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES OF
ASSETS:
Current assets. These are assets with dollar amounts
that continually change, for example, cash, accounts
receivable, inventory or raw materials your company
uses to make a product. They are listed on the balance
sheet in order of their liquidity, or how fast they can be
converted into cash.
Investments. Companies, like individuals, can own
securities such as stocks and bonds. Investments, like
cash or property, are considered assets.
Capital assets. Think of capital assets, also called plant
assets, as permanent things your company owns.
Land, buildings, equipment and vehicles are common
capital assets. So are things like computers, furniture
and appliances, as long as they remain for use within
your business and are not items you sell.
Intangible assets. Patents, copyrights and other
nonmaterial assets that have value are referred to as
intangible.
183. WHAT ARE LIABILITIES?
Liabilities are anything
a company owes to
people or businesses
other than its owners is
considered a liability.
184. THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF
LIABILITIES:
Current liabilities. In general, if a
liability must be paid within a year, it is
considered current. This includes
bills, money you owe to your vendors
and suppliers, employee payroll and
short-term loans.
Long-term liabilities. A long-term
liability is any debt that extends
beyond one year, such as a mortgage.
185. OWNERS' EQUITY:
Owners' equity, also called capital, is any debt
owed to the business owners. For example, if
you invested $50,000 of your savings to start a
business, that amount is recorded in a capital
account, also referred to as an owners'-equity
account. In publicly traded
companies, outstanding preferred and common
stock also represents owners' equity.
Your business's revenues and expenses are
also recorded in capital accounts because they
relate to how much money your company
makes over a period of time. At the end of each
accounting cycle, a business' profits get
transferred to a capital account.
187. HOW DOES THE INTERNET WORK?
To help you understand how the Internet
works, we'll look at the things that
happen when you do a typical Internet
operation — pointing a browser at the
front page of this document at its home
on the Web at the Linux Documentation
Project. This document is
http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Unix-and-
Internet-Fundamentals-
HOWTO/index.html
188. NAMES AND LOCATIONS:
The first thing your browser has to do is to establish
a network connection to the machine where the
document lives. To do that, it first has to find the
network location of the host www.tldp.org (‘host’ is
short for ‘host machine’ or ‘network host';
www.tldp.org is a typical hostname). The
corresponding location is actually a number called
an IP address (we'll explain the ‘IP’ part of this term
later).
To do this, your browser queries a program called
a name server. The name server may live on your
machine, but it's more likely to run on a service
machine that yours talks to. When you sign up with
an ISP, part of your setup procedure will almost
certainly involve telling your Internet software the IP
address of a name server on the ISP's network.
189. THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM
The whole network of programs and databases
that cooperates to translate hostnames to IP
addresses is called ‘DNS’ (Domain Name
System). When you see references to a ‘DNS
server’, that means what we just called a
nameserver. Now I'll explain how the overall
system works.
Internet hostnames are composed of parts
separated by dots. A domain is a collection of
machines that share a common name suffix.
Domains can live inside other domains. For
example, the machine www.tldp.org lives in the
.tldp.org subdomain of the .org domain.
190. Each domain is defined by
an authoritative name server that knows
the IP addresses of the other machines
in the domain. The authoritative (or
‘primary') name server may have
backups in case it goes down; if you see
references to a secondary name
server or (‘secondary DNS') it's talking
about one of those. These secondaries
typically refresh their information from
their primaries every few hours, so a
change made to the hostname-to-IP
mapping on the primary will
automatically be propagated.
191. PACKETS AND ROUTERS:
What the browser wants to do is send a
command to the Web server on www.tldp.org
that looks like this:
GET /LDP/HOWTO/Fundamentals.html HTTP/1.0
Here's how that happens. The command is
made into a packet, a block of bits like a
telegram that is wrapped with three important
things; the source address (the IP address of
your machine), the destination
address(152.19.254.81), and a service
number or port number (80, in this case) that
indicates that it's a World Wide Web request.
192. TCP AND IP:
The lower level, IP (Internet Protocol), is
responsible for labeling individual packets with
the source address and destination address of
two computers exchanging information over a
network. For example, when you access
http://www.tldp.org, the packets you send will
have your computer's IP address, such as
192.168.1.101, and the IP address of the
www.tldp.org computer, 152.2.210.81. These
addresses work in much the same way that
your home address works when someone
sends you a letter. The post office can read the
address and determine where you are and how
best to route the letter to you, much like a router
does for Internet traffic.
193. The upper level, TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol), gives you reliability. When two
machines negotiate a TCP connection (which
they do using IP), the receiver knows to send
acknowledgements of the packets it sees back
to the sender. If the sender doesn't see an
acknowledgement for a packet within some
timeout period, it resends that packet.
Furthermore, the sender gives each TCP packet
a sequence number, which the receiver can use
to reassemble packets in case they show up out
of order. (This can easily happen if network
links go up or down during a connection.)
194. HTTP:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
is a combination of the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol and a cryptographic protocol. It is
an encrypted form of information transfer
on the internet.
