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Justice Quarterly
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“Striking out” as crime reduction policy: The impact of
“three strikes” laws on crime rates in U.S. cities
Tomislav V. Kovandzic a; John J. Sloan III a; Lynne M. Vieraitis a
a University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Online Publication Date: 01 June 2004
To cite this Article: Kovandzic, Tomislav V., Sloan III, John J. and Vieraitis, Lynne
M. (2004) '“Striking out” as crime reduction policy: The impact of “three strikes”
laws on crime rates in U.S. cities', Justice Quarterly, 21:2, 207 — 239
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A R T I C L E S
" S T R I K I N G OUT" A S C R I M E
R E D U C T I O N P O L I C Y :
T H E I M P A C T O F " T H R E E S T R I K E S "
I.AWS O N C R I M E R A T E S I N U . S . C I T I E S
TOMISLAV V. KOVANDZIC*
J O H N J. SLOAN, III**
L Y N N E M. VIERAITIS***
U n i v e r s i t y of Alabama at B i r m i n g h a m
During t h e 1990s, i n response to public dissatisfaction over w h a t were
perceived as ineffective crime reduction policies, 25 states and Congress
passed t h r e e strikes laws, designed to d e t e r criminal offenders by
m a n d a t i n g significant sentence e n h a n c e m e n t s for those w i t h prior
convictions. F e w large-scale e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e i m p a c t of t h e s .
· What Did Robert Merton Know, AnywayChapter 12 discussed Polic.docxoswald1horne84988
· What Did Robert Merton Know, Anyway?
Chapter 12 discussed Policing and Special Populations. In a 1-2 page paper, using examples from policing, determine how prejudice and discrimination intersect with each other.
You are encouraged to seek examples from at least three (3) external sources.
Here are some notes down below to help!!
Police and Crime Prevention
The idea of crime prevention as an important function of policing can be traced to Sir Robert Peel who established crime prevention as one of the Metropolitan London Police goals. Since the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice Report in the late 1960s, crime prevention has become an acceptable function of policing in America. The concept of crime prevention involves education, training, public relations, and the development of strategies to prevent criminal activities. For the last several decades, there have been a variety of crime prevention studies, programs, and strategies advocated to help prevent the individual, neighborhoods, and government and private organizations from becoming victims of crime.
The community has a role to play in crime prevention. National commissions such as the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice and the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice and Goals brought to national attention the importance of crime prevention for the community. The goal of Community Crime Prevention Programs (CCPPs) in the 1970s indicated that community organizations and local institutions had an important role in crime prevention efforts. The goal was for the police and community organizations to provide the impetus in neighborhood crime prevention efforts.
In the final decades of the twentieth century the police came to the realization, with a push from the federal government studies, that crime cannot be solved when left without the cooperation and assistance of the community. Only when citizen participation exists in crime prevention can we expect that crime can be reduced.
A community crime prevention approach involves the police and the communities working together not only to reduce crime but also to prevent it. To achieve community crime prevention several techniques and strategies are put into operation. Defensible Space as a crime prevention approach is workable and to a great extent successful. Defensible space provides residents with a secure environment relatively free from crime. Another technique similar to “defensible space” is Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). This concept holds that crime prevention involves the physical design of buildings along with citizen involvement and the effective use of police agencies. The thrust of the CPTED model implies that the physical environment can be orchestrated to prevent potential offenders from committing incidents of crime along with improving the quality of life. The third strategy to prevent crime is Situational Crime Prevent.
239Chapter 9 POLICE PSYCHOLOGY In this ch.docxnovabroom
239
Chapter 9
POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
In this chapter, you will become familiar with:
The diverse nature of law enforcement agencies operating in the
United States
The practice of police psychology and how it has changed over time
The four major domains of practice in police psychology
Some of the specifi c profi ciencies of police psychologists
•
•
•
•
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Police psychology is the application of psychological theory and research
to law enforcement or, more specifi cally, “ the delivery of psychological
services to and on behalf of law enforcement agencies, their executives,
and employees ” (Aumiller et al., 2007, p. 65). As we will see, the fi eld
of law enforcement is broad. It certainly includes the local agencies, typi-
cally city or county police and sheriff departments, with which we are
most familiar. But it is much broader, and includes various public safety,
corrections, and national security agencies at all levels of government. We
begin this chapter with overviews of law enforcement and the history of
police psychology in the United States. Next, we discuss in greater detail
four core domains of police psychology: assessment, intervention, opera-
tional support, and organizational consulting. Specifi c topics in the fi eld
of correctional psychology, including the assessment and management of
offenders, are covered in Chapter 9.
Modern societies give law enforcement agencies the responsibility to
uphold their laws and protect their citizens, and give them special powers
to do so. But how do we make sure that law enforcement agencies hire the
best possible offi cers, give them the best possible education and training,
and support them to do the best job possible? And what can law enforce-
ment agencies do to minimize the chances that a tragedy such as the shoot-
ing of Jean - Charles de Menezes does not happen again? These are the
kinds of questions that interest police psychologists.
c09.indd 239c09.indd 239 11/3/09 5:46:55 PM11/3/09 5:46:55 PM
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/17/2020 6:18 PM via STRAYER UNIVERSITY
AN: 309009 ; Roesch, Ronald, Hart, Stephen D., Zapf, Patricia A..; Forensic Psychology and Law
Account: strayer.main.eds-live
240 Police Psychology
POLICING IN THE UNITED STATES
Police or law enforcement agencies are bureaucracies created by gov-
erning bodies to maintain public order and safety by ensuring compliance
with laws, rules, and regulations (Skolnick, 2001). The term governing
London, England . It is July 22, 2005, two we.
239Chapter 9 POLICE PSYCHOLOGY In this ch.docxjesusamckone
239
Chapter 9
POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
In this chapter, you will become familiar with:
The diverse nature of law enforcement agencies operating in the
United States
The practice of police psychology and how it has changed over time
The four major domains of practice in police psychology
Some of the specifi c profi ciencies of police psychologists
•
•
•
•
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Police psychology is the application of psychological theory and research
to law enforcement or, more specifi cally, “ the delivery of psychological
services to and on behalf of law enforcement agencies, their executives,
and employees ” (Aumiller et al., 2007, p. 65). As we will see, the fi eld
of law enforcement is broad. It certainly includes the local agencies, typi-
cally city or county police and sheriff departments, with which we are
most familiar. But it is much broader, and includes various public safety,
corrections, and national security agencies at all levels of government. We
begin this chapter with overviews of law enforcement and the history of
police psychology in the United States. Next, we discuss in greater detail
four core domains of police psychology: assessment, intervention, opera-
tional support, and organizational consulting. Specifi c topics in the fi eld
of correctional psychology, including the assessment and management of
offenders, are covered in Chapter 9.
Modern societies give law enforcement agencies the responsibility to
uphold their laws and protect their citizens, and give them special powers
to do so. But how do we make sure that law enforcement agencies hire the
best possible offi cers, give them the best possible education and training,
and support them to do the best job possible? And what can law enforce-
ment agencies do to minimize the chances that a tragedy such as the shoot-
ing of Jean - Charles de Menezes does not happen again? These are the
kinds of questions that interest police psychologists.
c09.indd 239c09.indd 239 11/3/09 5:46:55 PM11/3/09 5:46:55 PM
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/17/2020 6:18 PM via STRAYER UNIVERSITY
AN: 309009 ; Roesch, Ronald, Hart, Stephen D., Zapf, Patricia A..; Forensic Psychology and Law
Account: strayer.main.eds-live
240 Police Psychology
POLICING IN THE UNITED STATES
Police or law enforcement agencies are bureaucracies created by gov-
erning bodies to maintain public order and safety by ensuring compliance
with laws, rules, and regulations (Skolnick, 2001). The term governing
London, England . It is July 22, 2005, two we.
ReferencesBarrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2.docxaudeleypearl
References
Barrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2017). Reincarceration Risk Among Men with Mental Illnesses Leaving Prison: A Risk Environment Analysis. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(8), 883–892. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10597-017-0113-z
Garot, R. (2019). Rehabilitation Is Reentry. Prisoner Reentry in the 21st Century: Critical Perspectives of Returning Home.
Hlavka, H., Wheelock, D., & Jones, R. (2015). Exoffender Accounts of Successful Reentry from Prison. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(6), 406–428. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10509674.2015.1057630
Ho, D. (2011). Intervention-A New Way-Out to Solve the Chronic Offenders. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(2), 167–172.
Mobley, A. (2014). Prison reentry as a rite of passage for the formerly incarcerated. Contemporary Justice Review, 17(4), 465–477. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10282580.2014.980968
Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273–1290. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1177/0002764218773817
Serowik, K. L., & Yanos, P. (2013). The relationship between services and outcomes for a prison reentry population of those with severe mental illness. Mental Health & Substance Use: Dual Diagnosis, 6(1), 4–14. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/17523281.2012.660979
SHUFORD, J. A. (2018). The missing link in reentry: Changing prison culture. Corrections Today, 80(2), 42–102.
Thompkins, D. E., Curtis, R., & Wendel, T. (2010). Forum: the prison reentry industry. Dialectical Anthropology, 34(4), 427–429. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10624-010-9164-z
Woods, L. N., Lanza, A. S., Dyson, W., & Gordon, D. M. (2013). The Role of Prevention in Promoting Continuity of Health Care in Prisoner Reentry Initiatives. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 830–838. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300961
Prison Reentry and Rehabilitation
Recommendations
Evidence based developed systems; since at the moment there is adequate research in this area it is important that systems that will be developed in future should look at previous research and how it was successful or not.
Secondly Re-entry should be digitized, every aspect in our society therefore it makes sense where by re-entry programs are also digitized it will help to make the policy much more effective.
Thirdly religion implementation in the re-entry programs should be intensified, as through evidence; religion has proven to be effective, rehabilitation and re-entry of the clients back to the society (Morag & Teman, 2018).
Conclusion
Re-entry has not been digitized whereby in this day an era every functioning aspect of our lives/society is on the internet.
The re-entry programs seem to be a product of financial implications of the states rather than the greater good of reducing the incarceration numbers.
One as ...
· What Did Robert Merton Know, AnywayChapter 12 discussed Polic.docxoswald1horne84988
· What Did Robert Merton Know, Anyway?
Chapter 12 discussed Policing and Special Populations. In a 1-2 page paper, using examples from policing, determine how prejudice and discrimination intersect with each other.
You are encouraged to seek examples from at least three (3) external sources.
Here are some notes down below to help!!
Police and Crime Prevention
The idea of crime prevention as an important function of policing can be traced to Sir Robert Peel who established crime prevention as one of the Metropolitan London Police goals. Since the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice Report in the late 1960s, crime prevention has become an acceptable function of policing in America. The concept of crime prevention involves education, training, public relations, and the development of strategies to prevent criminal activities. For the last several decades, there have been a variety of crime prevention studies, programs, and strategies advocated to help prevent the individual, neighborhoods, and government and private organizations from becoming victims of crime.
The community has a role to play in crime prevention. National commissions such as the President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice and the National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice and Goals brought to national attention the importance of crime prevention for the community. The goal of Community Crime Prevention Programs (CCPPs) in the 1970s indicated that community organizations and local institutions had an important role in crime prevention efforts. The goal was for the police and community organizations to provide the impetus in neighborhood crime prevention efforts.
In the final decades of the twentieth century the police came to the realization, with a push from the federal government studies, that crime cannot be solved when left without the cooperation and assistance of the community. Only when citizen participation exists in crime prevention can we expect that crime can be reduced.
A community crime prevention approach involves the police and the communities working together not only to reduce crime but also to prevent it. To achieve community crime prevention several techniques and strategies are put into operation. Defensible Space as a crime prevention approach is workable and to a great extent successful. Defensible space provides residents with a secure environment relatively free from crime. Another technique similar to “defensible space” is Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). This concept holds that crime prevention involves the physical design of buildings along with citizen involvement and the effective use of police agencies. The thrust of the CPTED model implies that the physical environment can be orchestrated to prevent potential offenders from committing incidents of crime along with improving the quality of life. The third strategy to prevent crime is Situational Crime Prevent.
239Chapter 9 POLICE PSYCHOLOGY In this ch.docxnovabroom
239
Chapter 9
POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
In this chapter, you will become familiar with:
The diverse nature of law enforcement agencies operating in the
United States
The practice of police psychology and how it has changed over time
The four major domains of practice in police psychology
Some of the specifi c profi ciencies of police psychologists
•
•
•
•
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Police psychology is the application of psychological theory and research
to law enforcement or, more specifi cally, “ the delivery of psychological
services to and on behalf of law enforcement agencies, their executives,
and employees ” (Aumiller et al., 2007, p. 65). As we will see, the fi eld
of law enforcement is broad. It certainly includes the local agencies, typi-
cally city or county police and sheriff departments, with which we are
most familiar. But it is much broader, and includes various public safety,
corrections, and national security agencies at all levels of government. We
begin this chapter with overviews of law enforcement and the history of
police psychology in the United States. Next, we discuss in greater detail
four core domains of police psychology: assessment, intervention, opera-
tional support, and organizational consulting. Specifi c topics in the fi eld
of correctional psychology, including the assessment and management of
offenders, are covered in Chapter 9.
Modern societies give law enforcement agencies the responsibility to
uphold their laws and protect their citizens, and give them special powers
to do so. But how do we make sure that law enforcement agencies hire the
best possible offi cers, give them the best possible education and training,
and support them to do the best job possible? And what can law enforce-
ment agencies do to minimize the chances that a tragedy such as the shoot-
ing of Jean - Charles de Menezes does not happen again? These are the
kinds of questions that interest police psychologists.
c09.indd 239c09.indd 239 11/3/09 5:46:55 PM11/3/09 5:46:55 PM
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/17/2020 6:18 PM via STRAYER UNIVERSITY
AN: 309009 ; Roesch, Ronald, Hart, Stephen D., Zapf, Patricia A..; Forensic Psychology and Law
Account: strayer.main.eds-live
240 Police Psychology
POLICING IN THE UNITED STATES
Police or law enforcement agencies are bureaucracies created by gov-
erning bodies to maintain public order and safety by ensuring compliance
with laws, rules, and regulations (Skolnick, 2001). The term governing
London, England . It is July 22, 2005, two we.
239Chapter 9 POLICE PSYCHOLOGY In this ch.docxjesusamckone
239
Chapter 9
POLICE PSYCHOLOGY
In this chapter, you will become familiar with:
The diverse nature of law enforcement agencies operating in the
United States
The practice of police psychology and how it has changed over time
The four major domains of practice in police psychology
Some of the specifi c profi ciencies of police psychologists
•
•
•
•
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Police psychology is the application of psychological theory and research
to law enforcement or, more specifi cally, “ the delivery of psychological
services to and on behalf of law enforcement agencies, their executives,
and employees ” (Aumiller et al., 2007, p. 65). As we will see, the fi eld
of law enforcement is broad. It certainly includes the local agencies, typi-
cally city or county police and sheriff departments, with which we are
most familiar. But it is much broader, and includes various public safety,
corrections, and national security agencies at all levels of government. We
begin this chapter with overviews of law enforcement and the history of
police psychology in the United States. Next, we discuss in greater detail
four core domains of police psychology: assessment, intervention, opera-
tional support, and organizational consulting. Specifi c topics in the fi eld
of correctional psychology, including the assessment and management of
offenders, are covered in Chapter 9.
Modern societies give law enforcement agencies the responsibility to
uphold their laws and protect their citizens, and give them special powers
to do so. But how do we make sure that law enforcement agencies hire the
best possible offi cers, give them the best possible education and training,
and support them to do the best job possible? And what can law enforce-
ment agencies do to minimize the chances that a tragedy such as the shoot-
ing of Jean - Charles de Menezes does not happen again? These are the
kinds of questions that interest police psychologists.
c09.indd 239c09.indd 239 11/3/09 5:46:55 PM11/3/09 5:46:55 PM
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/17/2020 6:18 PM via STRAYER UNIVERSITY
AN: 309009 ; Roesch, Ronald, Hart, Stephen D., Zapf, Patricia A..; Forensic Psychology and Law
Account: strayer.main.eds-live
240 Police Psychology
POLICING IN THE UNITED STATES
Police or law enforcement agencies are bureaucracies created by gov-
erning bodies to maintain public order and safety by ensuring compliance
with laws, rules, and regulations (Skolnick, 2001). The term governing
London, England . It is July 22, 2005, two we.
ReferencesBarrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2.docxaudeleypearl
References
Barrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2017). Reincarceration Risk Among Men with Mental Illnesses Leaving Prison: A Risk Environment Analysis. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(8), 883–892. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10597-017-0113-z
Garot, R. (2019). Rehabilitation Is Reentry. Prisoner Reentry in the 21st Century: Critical Perspectives of Returning Home.
Hlavka, H., Wheelock, D., & Jones, R. (2015). Exoffender Accounts of Successful Reentry from Prison. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(6), 406–428. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10509674.2015.1057630
Ho, D. (2011). Intervention-A New Way-Out to Solve the Chronic Offenders. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(2), 167–172.
Mobley, A. (2014). Prison reentry as a rite of passage for the formerly incarcerated. Contemporary Justice Review, 17(4), 465–477. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10282580.2014.980968
Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273–1290. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1177/0002764218773817
Serowik, K. L., & Yanos, P. (2013). The relationship between services and outcomes for a prison reentry population of those with severe mental illness. Mental Health & Substance Use: Dual Diagnosis, 6(1), 4–14. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/17523281.2012.660979
SHUFORD, J. A. (2018). The missing link in reentry: Changing prison culture. Corrections Today, 80(2), 42–102.
Thompkins, D. E., Curtis, R., & Wendel, T. (2010). Forum: the prison reentry industry. Dialectical Anthropology, 34(4), 427–429. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10624-010-9164-z
Woods, L. N., Lanza, A. S., Dyson, W., & Gordon, D. M. (2013). The Role of Prevention in Promoting Continuity of Health Care in Prisoner Reentry Initiatives. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 830–838. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300961
Prison Reentry and Rehabilitation
Recommendations
Evidence based developed systems; since at the moment there is adequate research in this area it is important that systems that will be developed in future should look at previous research and how it was successful or not.
Secondly Re-entry should be digitized, every aspect in our society therefore it makes sense where by re-entry programs are also digitized it will help to make the policy much more effective.
Thirdly religion implementation in the re-entry programs should be intensified, as through evidence; religion has proven to be effective, rehabilitation and re-entry of the clients back to the society (Morag & Teman, 2018).
Conclusion
Re-entry has not been digitized whereby in this day an era every functioning aspect of our lives/society is on the internet.
The re-entry programs seem to be a product of financial implications of the states rather than the greater good of reducing the incarceration numbers.
One as ...
ReferencesBarrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2.docxlorent8
References
Barrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2017). Reincarceration Risk Among Men with Mental Illnesses Leaving Prison: A Risk Environment Analysis. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(8), 883–892. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10597-017-0113-z
Garot, R. (2019). Rehabilitation Is Reentry. Prisoner Reentry in the 21st Century: Critical Perspectives of Returning Home.
Hlavka, H., Wheelock, D., & Jones, R. (2015). Exoffender Accounts of Successful Reentry from Prison. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(6), 406–428. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10509674.2015.1057630
Ho, D. (2011). Intervention-A New Way-Out to Solve the Chronic Offenders. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(2), 167–172.
Mobley, A. (2014). Prison reentry as a rite of passage for the formerly incarcerated. Contemporary Justice Review, 17(4), 465–477. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10282580.2014.980968
Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273–1290. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1177/0002764218773817
Serowik, K. L., & Yanos, P. (2013). The relationship between services and outcomes for a prison reentry population of those with severe mental illness. Mental Health & Substance Use: Dual Diagnosis, 6(1), 4–14. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/17523281.2012.660979
SHUFORD, J. A. (2018). The missing link in reentry: Changing prison culture. Corrections Today, 80(2), 42–102.
Thompkins, D. E., Curtis, R., & Wendel, T. (2010). Forum: the prison reentry industry. Dialectical Anthropology, 34(4), 427–429. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10624-010-9164-z
Woods, L. N., Lanza, A. S., Dyson, W., & Gordon, D. M. (2013). The Role of Prevention in Promoting Continuity of Health Care in Prisoner Reentry Initiatives. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 830–838. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300961
Prison Reentry and Rehabilitation
Recommendations
Evidence based developed systems; since at the moment there is adequate research in this area it is important that systems that will be developed in future should look at previous research and how it was successful or not.
Secondly Re-entry should be digitized, every aspect in our society therefore it makes sense where by re-entry programs are also digitized it will help to make the policy much more effective.
Thirdly religion implementation in the re-entry programs should be intensified, as through evidence; religion has proven to be effective, rehabilitation and re-entry of the clients back to the society (Morag & Teman, 2018).
Conclusion
Re-entry has not been digitized whereby in this day an era every functioning aspect of our lives/society is on the internet.
The re-entry programs seem to be a product of financial implications of the states rather than the greater good of reducing the incarceration numbers.
One as.
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social RealityThe American criminal just.docxwillcoxjanay
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social Reality
The American criminal justice system is a mirror that shows a distorted image of the dangers that threaten us—an image created more by the shape of the mirror than by the reality reflected.
—Jeffrey Reiman and Paul Leighton
For decades, polls have found that people in the United States are wor- ried about crime. A Gallup poll found that people worried their credit card information would be stolen by hackers (69%), their homes would be bur- glarized when they were not there (45%), their car would be stolen (42%), their child would be physically harmed while attending school (31%), they would be mugged on the streets (31%), their home would be burglarized when they were there (30%), they would be victims of terrorism (28%), they would be attacked while driving their car (20%), they would be murdered (18%), they would be the victim of a hate crime (18%), they would be sexu- ally assaulted (18%), or they would be assaulted/killed at work (7%) (Riffkin, 2014). The learning process for these fears is complex, but one contributing factor is the dissemination of crime statistics by the media and the govern- ment. (Recall our discussion of the crime clock in the first chapter.) How reli- able and valid are these statistics? Does the public’s perception of crime reflect the reality of crime?
The number of people who fear crime is substantial. Perceptions about individuals who engage in criminal behavior are even more revealing. Jef- frey Reiman and Paul Leighton (2017) describe the stereotyped image:
Think of a crime, any crime. . . . What do you see? The odds are you are not imagining an oil company executive sitting at his desk, calculating the costs of proper safety precautions and deciding not to invest in them. Prob
ably what you see with your mind’s eye is one person attacking another physically or robbing something from another via the threat of physical attack. Look more closely. What does the attacker look like? It’s a safe bet he (and it is a he, of course) is not wearing a suit and tie. In fact, you—like us, like almost anyone else in America—picture a young, tough, lower- class male when the thought of crime first pops into your head. (p. 74)
The “Typical Criminal” in the minds of most people who fear being vic- tims of crime is poor, young, urban, and black—“threatening the lives, limbs, and possessions of the law-abiding members of society, necessitating recourse to the ultimate weapons of force and detention in our common defense” (pp. 67–68).