Http://-Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is
an application-level protocol for
distributed,collaborative,hypermedia
information systems. It’s use for retrieving
inter-linked resources led to the
establishment of the World Wide Web
195. HTML:
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is the
predominant markup language for web pages. HTML
elements are the basic building-blocks of webpages.
HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting
of tags, enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within
the web page content. HTML tags most commonly come
in pairs like <h1> and </h1>, although some
tags, known as empty elements, are unpaired, for
example <img>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the
second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening
tags and closing tags). In between these tags web
designers can add text, tags, comments, and other
types of text-based content.
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML
documents and compose them into visible or audible
web pages. The browser does not display the HTML
tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the
page.
196. HTML elements form the building blocks of all
websites. HTML allows images and objects to
be embedded and can be used to
create interactive forms. It provides a means to
create structured documents by denoting
structural semantics for text such as
headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and
other items. It can embed scripts in languages
such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of
HTML web pages.
Web browsers can also refer to Cascading Style
Sheets (CSS) to define the appearance and
layout of text and other material.
The W3C, maintainer of both the HTML and the
CSS standards, encourages the use of CSS
over explicitly presentational HTML markup.[1]
197. WORLD WIDE WEB:
The World Wide Web (abbreviated
as WWW or W3,[2] and commonly known as the Web)
is a system of interlinked hypertext documents
accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one
can view web pages that may contain
text, images, videos, and
other multimedia and navigate between them via
hyperlinks.
Using concepts from earlier hypertext
systems, British engineer and computer scientist Sir
Tim Berners-Lee, now Director of the World Wide
Web Consortium (W3C), wrote a proposal in March
1989 for what would eventually become the World
Wide Web.[1] At CERN in
Geneva, Switzerland, Berners-Lee and Belgian
computer scientist Robert Cailliau proposed in 1990
to use hypertext "... to link and access information
of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user
can browse at will",[3] and they publicly introduced
the project in December.[4]
198. "The World-Wide Web was developed to
be a pool of human knowledge, and
human culture, which would allow
collaborators in remote sites to share
their ideas and all aspects of a common
project."[5]
199. URL:
URL stands for Uniform Resource
Locator. A URL is a formatted text string
used by Web browsers, email clients and
other software to identify a network
resource on the Internet. Network
resources are files that can be plain Web
pages, other text
documents, graphics, or programs.URL
strings consist of three parts
(substrings):
1. network protocol
2. host name or address
3. file or resource location
200.
201. WHAT IS A LETTER?
A letter is a message written by a
person to convey a message to
another. Letters represent mutual
friendship and a type of humanly
communication, especially on a
regular letter exchange between
two people.
202. FRIENDLY LETTER:
Friendly letters are letters that you write to a friend.
They are usually filled with information about
you, and ask questions about how your friend is
doing. To write a friendly letter, put the date in the
upper right hand corner. Begin with a greeting, for
example ' Dear Brittany,' Next write the body of the
letter. Include all of the information and questions
you have for the person you are writing to.
Remember to indent each paragraph. When you are
finished writing your letter, end with a closing, such
as ' Sincerely,' ' Yours truly,' or ' Love,' followed
below by your name. When you are finished writing
your letter, reread it to see if
grammar, punctuation, and spelling is correct, and if
what you wrote is clear to the person you are writing
to.
203. EXAMPLE OF FRIENDLY LETTER:
13 Villaluz Street
Angono,Rizal
September 2, 2011
Dear Susan,
It feels like such a long time since the last time I saw you. I know it's only
been several weeks since I saw you. So far my summer has been great!
I spend my all my weekends at the beach. I am getting a nice tan and you
can no longer say I am paler than you. I have been playing lots of
volleyball, surfing and building a nice collection of sea shells. Just this past
weekend I took second place in a sandcastle building contest!
On the weekdays I work. I drive an ice cream truck around and sell ice cream
to the kids. It is so cool. It is a combination of the two things I love most, ice cream
and kids. The pay isn't too great but I love the job so much.
I hope the summer's been going well for you too. There's only a month and a
half left in summer vacation and after that it's back to school. Would you like to
meet up some time before school starts?
Your friend,
Kate
204. BUSINESS LETTER:
A business letter is written in formal language. The
letter is written for official correspondence between
two organizations and organizations and
customers, clients, etc. The style of the business
letter depends on the relationship that is shared
between the two parties. A business letter is used
for various purposes like offering a business deal to
other organization, accepting an offer, denying an
offer, new schemes for customer, extending the
contract with a client.
A business letter should be short and to the point.
The content used in the letter should be clear and it
should suffice the objective of writing the letter. The
letter has to give out the main message to be
conveyed right in the beginning. The letter should
not have any typographical and grammatical error.
205. EXAMPLE OF BUSINESS LETTER:
13 Villaluz Street
Angono,Rizal
September 2, 2011
Ms. Betty Johnson
Accounts Payable
The Cooking Store
765 Berliner Plaza
Industrial Point, CA 68534
Dear Ms. Johnson:
It has come to my attention that your company, The Cooking Store has been
late with paying their invoices for the past three months.