The presidential campaign for George H. Bush in 1988 capitalized on this stereotypical image with its infamous “Willie Horton” commercials. The governor of Massachusetts, Michael Dukakis, was Bush’s opponent; his state had a highly successful prison furlough program. The Bush campaign seized on a single case where a participant in the program (Horton) committed a violent crime while on furlough. Willie Horton was an African American male whose predations were .
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social RealityThe American criminal just.docxfaithxdunce63732
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social Reality
The American criminal justice system is a mirror that shows a distorted image of the dangers that threaten us—an image created more by the shape of the mirror than by the reality reflected.
—Jeffrey Reiman and Paul Leighton
For decades, polls have found that people in the United States are wor- ried about crime. A Gallup poll found that people worried their credit card information would be stolen by hackers (69%), their homes would be bur- glarized when they were not there (45%), their car would be stolen (42%), their child would be physically harmed while attending school (31%), they would be mugged on the streets (31%), their home would be burglarized when they were there (30%), they would be victims of terrorism (28%), they would be attacked while driving their car (20%), they would be murdered (18%), they would be the victim of a hate crime (18%), they would be sexu- ally assaulted (18%), or they would be assaulted/killed at work (7%) (Riffkin, 2014). The learning process for these fears is complex, but one contributing factor is the dissemination of crime statistics by the media and the govern- ment. (Recall our discussion of the crime clock in the first chapter.) How reli- able and valid are these statistics? Does the public’s perception of crime reflect the reality of crime?
The number of people who fear crime is substantial. Perceptions about individuals who engage in criminal behavior are even more revealing. Jef- frey Reiman and Paul Leighton (2017) describe the stereotyped image:
Think of a crime, any crime. . . . What do you see? The odds are you are not imagining an oil company executive sitting at his desk, calculating the costs of proper safety precautions and deciding not to invest in them. Prob
ably what you see with your mind’s eye is one person attacking another physically or robbing something from another via the threat of physical attack. Look more closely. What does the attacker look like? It’s a safe bet he (and it is a he, of course) is not wearing a suit and tie. In fact, you—like us, like almost anyone else in America—picture a young, tough, lower- class male when the thought of crime first pops into your head. (p. 74)
The “Typical Criminal” in the minds of most people who fear being vic- tims of crime is poor, young, urban, and black—“threatening the lives, limbs, and possessions of the law-abiding members of society, necessitating recourse to the ultimate weapons of force and detention in our common defense” (pp. 67–68).
The presidential campaign for George H. Bush in 1988 capitalized on this stereotypical image with its infamous “Willie Horton” commercials. The governor of Massachusetts, Michael Dukakis, was Bush’s opponent; his state had a highly successful prison furlough program. The Bush campaign seized on a single case where a participant in the program (Horton) committed a violent crime while on furlough. Willie Horton was an African American male whose predations were .
Violence and Popular CultureViolence exists and has existed in a.docxdickonsondorris
Violence and Popular Culture
Violence exists and has existed in all societies. In contemporary North American society, we also see violence frequently in media--from news to films to video games. These representations have been blamed for creating a culture of fear and inspiring real violence, particularly among youth.
Media analysts argue that the question of media and violence must shift from a focus on violence in media to a focus on violence in our broader society. They argue that we need to make interconnections between class, gender, race and inequality in the debate on violence. This can be a difficult shift to make because contemporary media is rife with overt and subtle instances of violence. Violence is portrayed in the news, music videos, reality TV crime shows, films and video games.
In the wake of the tragic shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, media pundits discussed (Opens new window) whether video game consumption was producing violent people. While this is an interesting question, in this module we do not focus on whether violent images produce violent people. Nor do we examine whether media imagery has become increasingly violent. As one scholar (Opens new window)puts it,
Violence has always figured prominently in storytelling. Violent imagery has been around since hunters began scratching accounts of their exploits on the walls of caves. . . . Artifacts of Egyptian, Sumerian, Minoan, and Babylonian peoples all depict violent events, as do classical works of the ancient Greeks written 3,000 years ago. . . . The books of the Old Testament, written during the same period, are filled with accounts of genocide, war, human sacrifice, and, of course, various plagues. And as Mel Gibson so eloquently reminded moviegoers with his hugely successful film, The Passion of the Christ (2004), the biggest story of the New Testament culminates in rioting, ritual torture, and public execution. Perhaps more to the point, these grizzly stories have been repeated for centuries to children and adults alike as important works of history and religion. (Trend, The Myth of Media Violence 12-13)
This is not to deny that exposure to violent images may contribute toward violent behaviour.(Opens new window) But in a sociology course like this one, our job is to examine the role popular culture's representation of violence plays in the maintenance of cultural hegemony.
Video
Watch Mean World Syndrome (2010). (Opens new window)According to the documentary, what are some of the myths associated with media violence? What does George Gerbner say is the reason why violence pervades the media? How does popular culture use representations of violence to perpetuate racist myths? What is "mean world syndrome" anyway?
Law-and-order ideology
Law-and-order ideology has been chronically present in public, media, and political discourse, but it has assumed an even larger role in recent years. Particular media portrayals of criminal justice interact with ...
Current imprisonment rates, future forecasts and security issuesPaul Colbert
Current imprisonment rates, future forecasts and security issues – Implications for Australian Prison Systems
- Meanings of security
- Current trends in crime and imprisonment
- Prospects of reversing the expansion of imprisonment
- Performance indicators related to security
- Terrorism and terrorist trials and their effect on prison regimes
http://www.inmatecountyjail.com
This assessment is designed to evaluate your proficiency in the foll.docxhowardh5
This assessment is designed to evaluate your proficiency in the following standards: CCSS: W.11-12.4 - Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
CCSS: RL.11-12.3. Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of the story or drama (for example, where the story is set, how the action is ordered, and how the characters are introduced and developed).
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.11-12.2
Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of the text.
Read:
“As the North Wind Howled” | The New Yorker
And answer the questions:
1.
Writers use literary devices to signal to their readers important details that build the themes of their story, one such literary device used in the above story is ___________. _________ helps to develop the plot by showing the reader __________ about the story. For example when it says ____________ this means _________, which builds the plot by ______.
2.
A possible theme for this story is ________________ because _______. On the other hand it could be _______ because ________.
.
This assessment has three-parts. Click each of the items below to.docxhowardh5
This assessment has three-parts. Click each of the items below to complete this assessment.
Part I: Family Engagement
As you begin to consider how you will engage families at the start of the new school year, it is important to reflect upon why family engagement is necessary and beneficial for children, families, and early childhood programs. Review Document #1: Blue Stream Early Learning Center Overview.
Document #1: Blue Stream Early Learning Center Overview
Center Information
Founded in 1978
Five Different Classroom Levels
1. 6 weeks to 1 year old
1. 1 year old to 2 years old
1. 2 years old to 3 years old
1. 3 years old
1. 4 years old and 5 years old
Classroom Size: Up to 12 children
Teacher/Child Ratio: 1:4 to 1:12 (varies by level)
Current Enrollment: 46
No. of Teachers: 12
Student Demographics
Race/Ethnicity
White: 76%
Asian: 13%
Black: 3%
Hispanic: 8%
Gender
Female: 59%
Male: 41%
Household Income
Less than $25,000: 8%
$25,000 to $49,999: 23%
$50,000 to $74,999: 32%%
$75,000 to $99,999: 27%
$100,000 or more: 10%
Single-Income Household: 39%
Dual-Income Household: 61%
Household Type:
One-Parent: 17%
Two-Parent: 78%
Other (Grandparents, Relatives, etc.): 5%
In two to three pages, do the following:
· Explain why family engagement is important for the healthy development of children and why it is essential to creating a foundation for effective early childhood practice.
· Describe at least two strategies that you would use to engage families prior to the beginning of the school year.
· Explain why you chose these strategies and how each strategy can be used to promote a respectful, reciprocal, and responsive partnership with the families.
Part II: Individualized Family Communication Plans
Imagine that it is now the second week of the school year. You have received the completed Beginning of the Year Questionnaires that you sent to the children’s families as seen in the following documents:
Document #2: Jon Hall: Beginning of the Year Questionnaire
Document #2: John Hall: Beginning of the Year Questionnaire
Tell Me A Little Bit About Your Child
All information will be kept confidential.
Your Name: Stephanie Hall___________________________________________________________
Your Child’s Name: Jonathan Hall______________________________________________________
Nicknames: Jonny, Jon_______________________________________________________________
Does your child have allergies or any other health conditions we should be aware of?
He has illness-induced asthma and is allergic to strawberries._______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
What is the most important thing I should know about your child?
He is painfully shy around new children and adults, but he can be talkative once he gets__________ comfortable with someone. One-on-one interactions are the best way to get him out of his shell._
________________________________________________________________________.
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are as.docxhowardh5
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are asked to assume the role of a director in an early childhood setting. You will be asked to research appropriate funding sources and to create a balanced budget that aligns with the mission and vision of the early childhood program provided in the scenario.
Envision that you are the director of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center. A severe flood has recently occurred in the area, causing water damage to many homes and businesses in the town.
In this Assessment, you will seek new funding sources to cover costs, develop a balanced budget, and provide a rationale for your budgetary decisions.
Your response to this Assessment should:
PART I: FUNDING SOURCES
On the “Funding Source Template” provided, list and describe at least three specific funding sources that you will seek out to help pay for the new costs due to the flooding. Provide a rationale explaining how the funding sources meet the needs of the early childhood program.
PART II – CREATING THE BUDGET
Create a balanced budget under the tab “Please Update Budget” in the Excel “Assessment Budget” document. This balanced budget must account for the following that occurred as a result of the flood:
1. The Learning Place Early Childhood Center needs a great deal of repairs as the entire floor is covered with up to 1-foot of water. The estimated repairs are approximately $15,000.
2. It will cost about $6,000 to fix the damaged furniture and equipment.
3. The outdoor play area has large cracks in the pavement and the jungle gym has become rusty due to flooding. Repairs on the outdoor play area are estimated at about $10,000.
4. Families in the neighborhood are experiencing losses in their homes as well. As a result, several families have decided to withdraw their children from your early childhood care center as they cannot afford the weekly tuition. The estimated tuition loss is approximately $25,000 for the year.
5. Two lead teachers and one assistant teacher have decided to move to a different town, causing them to resign from their positions. These teachers will only be paid approximately half their salaries for the year.
Balance your budget so that it is clearly aligned with the mission and beliefs of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center in the “Assessment Mission” document.
PART III: BUDGET RATIONALE
Write a 3- to 4-page essay that:
· Explains how your budget reflects the mission and vision of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center
· Provides the rationales for the changes that you made to the budget in Part II
· Explains why cash-flow analysis, projections, and long-term planning are all important when managing budgets (Note: In your explanation, be sure to relate these terms to the given scenario and any relevant professional experience that you may have.)
********** I have templates for the assignment. ****************
REFERENCE MATERIALS
PART I
This chapter excerpt provides information on various fundi.
This assessment challenges students to collect, compare and contrast.docxhowardh5
This assessment challenges students to collect, compare and contrast economic data on two countries
(one rich, one poor) and develop a multi draft essay and presentation that includes two policy
recommendations for the poor country on ways it might try to improve its economic performance and
social welfare.
Instructions
1. Students select two countries (one poor; one rich) that they are interested in.
2. Write the essay using the following structure
400 Words
APA
.
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are aske.docxhowardh5
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are asked to evaluate various sources of information related to a topic in the early childhood field. You will choose a topic from the options below, evaluate the credibility of both scholarly and Internet sources, analyze ethical guidelines, and synthesize your findings.
Access the following to complete this Assessment:
University of British Columbia. (n.d.).
Evaluating information sources
. Retrieved from
http://help.library.ubc.ca/evaluating-and-citing-sources/evaluating-information-sources/
University of California Berkeley Library. (2012).
Evaluating web pages: Techniques to apply and questions to ask
. Retrieved from
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/Evaluate.html
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD). (2007).
Ethical standards in research
. Retrieved from
http://www.srcd.org/about-us/ethical-standards-research
Performance Task Submission Template
You will evaluate research related to your chosen topic and write a 5- to 7-page response using the template provided.
Topic Options:
The use of technology in early childhood programs
Dual language instruction in early childhood programs
Inclusion within the early childhood environment
Childhood obesity prevention strategies
This Assessment requires submission of one (1) document: a completed
Performance Task Submission Template
.
.
This Asignment has audio (Dnt knw how to post AUDIO but if u have .docxhowardh5
*This Asignment has audio* (Dnt knw how to post AUDIO but if u have answ great :)
ADELANTE | Escuchar Leccion 7
Preguntas
Contesta las siguientes preguntas según la entrevista.
1.¿Qué tiene Julián en común con otras personas de su misma profesión?
2.¿Te parece que Julián siempre fue rico? ¿Por qué?
3.¿Qué piensas de Julián como persona?
.
This article was downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University].docxhowardh5
This article was downloaded by: [Carnegie Mellon University]
On: 07 March 2014, At: 17:16
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
The Academy of Management
Annals
Publication details, including instructions for
authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rama20
Transactive Memory
Systems 1985–2010: An
Integrative Framework of Key
Dimensions, Antecedents, and
Consequences
Yuqing Ren a & Linda Argote b
a Carlson School of Management , University of
Minnesota
b Tepper School of Business , Carnegie Mellon
University
Published online: 26 Jul 2011.
To cite this article: Yuqing Ren & Linda Argote (2011) Transactive Memory
Systems 1985–2010: An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents,
and Consequences, The Academy of Management Annals, 5:1, 189-229, DOI:
10.1080/19416520.2011.590300
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2011.590300
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Transactive Memory Systems 1985 – 2010:
An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents,
and Consequences
YUQING REN∗
Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota
LINDA ARGOTE
Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University
Abstract
Over two decades have passed since Wegner and his co-authors published th.
This article was downloaded by [University of California, Ber.docxhowardh5
This article was downloaded by: [University of California, Berkeley]
On: 26 February 2013, At: 21:14
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,
37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
Social & Cultural Geography
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rscg20
From oral histories to visual narratives: re-presenting
the post-September 11 experiences of the Muslim
women in the USA
Mei-Po Kwan a
a Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, 1036 Derby Hall, 154 North Oval Mall,
Columbus, OH, 43210-1361, USA E-mail:
Version of record first published: 13 Aug 2008.
To cite this article: Mei-Po Kwan (2008): From oral histories to visual narratives: re-presenting the post-September 11
experiences of the Muslim women in the USA, Social & Cultural Geography, 9:6, 653-669
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649360802292462
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anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should
be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims,
proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in
connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649360802292462
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
From oral histories to visual narratives:
re-presenting the post-September 11
experiences of the Muslim women in the USA
Mei-Po Kwan
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, 1036 Derby Hall,
154 North Oval Mall, Columbus, OH 43210-1361, USA, [email protected]
Since the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in
Washington, DC on 11 September 2001, Muslims or Muslim-looking people in the USA
have experienced a significant increase in hostility and hate violence. The anti-Muslim
hate crimes have affected the lives of these people of color in significant ways. In this
article I seek to recover part of the post-September 11 experiences of American Muslims
that were obfuscated by the dominant anti-Muslim master narrative, which conflated the
Islamic faith with terrorism and constructed all Muslims as dangerous anti-American
outsiders. I explore a way of telling stories about these experiences using the expressive
power of geos.
This article was downloaded by [71.212.37.56]On 18 August .docxhowardh5
This article was downloaded by: [71.212.37.56]
On: 18 August 2014, At: 10:57
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
Ethnic and Racial Studies
Publication details, including instructions for authors
and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rers20
The invisible weight of
whiteness: the racial grammar
of everyday life in contemporary
America
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
Published online: 29 Sep 2011.
To cite this article: Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (2012) The invisible weight of whiteness: the
racial grammar of everyday life in contemporary America, Ethnic and Racial Studies,
35:2, 173-194, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2011.613997
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.613997
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suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed
in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the
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not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions,
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ERS ANNUAL LECTURE 2011
The invisible weight of whiteness: the racial
grammar of everyday life in contemporary
America
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
(First submission July 2011; First published September 2011)
Abstract
Racial domination, like all forms of domination, works best when it
becomes hegemonic, that is, when it accomplishes its goal without much
fanfare. In this paper, based on the Ethnic and Racial Studies Annual Lecture
I delivered in May 2011 in London, I argue there is somet.
This article states that people of color have a high death rate in t.docxhowardh5
This article states that people of color have a high death rate in the state of Texas. The high death rate could be due to lower income, the lack of access to health care, and preexisting conditions. Many people of color work in jobs that are more exposed to the virus and few work from home which is considered safer during the pandemic. Much of the deaths are tied to poverty and high populated areas. Hidalgo county, near the border of Mexico, was hit the hardest by the coronavirus. Delays in insurance and death certificates were the cause for the count being very high early on but they have since recalculated the number to 312 deaths due to the virus. The gulf of Texas was also hit hard with COVID-19. Hindsight being 20/20, we should have been tracking how to recover from the virus rather than focusing on the death toll so much.
“In 2016 an estimated 15 percent of Texans were uninsured, the highest percentage of any state and much higher than the 10 percent figure for the U.S. population as a whole” (Champagne 426). Our united states government has discussed ways to make health care available to all citizens. There are contrasted opinions amongst politicians and citizens on how it should be provided and to what extent. Another question that weighs on our government is: Should health care be a mandatory investment on each person? If the insurance is not affordable to a citizen due to poverty, then someone must pay for it in this scenario. During covid 19, I am sure that the government’s concern for lack of health insurance amongst the poor amplified across Texas. The situation in the article is logically consistent with our textbook. The government has had a concern with the lack of insurance and in the article, people died because of the lack of health care amongst the poorer U.S. citizens.
“Rural communities may be more vulnerable to disease outbreaks as they often exhibit high poverty rates and older populations with increased prevalence of comorbidities” (Holder, Katherine et al.) Comorbidities is the presence of two or more underlying conditions in one person. Holder states that increased inflammation from covid 19 also exasperates the underlying conditions which can cause death quickly in the patient. The author in this article is consistent with the first article and addresses the people that suffered with covid and due to their previous health concerns.
I helplessly watched my husband suffer through the virus along with Pneumonia in January. He does not have underlying health conditions that we are aware of and yet this virus was very scary. I scoured the internet on natural ways to add to the routine of the medications that the medical doctors provided to him. A lot of Mexican tea that consisted of garlic, rosemary, eucalyptus, and lemon was added to the routine along with me having my husband do as much walking as possible. More than anything, we prayed for God’s help. About 5 day.
This article needs to combine four articles to write my own views on.docxhowardh5
This article needs to combine four articles to write my own views on cooperation
1. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2012/8/30/academic-dishonesty-ad-board/
2. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2012/09/harvard-cheating-scandal-everyone-has-it-wrong-the-students-should-be-celebrated-for-collaborating-on-an-unfair-test.html
3. https://blogs.ams.org/phdplus/2013/02/03/the-take-home-lesson-from-the-harvard-cheating-scandal/
4. https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jaal.1002
I have written this essay but I need to revise a lot of things
.
This article deals basically with the dynamic environment of todays.docxhowardh5
This article deals basically with the dynamic environment of today's businesses. Despite all of the efforts a company puts forth to scan the environmental issues, crises can occur and have to be managed. The article first reviews several crises in businesses during the recent times, to define and identify the nature of a crisis. Then the anatomy of a crisis is presented schematically. Finally, by recommending certain preventive measures and interventions, the article concludes that acknowledging a crisis and communicating with the stakeholders are as important as planning the prevention, diagnosis, and intervention to solve crisis situations.
Full Text
Toby J. Kash: Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas, USA
John R. Darling: Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas, USA
Introduction
Strategic planning as a discipline has been concurrently taught and exercised in the past 40 years. This relatively new concept has been the major thrust in the management of US corporations. The art of strategic planning has helped the planners to forecast and cope with a variety of forces, issues and problems beyond their operating control. Nevertheless, all the non-foreseeable issues cannot be forecasted. Therefore, a certain productive function for the management of these issues and crises seems to be missing in a large number of companies. The strategic planning literature shows an experience curve in such forecasts, i.e. as mistakes are made, we learn from them. That is how contingency planning, scenario analysis and surprise management have evolved. The Johnson and Johnson Tylenol case, and the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, are examples recurrently referred to in the strategic management literature. The way these two companies dealt with a crisis issue has provided us with a certain level of knowledge and experience that can be used in similar situations.
We have also learned that it is no longer a question of "if" a business will face a crisis; it is, rather, a question of "when," "what type" and "how prepared" the company is to deal with it (Mittroff et. al., 1996). Whether it is a natural disaster, such as an earthquake, tornado or flood, or a man made disaster, such as accidents, wildcat strikes or product tampering, a business will eventually face some form of crisis.
The MIR space station, built and placed in operation by the Soviet Union in 1986, had a very limited mission and encountered anticipated mechanical problems, for which the planners had devised solutions. With the infusion of $400 million by the USA to jointly operate the system, MIR faced a situation in June 1997 that was not forecasted. An unmanned cargo ship hit the spacecraft, disabling the MIR solar panels, thus affecting the airconditioning and lighting functions. This was a crisis to deal with. Two measures were found appropriate: a space walk for temporary repairs, and a manned supply shuttle later to perform major repairs. The question is, could t.
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The .docxhowardh5
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or
licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party
websites are prohibited.
In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the
article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or
institutional repository. Authors requiring further information
regarding Elsevier’s archiving and manuscript policies are
encouraged to visit:
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Author's personal copy
A simheuristic algorithm for the Single-Period Stochastic
Inventory-Routing Problem with stock-outs
Angel A. Juan a,⇑, Scott E. Grasman b, Jose Caceres-Cruz a,1, Tolga Bektas� c
a Department of Computer Science, Multimedia, and Telecommunication, IN3-Open University of Catalonia, 08018 Barcelona, Spain
b Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, USA
c Southampton Management School and Centre for Operational Research, Management Science and Information Systems (CORMSIS), University of Southampton, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 7 December 2013
Keywords:
Inventory-Routing Problem
Stochastic demands
Stock-outs
Simulation–optimization
Simheuristics
Randomized heuristics
a b s t r a c t
This paper describes a ‘simheuristic’ algorithm – one which combines simulation with
heuristics – for solving a stochastic variant of the well-known Inventory-Routing Problem.
The variant discussed here is integrated by a vehicle routing problem and several inventory
problems characterized by stochastic demands. Initial stock levels and potential stock-outs
are also considered, as well as a set of alternative refill policies for each retail center. The
goal is to find the personalized refill policies and associated routing plan that minimize, at
each single period, the expected total costs of the system, i.e., the sum of inventory and
routing costs. After motivating it, a detailed description of the problem is provided. Then,
a review of the related literature is performed and our simulation–optimization approach
is introduced. The paper presents a set of numerical experiments comparing the proposed
method against different refill strategies and discusses how total costs evolve as the level of
system uncertainty and the inventory-holding costs per unit are varied.
� 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
One of the most important paradigms in supply chain management is to move from sequential decision making toward
integrated decision making, where all parties in the supply chain determine the best policy for the entire system. This is in
contrast to sequentially optimized decisions in supply chains.
This are two separate questions with 100 words each.1)Currentl.docxhowardh5
This are two separate questions with 100 words each.
1)
Currently, a foreign born naturalized citizen cannot be President or Vice President, per the Constitution. Should this portion of the Constitution be amended? Why or why not?