In order to encourage our customers to pay for their invoices before the due
date, we have implemented a discount model where we'll give you 2% off your
invoice if you pay us within 10 days of receiving the invoice.
I hope that everything is going well for you and your company. You are one of
our biggest customers, and we appreciate your business. If you have any
questions, feel free to contact me at (555) 555-5555.
Sincerely,
Patrisha Kate R. Picones
206. INVITATION LETTER:
An invitation letter serves the purpose of
inviting a guest to a party, event or celebration
while conveying more information than a
traditional invitation card. It serves two
purposes; one, to invite the individual to the
event and two, to ensure that the person
receiving the letter is going to attend. There are
two tenses used within the invitation letter, the
present and the future. The present tense
conveys information about the event and the
future tense ensures the guest is going to
attend.
207. EXAMPLE OF INVITATION LETTER
:
13 Villaluz Street
Angono,Rizal
September 2, 2011
Dear Mr. and Mrs. Portacio,
As the parents of the bride, I would like to take this opportunity to invite you to the
wedding of our daughter, Sandra Green to her fiancé, Adam Locke. On this joyous
occasion, we wish to share the day with our closest friends and family members.
Children grow faster than any of us can imagine, the time is upon us to watch our
child grow and flourish into a new stage of their life. He proposed while the two of them were on
vacation, she happily accepted and now they are to be married.
The formal event will be located at the Fire Lake Golf and Country Club on the
fifteenth of August at three o'clock, two thousand and nine.
Please RSVP by the fifteenth of June to ensure attendance.
We hope to see you there to enjoy this special day with friends and family.
Sincerely Yours,
Patrisha Picones
208. EXCUSE LETTER:
The routine is familiar: when a
student is late or absent from
school, a letter from the parents
must be supplied for the absence to
be excused. Sometimes such letters
suggest that the parents were
excused from school too many
times in their own youth.
209. EXAMPLE OF EXCUSE LETTER :
13 Villaluz Street
Angono,Rizal
September 2, 2011
Dear Ms. Bonifacio:
Please excuse me for being absent on
September 1, 2011. I’m not felling well because of
headache.
Thank you for your kind consideration.
Sincerely yours,
Patrisha Kate Picones
210. RESUME:
A resume is a summary of your experiences and skills
relevant to the field of work you are entering.
It highlights your accomplishments to show a potential
employer that you are qualified for the work you want. It
is not a biography of everything you have done.
Its purpose is to get you an interview.
A resume can (and often should) reflect more than just
your paid work experience. Current students, in
particular, should consider including the details of your
more important extracurricular, volunteer and leadership
experiences.
Tailor separate resumes to fit each career field in which
you are job searching. Some people create slightly
different resumes tailored to each job opening.
Remember that you can attend a resume workshop or
have your resume critiqued here at the Career Center.
211. EXAMPLE OF A RESUME:
13 Villaluz Street
Angono,Rizal
September 2, 2011
Home: (410) 555-1212 Office: (410) 844-1212
Job Title and Vacancy Announcement Number: TTC -XX- Law Enforcement
Officer
Veteran's Preference: N/A
Federal Civilian Status: N/A
Country of Citizenship: U.S.A.
CERTIFICATIONS: Firefighter II, National Professional Qualifications Board
EDUCATION:
University of Maryland — Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21228
Degree: B.S. Degree, magna cum laude, May 1994
Academic: GPA: 3.85/4.0
Major: Emergency Health Services — Paramedic Track
Academic Honors: Fall 1992, Spring 1993, and Fall 1993
Honor Society Membership: Phi Kappa Phi
Calvert Hall College High School, Baltimore, MD 21286
College preparatory curriculum, received diploma, June 1989
212. TRAINING
Introduction to Criminal Justice
Essex Community College, Baltimore, MD, 21229, January — May 1995
COMPUTER SKILLS: Macintosh and PCS, Microsoft Windows, Microsoft
Works, WordPerfect
EMPLOYMENT HISTORY:
Nordstrom
10400 Mill Run Circle, Owings Mills, MD 21117
From: 11/95 — To: Present
Salary: $8.00/hour
Hours: 20-30/week
Supervisor: Christopher Troutman
Telephone: (410) 555-1212
Present employer may be contacted.
Position: Loss Prevention Specialist
Educate associates regarding external losses of merchandise. Ensure
compliance with security procedures. Prevent external loss by using
surveillance techniques, undercover operations, and physical deterrents.
Provide a safe environment for both employees and customers. Control
internal loss by monitoring physical inventory and financial transactions.
Volunteer Experience:
Stevenson Volunteer Fire and Ambulance Company, 6/92 — 4/95
Stevenson, MD 21230, 15 — 20 hours per week
Supervisor: Roger E. Waters, Telephone (410) 555-8989
Volunteer Firefighter — Active volunteer in community, with the duty of
providing quality medical care to the sick and injured, and preservation of life
and property.