2)
One problem in the electoral process is campaign contributions. Where does that money from? Why do people and organizations contribute thousands of dollars to candidates an political parties? Does money buy influence? Shoud it?
.
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ReferencesBarrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2.docxlorent8
References
Barrenger, S., Draine, J., Angell, B., & Herman, D. (2017). Reincarceration Risk Among Men with Mental Illnesses Leaving Prison: A Risk Environment Analysis. Community Mental Health Journal, 53(8), 883–892. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10597-017-0113-z
Garot, R. (2019). Rehabilitation Is Reentry. Prisoner Reentry in the 21st Century: Critical Perspectives of Returning Home.
Hlavka, H., Wheelock, D., & Jones, R. (2015). Exoffender Accounts of Successful Reentry from Prison. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(6), 406–428. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10509674.2015.1057630
Ho, D. (2011). Intervention-A New Way-Out to Solve the Chronic Offenders. International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, 6(2), 167–172.
Mobley, A. (2014). Prison reentry as a rite of passage for the formerly incarcerated. Contemporary Justice Review, 17(4), 465–477. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/10282580.2014.980968
Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273–1290. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1177/0002764218773817
Serowik, K. L., & Yanos, P. (2013). The relationship between services and outcomes for a prison reentry population of those with severe mental illness. Mental Health & Substance Use: Dual Diagnosis, 6(1), 4–14. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1080/17523281.2012.660979
SHUFORD, J. A. (2018). The missing link in reentry: Changing prison culture. Corrections Today, 80(2), 42–102.
Thompkins, D. E., Curtis, R., & Wendel, T. (2010). Forum: the prison reentry industry. Dialectical Anthropology, 34(4), 427–429. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.1007/s10624-010-9164-z
Woods, L. N., Lanza, A. S., Dyson, W., & Gordon, D. M. (2013). The Role of Prevention in Promoting Continuity of Health Care in Prisoner Reentry Initiatives. American Journal of Public Health, 103(5), 830–838. https://doi-org.ezproxy.fiu.edu/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300961
Prison Reentry and Rehabilitation
Recommendations
Evidence based developed systems; since at the moment there is adequate research in this area it is important that systems that will be developed in future should look at previous research and how it was successful or not.
Secondly Re-entry should be digitized, every aspect in our society therefore it makes sense where by re-entry programs are also digitized it will help to make the policy much more effective.
Thirdly religion implementation in the re-entry programs should be intensified, as through evidence; religion has proven to be effective, rehabilitation and re-entry of the clients back to the society (Morag & Teman, 2018).
Conclusion
Re-entry has not been digitized whereby in this day an era every functioning aspect of our lives/society is on the internet.
The re-entry programs seem to be a product of financial implications of the states rather than the greater good of reducing the incarceration numbers.
One as.
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social RealityThe American criminal just.docxwillcoxjanay
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social Reality
The American criminal justice system is a mirror that shows a distorted image of the dangers that threaten us—an image created more by the shape of the mirror than by the reality reflected.
—Jeffrey Reiman and Paul Leighton
For decades, polls have found that people in the United States are wor- ried about crime. A Gallup poll found that people worried their credit card information would be stolen by hackers (69%), their homes would be bur- glarized when they were not there (45%), their car would be stolen (42%), their child would be physically harmed while attending school (31%), they would be mugged on the streets (31%), their home would be burglarized when they were there (30%), they would be victims of terrorism (28%), they would be attacked while driving their car (20%), they would be murdered (18%), they would be the victim of a hate crime (18%), they would be sexu- ally assaulted (18%), or they would be assaulted/killed at work (7%) (Riffkin, 2014). The learning process for these fears is complex, but one contributing factor is the dissemination of crime statistics by the media and the govern- ment. (Recall our discussion of the crime clock in the first chapter.) How reli- able and valid are these statistics? Does the public’s perception of crime reflect the reality of crime?
The number of people who fear crime is substantial. Perceptions about individuals who engage in criminal behavior are even more revealing. Jef- frey Reiman and Paul Leighton (2017) describe the stereotyped image:
Think of a crime, any crime. . . . What do you see? The odds are you are not imagining an oil company executive sitting at his desk, calculating the costs of proper safety precautions and deciding not to invest in them. Prob
ably what you see with your mind’s eye is one person attacking another physically or robbing something from another via the threat of physical attack. Look more closely. What does the attacker look like? It’s a safe bet he (and it is a he, of course) is not wearing a suit and tie. In fact, you—like us, like almost anyone else in America—picture a young, tough, lower- class male when the thought of crime first pops into your head. (p. 74)
The “Typical Criminal” in the minds of most people who fear being vic- tims of crime is poor, young, urban, and black—“threatening the lives, limbs, and possessions of the law-abiding members of society, necessitating recourse to the ultimate weapons of force and detention in our common defense” (pp. 67–68).
The presidential campaign for George H. Bush in 1988 capitalized on this stereotypical image with its infamous “Willie Horton” commercials. The governor of Massachusetts, Michael Dukakis, was Bush’s opponent; his state had a highly successful prison furlough program. The Bush campaign seized on a single case where a participant in the program (Horton) committed a violent crime while on furlough. Willie Horton was an African American male whose predations were .
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social RealityThe American criminal just.docxfaithxdunce63732
Crime Waves, Fears, and Social Reality
The American criminal justice system is a mirror that shows a distorted image of the dangers that threaten us—an image created more by the shape of the mirror than by the reality reflected.
—Jeffrey Reiman and Paul Leighton
For decades, polls have found that people in the United States are wor- ried about crime. A Gallup poll found that people worried their credit card information would be stolen by hackers (69%), their homes would be bur- glarized when they were not there (45%), their car would be stolen (42%), their child would be physically harmed while attending school (31%), they would be mugged on the streets (31%), their home would be burglarized when they were there (30%), they would be victims of terrorism (28%), they would be attacked while driving their car (20%), they would be murdered (18%), they would be the victim of a hate crime (18%), they would be sexu- ally assaulted (18%), or they would be assaulted/killed at work (7%) (Riffkin, 2014). The learning process for these fears is complex, but one contributing factor is the dissemination of crime statistics by the media and the govern- ment. (Recall our discussion of the crime clock in the first chapter.) How reli- able and valid are these statistics? Does the public’s perception of crime reflect the reality of crime?
The number of people who fear crime is substantial. Perceptions about individuals who engage in criminal behavior are even more revealing. Jef- frey Reiman and Paul Leighton (2017) describe the stereotyped image:
Think of a crime, any crime. . . . What do you see? The odds are you are not imagining an oil company executive sitting at his desk, calculating the costs of proper safety precautions and deciding not to invest in them. Prob
ably what you see with your mind’s eye is one person attacking another physically or robbing something from another via the threat of physical attack. Look more closely. What does the attacker look like? It’s a safe bet he (and it is a he, of course) is not wearing a suit and tie. In fact, you—like us, like almost anyone else in America—picture a young, tough, lower- class male when the thought of crime first pops into your head. (p. 74)
The “Typical Criminal” in the minds of most people who fear being vic- tims of crime is poor, young, urban, and black—“threatening the lives, limbs, and possessions of the law-abiding members of society, necessitating recourse to the ultimate weapons of force and detention in our common defense” (pp. 67–68).
The presidential campaign for George H. Bush in 1988 capitalized on this stereotypical image with its infamous “Willie Horton” commercials. The governor of Massachusetts, Michael Dukakis, was Bush’s opponent; his state had a highly successful prison furlough program. The Bush campaign seized on a single case where a participant in the program (Horton) committed a violent crime while on furlough. Willie Horton was an African American male whose predations were .
Violence and Popular CultureViolence exists and has existed in a.docxdickonsondorris
Violence and Popular Culture
Violence exists and has existed in all societies. In contemporary North American society, we also see violence frequently in media--from news to films to video games. These representations have been blamed for creating a culture of fear and inspiring real violence, particularly among youth.
Media analysts argue that the question of media and violence must shift from a focus on violence in media to a focus on violence in our broader society. They argue that we need to make interconnections between class, gender, race and inequality in the debate on violence. This can be a difficult shift to make because contemporary media is rife with overt and subtle instances of violence. Violence is portrayed in the news, music videos, reality TV crime shows, films and video games.
In the wake of the tragic shooting in Newtown, Connecticut, media pundits discussed (Opens new window) whether video game consumption was producing violent people. While this is an interesting question, in this module we do not focus on whether violent images produce violent people. Nor do we examine whether media imagery has become increasingly violent. As one scholar (Opens new window)puts it,
Violence has always figured prominently in storytelling. Violent imagery has been around since hunters began scratching accounts of their exploits on the walls of caves. . . . Artifacts of Egyptian, Sumerian, Minoan, and Babylonian peoples all depict violent events, as do classical works of the ancient Greeks written 3,000 years ago. . . . The books of the Old Testament, written during the same period, are filled with accounts of genocide, war, human sacrifice, and, of course, various plagues. And as Mel Gibson so eloquently reminded moviegoers with his hugely successful film, The Passion of the Christ (2004), the biggest story of the New Testament culminates in rioting, ritual torture, and public execution. Perhaps more to the point, these grizzly stories have been repeated for centuries to children and adults alike as important works of history and religion. (Trend, The Myth of Media Violence 12-13)
This is not to deny that exposure to violent images may contribute toward violent behaviour.(Opens new window) But in a sociology course like this one, our job is to examine the role popular culture's representation of violence plays in the maintenance of cultural hegemony.
Video
Watch Mean World Syndrome (2010). (Opens new window)According to the documentary, what are some of the myths associated with media violence? What does George Gerbner say is the reason why violence pervades the media? How does popular culture use representations of violence to perpetuate racist myths? What is "mean world syndrome" anyway?
Law-and-order ideology
Law-and-order ideology has been chronically present in public, media, and political discourse, but it has assumed an even larger role in recent years. Particular media portrayals of criminal justice interact with ...
Current imprisonment rates, future forecasts and security issuesPaul Colbert
Current imprisonment rates, future forecasts and security issues – Implications for Australian Prison Systems
- Meanings of security
- Current trends in crime and imprisonment
- Prospects of reversing the expansion of imprisonment
- Performance indicators related to security
- Terrorism and terrorist trials and their effect on prison regimes
http://www.inmatecountyjail.com
Similar to This article was downloaded by[Florida International Universi.docx (7)
This assessment is designed to evaluate your proficiency in the foll.docxhowardh5
This assessment is designed to evaluate your proficiency in the following standards: CCSS: W.11-12.4 - Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience.
CCSS: RL.11-12.3. Analyze the impact of the author’s choices regarding how to develop and relate elements of the story or drama (for example, where the story is set, how the action is ordered, and how the characters are introduced and developed).
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RL.11-12.2
Determine two or more themes or central ideas of a text and analyze their development over the course of the text, including how they interact and build on one another to produce a complex account; provide an objective summary of the text.
Read:
“As the North Wind Howled” | The New Yorker
And answer the questions:
1.
Writers use literary devices to signal to their readers important details that build the themes of their story, one such literary device used in the above story is ___________. _________ helps to develop the plot by showing the reader __________ about the story. For example when it says ____________ this means _________, which builds the plot by ______.
2.
A possible theme for this story is ________________ because _______. On the other hand it could be _______ because ________.
.
This assessment has three-parts. Click each of the items below to.docxhowardh5
This assessment has three-parts. Click each of the items below to complete this assessment.
Part I: Family Engagement
As you begin to consider how you will engage families at the start of the new school year, it is important to reflect upon why family engagement is necessary and beneficial for children, families, and early childhood programs. Review Document #1: Blue Stream Early Learning Center Overview.
Document #1: Blue Stream Early Learning Center Overview
Center Information
Founded in 1978
Five Different Classroom Levels
1. 6 weeks to 1 year old
1. 1 year old to 2 years old
1. 2 years old to 3 years old
1. 3 years old
1. 4 years old and 5 years old
Classroom Size: Up to 12 children
Teacher/Child Ratio: 1:4 to 1:12 (varies by level)
Current Enrollment: 46
No. of Teachers: 12
Student Demographics
Race/Ethnicity
White: 76%
Asian: 13%
Black: 3%
Hispanic: 8%
Gender
Female: 59%
Male: 41%
Household Income
Less than $25,000: 8%
$25,000 to $49,999: 23%
$50,000 to $74,999: 32%%
$75,000 to $99,999: 27%
$100,000 or more: 10%
Single-Income Household: 39%
Dual-Income Household: 61%
Household Type:
One-Parent: 17%
Two-Parent: 78%
Other (Grandparents, Relatives, etc.): 5%
In two to three pages, do the following:
· Explain why family engagement is important for the healthy development of children and why it is essential to creating a foundation for effective early childhood practice.
· Describe at least two strategies that you would use to engage families prior to the beginning of the school year.
· Explain why you chose these strategies and how each strategy can be used to promote a respectful, reciprocal, and responsive partnership with the families.
Part II: Individualized Family Communication Plans
Imagine that it is now the second week of the school year. You have received the completed Beginning of the Year Questionnaires that you sent to the children’s families as seen in the following documents:
Document #2: Jon Hall: Beginning of the Year Questionnaire
Document #2: John Hall: Beginning of the Year Questionnaire
Tell Me A Little Bit About Your Child
All information will be kept confidential.
Your Name: Stephanie Hall___________________________________________________________
Your Child’s Name: Jonathan Hall______________________________________________________
Nicknames: Jonny, Jon_______________________________________________________________
Does your child have allergies or any other health conditions we should be aware of?
He has illness-induced asthma and is allergic to strawberries._______________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
What is the most important thing I should know about your child?
He is painfully shy around new children and adults, but he can be talkative once he gets__________ comfortable with someone. One-on-one interactions are the best way to get him out of his shell._
________________________________________________________________________.
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are as.docxhowardh5
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are asked to assume the role of a director in an early childhood setting. You will be asked to research appropriate funding sources and to create a balanced budget that aligns with the mission and vision of the early childhood program provided in the scenario.
Envision that you are the director of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center. A severe flood has recently occurred in the area, causing water damage to many homes and businesses in the town.
In this Assessment, you will seek new funding sources to cover costs, develop a balanced budget, and provide a rationale for your budgetary decisions.
Your response to this Assessment should:
PART I: FUNDING SOURCES
On the “Funding Source Template” provided, list and describe at least three specific funding sources that you will seek out to help pay for the new costs due to the flooding. Provide a rationale explaining how the funding sources meet the needs of the early childhood program.
PART II – CREATING THE BUDGET
Create a balanced budget under the tab “Please Update Budget” in the Excel “Assessment Budget” document. This balanced budget must account for the following that occurred as a result of the flood:
1. The Learning Place Early Childhood Center needs a great deal of repairs as the entire floor is covered with up to 1-foot of water. The estimated repairs are approximately $15,000.
2. It will cost about $6,000 to fix the damaged furniture and equipment.
3. The outdoor play area has large cracks in the pavement and the jungle gym has become rusty due to flooding. Repairs on the outdoor play area are estimated at about $10,000.
4. Families in the neighborhood are experiencing losses in their homes as well. As a result, several families have decided to withdraw their children from your early childhood care center as they cannot afford the weekly tuition. The estimated tuition loss is approximately $25,000 for the year.
5. Two lead teachers and one assistant teacher have decided to move to a different town, causing them to resign from their positions. These teachers will only be paid approximately half their salaries for the year.
Balance your budget so that it is clearly aligned with the mission and beliefs of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center in the “Assessment Mission” document.
PART III: BUDGET RATIONALE
Write a 3- to 4-page essay that:
· Explains how your budget reflects the mission and vision of The Learning Place Early Childhood Center
· Provides the rationales for the changes that you made to the budget in Part II
· Explains why cash-flow analysis, projections, and long-term planning are all important when managing budgets (Note: In your explanation, be sure to relate these terms to the given scenario and any relevant professional experience that you may have.)
********** I have templates for the assignment. ****************
REFERENCE MATERIALS
PART I
This chapter excerpt provides information on various fundi.
This assessment challenges students to collect, compare and contrast.docxhowardh5
This assessment challenges students to collect, compare and contrast economic data on two countries
(one rich, one poor) and develop a multi draft essay and presentation that includes two policy
recommendations for the poor country on ways it might try to improve its economic performance and
social welfare.
Instructions
1. Students select two countries (one poor; one rich) that they are interested in.
2. Write the essay using the following structure
400 Words
APA
.
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are aske.docxhowardh5
This Assessment constitutes a Performance Task in which you are asked to evaluate various sources of information related to a topic in the early childhood field. You will choose a topic from the options below, evaluate the credibility of both scholarly and Internet sources, analyze ethical guidelines, and synthesize your findings.
Access the following to complete this Assessment:
University of British Columbia. (n.d.).
Evaluating information sources
. Retrieved from
http://help.library.ubc.ca/evaluating-and-citing-sources/evaluating-information-sources/
University of California Berkeley Library. (2012).
Evaluating web pages: Techniques to apply and questions to ask
. Retrieved from
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/Internet/Evaluate.html
Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD). (2007).
Ethical standards in research
. Retrieved from
http://www.srcd.org/about-us/ethical-standards-research
Performance Task Submission Template
You will evaluate research related to your chosen topic and write a 5- to 7-page response using the template provided.
Topic Options:
The use of technology in early childhood programs
Dual language instruction in early childhood programs
Inclusion within the early childhood environment
Childhood obesity prevention strategies
This Assessment requires submission of one (1) document: a completed
Performance Task Submission Template
.
.
This Asignment has audio (Dnt knw how to post AUDIO but if u have .docxhowardh5
*This Asignment has audio* (Dnt knw how to post AUDIO but if u have answ great :)
ADELANTE | Escuchar Leccion 7
Preguntas
Contesta las siguientes preguntas según la entrevista.
1.¿Qué tiene Julián en común con otras personas de su misma profesión?
2.¿Te parece que Julián siempre fue rico? ¿Por qué?
3.¿Qué piensas de Julián como persona?
.
This article was downloaded by [Carnegie Mellon University].docxhowardh5
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On: 07 March 2014, At: 17:16
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The Academy of Management
Annals
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Transactive Memory
Systems 1985–2010: An
Integrative Framework of Key
Dimensions, Antecedents, and
Consequences
Yuqing Ren a & Linda Argote b
a Carlson School of Management , University of
Minnesota
b Tepper School of Business , Carnegie Mellon
University
Published online: 26 Jul 2011.
To cite this article: Yuqing Ren & Linda Argote (2011) Transactive Memory
Systems 1985–2010: An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents,
and Consequences, The Academy of Management Annals, 5:1, 189-229, DOI:
10.1080/19416520.2011.590300
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Transactive Memory Systems 1985 – 2010:
An Integrative Framework of Key Dimensions, Antecedents,
and Consequences
YUQING REN∗
Carlson School of Management, University of Minnesota
LINDA ARGOTE
Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University
Abstract
Over two decades have passed since Wegner and his co-authors published th.
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On: 26 February 2013, At: 21:14
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Social & Cultural Geography
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rscg20
From oral histories to visual narratives: re-presenting
the post-September 11 experiences of the Muslim
women in the USA
Mei-Po Kwan a
a Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, 1036 Derby Hall, 154 North Oval Mall,
Columbus, OH, 43210-1361, USA E-mail:
Version of record first published: 13 Aug 2008.
To cite this article: Mei-Po Kwan (2008): From oral histories to visual narratives: re-presenting the post-September 11
experiences of the Muslim women in the USA, Social & Cultural Geography, 9:6, 653-669
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14649360802292462
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From oral histories to visual narratives:
re-presenting the post-September 11
experiences of the Muslim women in the USA
Mei-Po Kwan
Department of Geography, The Ohio State University, 1036 Derby Hall,
154 North Oval Mall, Columbus, OH 43210-1361, USA, [email protected]
Since the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon in
Washington, DC on 11 September 2001, Muslims or Muslim-looking people in the USA
have experienced a significant increase in hostility and hate violence. The anti-Muslim
hate crimes have affected the lives of these people of color in significant ways. In this
article I seek to recover part of the post-September 11 experiences of American Muslims
that were obfuscated by the dominant anti-Muslim master narrative, which conflated the
Islamic faith with terrorism and constructed all Muslims as dangerous anti-American
outsiders. I explore a way of telling stories about these experiences using the expressive
power of geos.
This article was downloaded by [71.212.37.56]On 18 August .docxhowardh5
This article was downloaded by: [71.212.37.56]
On: 18 August 2014, At: 10:57
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Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,
UK
Ethnic and Racial Studies
Publication details, including instructions for authors
and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rers20
The invisible weight of
whiteness: the racial grammar
of everyday life in contemporary
America
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
Published online: 29 Sep 2011.
To cite this article: Eduardo Bonilla-Silva (2012) The invisible weight of whiteness: the
racial grammar of everyday life in contemporary America, Ethnic and Racial Studies,
35:2, 173-194, DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2011.613997
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.613997
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ERS ANNUAL LECTURE 2011
The invisible weight of whiteness: the racial
grammar of everyday life in contemporary
America
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva
(First submission July 2011; First published September 2011)
Abstract
Racial domination, like all forms of domination, works best when it
becomes hegemonic, that is, when it accomplishes its goal without much
fanfare. In this paper, based on the Ethnic and Racial Studies Annual Lecture
I delivered in May 2011 in London, I argue there is somet.
This article states that people of color have a high death rate in t.docxhowardh5
This article states that people of color have a high death rate in the state of Texas. The high death rate could be due to lower income, the lack of access to health care, and preexisting conditions. Many people of color work in jobs that are more exposed to the virus and few work from home which is considered safer during the pandemic. Much of the deaths are tied to poverty and high populated areas. Hidalgo county, near the border of Mexico, was hit the hardest by the coronavirus. Delays in insurance and death certificates were the cause for the count being very high early on but they have since recalculated the number to 312 deaths due to the virus. The gulf of Texas was also hit hard with COVID-19. Hindsight being 20/20, we should have been tracking how to recover from the virus rather than focusing on the death toll so much.
“In 2016 an estimated 15 percent of Texans were uninsured, the highest percentage of any state and much higher than the 10 percent figure for the U.S. population as a whole” (Champagne 426). Our united states government has discussed ways to make health care available to all citizens. There are contrasted opinions amongst politicians and citizens on how it should be provided and to what extent. Another question that weighs on our government is: Should health care be a mandatory investment on each person? If the insurance is not affordable to a citizen due to poverty, then someone must pay for it in this scenario. During covid 19, I am sure that the government’s concern for lack of health insurance amongst the poor amplified across Texas. The situation in the article is logically consistent with our textbook. The government has had a concern with the lack of insurance and in the article, people died because of the lack of health care amongst the poorer U.S. citizens.
“Rural communities may be more vulnerable to disease outbreaks as they often exhibit high poverty rates and older populations with increased prevalence of comorbidities” (Holder, Katherine et al.) Comorbidities is the presence of two or more underlying conditions in one person. Holder states that increased inflammation from covid 19 also exasperates the underlying conditions which can cause death quickly in the patient. The author in this article is consistent with the first article and addresses the people that suffered with covid and due to their previous health concerns.
I helplessly watched my husband suffer through the virus along with Pneumonia in January. He does not have underlying health conditions that we are aware of and yet this virus was very scary. I scoured the internet on natural ways to add to the routine of the medications that the medical doctors provided to him. A lot of Mexican tea that consisted of garlic, rosemary, eucalyptus, and lemon was added to the routine along with me having my husband do as much walking as possible. More than anything, we prayed for God’s help. About 5 day.
This article needs to combine four articles to write my own views on.docxhowardh5
This article needs to combine four articles to write my own views on cooperation
1. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2012/8/30/academic-dishonesty-ad-board/
2. https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2012/09/harvard-cheating-scandal-everyone-has-it-wrong-the-students-should-be-celebrated-for-collaborating-on-an-unfair-test.html
3. https://blogs.ams.org/phdplus/2013/02/03/the-take-home-lesson-from-the-harvard-cheating-scandal/
4. https://ila.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jaal.1002
I have written this essay but I need to revise a lot of things
.
This article deals basically with the dynamic environment of todays.docxhowardh5
This article deals basically with the dynamic environment of today's businesses. Despite all of the efforts a company puts forth to scan the environmental issues, crises can occur and have to be managed. The article first reviews several crises in businesses during the recent times, to define and identify the nature of a crisis. Then the anatomy of a crisis is presented schematically. Finally, by recommending certain preventive measures and interventions, the article concludes that acknowledging a crisis and communicating with the stakeholders are as important as planning the prevention, diagnosis, and intervention to solve crisis situations.
Full Text
Toby J. Kash: Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas, USA
John R. Darling: Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas, USA
Introduction
Strategic planning as a discipline has been concurrently taught and exercised in the past 40 years. This relatively new concept has been the major thrust in the management of US corporations. The art of strategic planning has helped the planners to forecast and cope with a variety of forces, issues and problems beyond their operating control. Nevertheless, all the non-foreseeable issues cannot be forecasted. Therefore, a certain productive function for the management of these issues and crises seems to be missing in a large number of companies. The strategic planning literature shows an experience curve in such forecasts, i.e. as mistakes are made, we learn from them. That is how contingency planning, scenario analysis and surprise management have evolved. The Johnson and Johnson Tylenol case, and the Union Carbide tragedy in Bhopal, India, are examples recurrently referred to in the strategic management literature. The way these two companies dealt with a crisis issue has provided us with a certain level of knowledge and experience that can be used in similar situations.
We have also learned that it is no longer a question of "if" a business will face a crisis; it is, rather, a question of "when," "what type" and "how prepared" the company is to deal with it (Mittroff et. al., 1996). Whether it is a natural disaster, such as an earthquake, tornado or flood, or a man made disaster, such as accidents, wildcat strikes or product tampering, a business will eventually face some form of crisis.
The MIR space station, built and placed in operation by the Soviet Union in 1986, had a very limited mission and encountered anticipated mechanical problems, for which the planners had devised solutions. With the infusion of $400 million by the USA to jointly operate the system, MIR faced a situation in June 1997 that was not forecasted. An unmanned cargo ship hit the spacecraft, disabling the MIR solar panels, thus affecting the airconditioning and lighting functions. This was a crisis to deal with. Two measures were found appropriate: a space walk for temporary repairs, and a manned supply shuttle later to perform major repairs. The question is, could t.
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The .docxhowardh5
This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached
copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research
and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution
and sharing with colleagues.
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Author's personal copy
A simheuristic algorithm for the Single-Period Stochastic
Inventory-Routing Problem with stock-outs
Angel A. Juan a,⇑, Scott E. Grasman b, Jose Caceres-Cruz a,1, Tolga Bektas� c
a Department of Computer Science, Multimedia, and Telecommunication, IN3-Open University of Catalonia, 08018 Barcelona, Spain
b Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, USA
c Southampton Management School and Centre for Operational Research, Management Science and Information Systems (CORMSIS), University of Southampton, UK
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 7 December 2013
Keywords:
Inventory-Routing Problem
Stochastic demands
Stock-outs
Simulation–optimization
Simheuristics
Randomized heuristics
a b s t r a c t
This paper describes a ‘simheuristic’ algorithm – one which combines simulation with
heuristics – for solving a stochastic variant of the well-known Inventory-Routing Problem.
The variant discussed here is integrated by a vehicle routing problem and several inventory
problems characterized by stochastic demands. Initial stock levels and potential stock-outs
are also considered, as well as a set of alternative refill policies for each retail center. The
goal is to find the personalized refill policies and associated routing plan that minimize, at
each single period, the expected total costs of the system, i.e., the sum of inventory and
routing costs. After motivating it, a detailed description of the problem is provided. Then,
a review of the related literature is performed and our simulation–optimization approach
is introduced. The paper presents a set of numerical experiments comparing the proposed
method against different refill strategies and discusses how total costs evolve as the level of
system uncertainty and the inventory-holding costs per unit are varied.
� 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
One of the most important paradigms in supply chain management is to move from sequential decision making toward
integrated decision making, where all parties in the supply chain determine the best policy for the entire system. This is in
contrast to sequentially optimized decisions in supply chains.
This are two separate questions with 100 words each.1)Currentl.docxhowardh5
This are two separate questions with 100 words each.
1)
Currently, a foreign born naturalized citizen cannot be President or Vice President, per the Constitution. Should this portion of the Constitution be amended? Why or why not?
2)
One problem in the electoral process is campaign contributions. Where does that money from? Why do people and organizations contribute thousands of dollars to candidates an political parties? Does money buy influence? Shoud it?
.
This age of improvement” held both a collective (public) component .docxhowardh5
This “age of improvement” held both a collective (public) component and an individual (private) component. That is, the impulse for reform aimed at improving American society by elevating the moral behavior of individual Americans. Discuss this process by examining the various reform movements that defined the age. How did this impulse for reform seek to impact the broader political, cultural, and economic landscape of American society? When responding to your peers, discuss what the reformers hoped to accomplish. What impact did their efforts have?
*** Use proper citation methods for your discipline when referencing scholarly or popular sources. ***
.
This assignment has three partsKnowing that global busine.docxhowardh5
This assignment has three parts:
Knowing that global business models are constantly changing, how do you perceive IT systems helping or hindering the change process? Explain
What elements do you believe should be included in Disaster Recovery planning and why?
Companies may abuse or ethically misuse information systems in regard to customers and employees. Have you or someone you know experienced such abuse? If so, how was it handled? If not, how would you begin to take steps to eliminate such abuse or misuse?
.
This assignment has many benefits. First, it requires a search o.docxhowardh5
This assignment has many benefits. First, it requires a search of indexing and abstracting databases from the online library to find an article that meets the specified criteria (must be related to ethics). It also emphasizes what a scholarly article is; to discern between scholarly and non-scholarly writing; to condense someone else's lengthy argument into a concise report; to think critically about what has been read by assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the research; and, thus, to become participants in the discussions regarding the topic at hand.
FYI: Wikipedia is not an acceptable resource for academic writing. Please use the university library for reference. Articles must be peer-reviewed.
.
This assignment has 5 parts.Collaboration in a business enviro.docxhowardh5
This assignment has 5 parts.
Collaboration in a business environment is a best practice that leverages the collective knowledge of the team that is assembled. Peer evaluation and support, provided in the spirit of continuous improvement and organizational success, result in higher quality deliverables than what are generally possible by the efforts of an individual.
Describe the process that you plan to use to conduct research, identify findings, and develop the Comprehensive Project that is due in Unit 5.
Present a preliminary outline that indicates how you intend to organize the project deliverable.
Please review the process and outlines of other students, providing an objective assessment and constructive feedback that will help strengthen the effectiveness of their efforts and the quality of their finished products.
What are the essential elements of a Mission Statement?
What is the purpose of a Key Operating Principle?
What sort of additional material would best ensure success of the project? Why?
.
This assignment has one of two options. Please open and view the ass.docxhowardh5
This assignment has one of two options. Please open and view the assignment BEFORE sending any offers. Once you have read the assignment please send me a
detailed personal message letting me know the option you have chosen and that you understand the assignment thoroughly
. Thank you all serious offers will be considered. Generic responses without proof you read the attachment will NOT be considered.
.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
1.4 modern child centered education - mahatma gandhi-2.pptx
This article was downloaded by[Florida International Universi.docx
1. This article was downloaded by:[Florida International
University]
On: 22 July 2008
Access Details: [subscription number 788824511]
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered
Number: 1072954
Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street,
London W1T 3JH, UK
Justice Quarterly
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713722354
“Striking out” as crime reduction policy: The impact of
“three strikes” laws on crime rates in U.S. cities
Tomislav V. Kovandzic a; John J. Sloan III a; Lynne M.
Vieraitis a
a University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Online Publication Date: 01 June 2004
To cite this Article: Kovandzic, Tomislav V., Sloan III, John J.
and Vieraitis, Lynne
M. (2004) '“Striking out” as crime reduction policy: The impact
of “three strikes”
laws on crime rates in U.S. cities', Justice Quarterly, 21:2, 207
— 239
To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/07418820400095791
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820400095791
2. PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
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This article maybe used for research, teaching and private study
purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction,
re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic
supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly
forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or
make any representation that the contents will be
complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any
instructions, formulae and drug doses should be
independently verified with primary sources. The publisher
shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings,
demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused
arising directly or indirectly in connection with or
arising out of the use of this material.
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713722354
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07418820400095791
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access.pdf
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A R T I C L E S
" S T R I K I N G OUT" A S C R I M E
R E D U C T I O N P O L I C Y :
T H E I M P A C T O F " T H R E E S T R I K E S "
I.AWS O N C R I M E R A T E S I N U . S . C I T I E S
TOMISLAV V. KOVANDZIC*
J O H N J. SLOAN, III**
L Y N N E M. VIERAITIS***
U n i v e r s i t y of Alabama at B i r m i n g h a m
During t h e 1990s, i n response to public dissatisfaction over
w h a t were
perceived as ineffective crime reduction policies, 25 states and
Congress
passed t h r e e strikes laws, designed to d e t e r criminal
offenders by
m a n d a t i n g significant sentence e n h a n c e m e n t s for
those w i t h prior
convictions. F e w large-scale e v a l u a t i o n s of t h e i m p
a c t of t h e s e laws on
crime rates, however, have been conducted. Our study used a m
u l t i p l e
t i m e series design and U C R d a t a from 188 cities w i t h
5. populations of
100,000 or more for t h e two decades from 1980 to 2000. We
found, first,
t h a t t h r e e strikes laws a r e positively associated w i t h
homicide r a t e s in
cities in t h r e e s trike s s t a t e s and, second, t h a t cities i
n t h r e e strikes states
witnessed no significant reduction in crime rates.
Between 1993 and 1996, the federal government and 25 states
passed w h a t are popularly known as "three strikes and you're
out"
laws (Austin & Irwin, 2001). Intended to both deter and incap-
* Tomislav Kovandzic is a n a s s i s t a n t professor in t h e
D e p a r t m e n t of J u s t i c e
Sciences at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of A l a b a m a at B i r m i
n g h a m . His c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h
i n t e r e s t s include criminal j u s t i c e policy and g u n - r
e l a t e d violence. His most r e c e n t
articles h a v e appeared in Criminology and Public Policy,
Criminology, and
Homicide Studies. He received his PhD in Criminology from
Florida State
U n i v e r s i t y in 1999.
** J o h n J . Sloan H I is i n t e r i m c h a i r p e r s o n o f
t h e D e p a r t m e n t of J u s t i c e
Sciences a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of A l a b a m a at B i r m
i n g h a m w h e r e h e is also associate
professor of c r i m i n a l justice, sociology, a n d women's
studies. His r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s
include c r i m i n a l j u s t i c e policy, fear and perceived
risk of victimization, and j u v e n i l e
justice. His w o r k h a s a p p e a r e d in such journals as
Justice Quarterly, Criminology,
8. 208 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
acitate recidivists, this legislation generally mandates
significant
sentence enhancements for offenders with prior convictions,
including life sentences without parole for at least 25 years on
conviction of a t h i r d violent felony or for some categories of
offenders simply life without parole (Austin & Irwin, 2001;
Clark,
Austin, & Henry, 1997; Schichor & Sechrest, 1996). 1
Proponents of the s t a t u t e s based t h e i r support on
published
results of career-criminal r e s e a r c h (Shannon, McKim,
Curry, &
Haffner, 1988; West & Farrington, 1977; Wolfgang, Figlio, &
Sellin, 1972) and a r g u e d t h a t the s t a t u t e s would
deter and
incapacitate high-rate recidivist offenders and t h u s result in
lower crime rates. First, u n d e r the sentencing schemes,
"high-
level" offenders ( m e a s u r e d both by the type and the n u m
b e r of
prior convictions) would be specifically targeted for
incarceration
(Stolzenberg & D'Alessio, 1997; Walker, 2001; Zimring, 2001).
Second, the s t a t u t e s would significantly reduce judicial
sentencing discretion, thereby increasing t h e certainty of
p u n i s h m e n t while e n h a n c i n g the t e r m of i m p r i
s o n m e n t and t h u s
increasing t h e severity of the sanction. Finally, states would
rely
more heavily on prisons for r e p e a t offenders t h a n t h e y
h a d in the
past ( D i h l i o , 1994, 1995, 1997; Jones, 1995; Scheidigger
9. &
Rushford, 1999; Wilson & Herrnstein, 1985; Wilson, 1975;
Wyman & Schmidt, 1995). Proponents a r g u e d t h a t by
enhancing
recidivists' sentences, e n s u r i n g they actually serve
enhanced
terms, a n d reducing the chance for early parole release, t h e
s t a t u t e s would reduce judicial discretion, limit t h e
opportunity
for parole boards to release "dangerous" offenders back into t h
e
community, and reduce crime levels because offenders would be
deterred, incapacitated, or both.
Although these laws have now been in effect for nearly a
decade and California's has been evaluated several times (e.g.,
Greenwood, Rydell, Abrahamse, Caulkins, Chiesa, Model, et
al.,
1994; Stolzenberg & D'Alessio, 1997; Zimring, Hawkins, &
Kamin,
2001), only two larger-scale evaluations have been published
(Kovandzic, Sloan, & Vieraitis, 2002; Marvell & Moody, 2001),
and
t h e y focused mainly on homicide. Thus, while much has been
le a rn e d about how three strikes laws m a y work in
California or
about their impact on one serious crime, no large-scale
comprehensive analysis has been published.
This study extends t h e work of Kovandzic et al. (2002) and
Marvell and Moody (2001) by evaluating w h e t h e r t h r e e
strikes
1 There is significant variability in t h e offenses t h a t
"trigger" t h e strike as
well as in t h e specific s e n t e n c e s a d m i n i s t e r e d u
10. n d e r t h e laws. See A u s t i n a n d Irwin
(2001) for an excellent analysis of t h i s variation.
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KOVANDZIC, SLOAN, AND VIERAITIS 209
laws do in fact reduce most forms of serious persona] (murder,
rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and property (burglary
and
motor vehicle theft) crime. Specifically, we examined the
potential
d e t e r r e n t and incapacitative effects of the laws on serious
crime
rates using panel data collected for 188 U.S. cities with
populations
of 100,000 or more for t h e period 1980 to 2000. Our
evaluation
extends previous research in several ways. First, we include
numerous control variables in t h e statistical models to
12. mitigate the
problem of omitted variable bias. Second, to examine the
potential
incapacitative effects of the laws, which would be unlikely to
appear until years after the laws h a d been passed, we use a
longer
post-intervention period in our models. Finally, we a t t e m p t
to
address, though admittedly with limited success, the issue of
simultaneity (i.e., rising crime rates m a y affect the passage a
n d
application of three strikes laws) in our crime rate models. If
simultaneity is not adequately addressed, potential crime-
reducing
effects of t h e laws might be negated by t h e positive effects
of crime
on the passage and application of the laws.
In the sections t h a t follow, we provide an overview of three
strikes laws and review published analyses of the impact of t h e
laws on crime. Then we present our methods and data analytic
plan. Finally, we present results of our analysis and conclude by
discussing our results and their implications for sentencing
policy
in the United States.
Three S t r i k e s L a w s
In 1993, Washington became the first t h r e e strikes state
when
it passed an initiative m a n d a t i n g life t e r m s of
imprisonment
without possibility for parole for individuals convicted a third
time
for specified violent offenses. California quickly became the
second,
13. passing its well-publicized law in 1994. By 1996, 23 other
states
and t h e federal government had enacted similar statutes.
Analyses of the content of these laws by Turner, Sundt,
Applegate, and Cullen (1995) and Austin and Irwin (2001)
reveal
several recurring themes. First, almost all the states include
serious violent offenses (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, and
serious
assault) as strikeable. Other states include drug-related crimes
(Indiana, Louisiana, California); burglary (California); firearm
violations (California); escape (Florida); treason (Washington);
and
embezzlement and bribery (South Carolina). Second, there is
variation in the n u m b e r of strikes needed for an offender to
be out.
In eight states, two strikes bring a significant sentence
enhancement. Third, states differ in the t e r m of incarceration
imposed on offenders who strike out. Eleven impose m a n d a t
o r y life
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210 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
t e r m s of i m p r i s o n m e n t w i t h o u t parole, a n d t h
r e e allow for parole
b u t only after a specified l e n g t h y t e r m of incarceration
(25 y e a r s in
California, 30 years in New Mexico, a n d 40 y e a r s in
Colorado).
Additionally, five (Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Kansas, a n d
Nevada) call for sentence e n h a n c e m e n t s , b u t leave t
h e specifics to
t h e discretion of t h e court. Finally, six (Alaska, Florida, N
o r t h
Dakota, Pennsylvania, U t a h , and Vermont) provide for a r a
n g e of
sentences for r e p e a t offenders t h a t m a y include life in
prison if t h e
final strikeable offense involves serious violence.
Dickey a n d Hollenhorst's i n - d e p t h a s s e s s m e n t
(1998) r e v e a l s - -
despite claims by policy m a k e r s a n d prosecutors t h a t t
h e laws were
a n essential crime fighting t o o l - - t h a t m o s t states
have n o t applied
t h r e e strikes legislation extensively. For example, by mid-
year
1998, 17 states h a d b e t w e e n 0 a n d 38 offenders
sentenced u n d e r
t h r e e strike provisions (Alaska, Arizona, Colorado,
Connecticut,
I n d i a n a , Maryland, M o n t a n a , New Jersey, New
16. Mexico, N o r t h
Carolina, P e n n s y l v a n i a , South Carolina, Tennessee, U t
a h ,
Vermont, Virginia, Wisconsin). Only t h r e e (Florida, Nevada,
Washington) h a d slightly more t h a n 100 offenders serving t
h r e e
strike sentences. The only two states t h a t have applied t h e
legislation w i t h any consistency are California a n d
Georgia. As of
mid-year 1998, Georgia h a d sentenced almost 2,000 offenders
u n d e r one a n d two strike provisions, a n d California more
t h a n
40,000 u n d e r two a n d t h r e e strike provisions.
Effects o f Three Strikes L a w s on Crime 2
Despite t h e popularity of the laws a n d t h e decade t h e y
h a v e
been in effect, few published s t u d i e s h a v e explicitly e v
a l u a t e d t h e i r
i m p a c t on crime. Those t h a t have can be separated into
those
whose focus was California a n d those whose focus was
national.
Additionally, some of t h e studies focused only on t h e laws'
i m p a c t
on certain crimes (e.g., homicide), while others e x a m i n e d t
h e laws'
i m p a c t on a larger set of offenses (e.g., serious property
crime). ~
2 T h e r e h a s b e e n a g r e a t deal of c o m m e n t a r y
o n t h e i m p a c t of t h r e e s t r i k e s
laws o n p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n s ( A u s t i n 1994), t h
e i r r a c i a l d i s p a r i t y (Crawford, Chiricos,
& Kleck, 1998), t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i t y of t h e l a w
17. s (Kadish, 1999), a n d t h e i r f a i r n e s s
(Dickey & H o l l e n h o r s t , 1998; Vitiello, 1997). B e c a u
s e t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y e x a m i n e d
t h e p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t of t h e laws on c r i m e r a t
e s , t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w is l i m i t e d to
p u b l i s h e d s t u d i e s a d d r e s s i n g t h a t q u e s t i
o n .
3 S t u d i e s i n c l u d e d for r e v i e w clearly do n o t r e
p r e s e n t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w
of p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h on C a l i f o r n i a ' s t h r e
e s t r i k e s law. T h e y w e r e selected e i t h e r
b e c a u s e t h e y u s e d s o p h i s t i c a t e d q u a n t i t a
t i v e e v a l u a t i v e d e s i g n s or, i n t h e case of
Z i m r i n g , H a w k i n s , a n d K a m i n (2001), b e c a u
s e of t h e d e p t h of t h e a n a l y s e s .
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19. 211
Evaluating California's Three Strikes Law
The first study to examine the potential incapacitative impact
of California's three strikes laws was a projection analysis
conducted by Greenwood et al. in 1994. Specifically, the
authors
used a m a t h e m a t i c a l model t h a t tracked the flow of
criminals
t h r o u g h t h e justice system, calculated the costs of r u n n
i n g t h e
system, and predicted the n u m b e r of crimes criminals
commit
when on the street. The results of the simulation analysis
suggested t h a t a fully implemented law would reduce serious
crimes (mostly assaults and burglaries) in the state by 28% per
y e a r at an average a n n u a l cost of $5.5 billion. 4 The
authors
assumed no d e t e r r e n t effect of t h e laws on crime,
claiming this
assumption was consistent with prior deterrence research.
Using ARIMA time-series analysis with monthly data,
Stolzenberg and D'Alessio (1997) examined the impact of
California's three strikes law on FBI index offenses in the 10
largest cities in the state from 1985 to 1995. Trends in t h e
petty-
theft r a t e were used as a control group to mitigate possible t
h r e a t s
to internal validity. Three different intervention points t h a t
signify
the effects of the law were considered and the authors opted to
use
the abrupt p e r m a n e n t change model (i.e., the date t h e
law w e n t
20. into effect, March 1994) because it provided the best fit to t h e
data.
They reported that, with the possible exception of Anaheim, the
law h a d little impact on either index crimes or petty theft.
They
presented three possible explanations: (1) existing sentencing
schemes already confined substantial numbers of high-risk
offenders in prison, resulting in a diminishing marginal r e t u r
n
from increased levels of incarceration; (2) by the time m a n y
offenders are confined for their third strike, their criminal
careers
are already on the downturn; and (3) there is little evidence t h
a t
juveniles, despite their accounting for a disproportionate a m o
u n t of
crime in California, were affected by t h e law. ~
Males and Macallair (1999) tested the hypothesis t h a t
California counties t h a t enforced the law more frequently
would
4 G r e e n w o o d e t al. (1994) m a d e a s e r i e s of a s s u
m p t i o n s , some of w h i c h could
be c h a r a c t e r i z e d as q u e s t i o n a b l e , w h i c h h a
d s i g n i f i c a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for t h e r e s u l t s .
F o r example, t h e y a s s u m e d t h e f r a c t i o n of
citizens b e c o m i n g a c t i v e c r i m i n a l s o v e r
t h e 2 5 - y e a r p e r i o d would r e m a i n r o u g h l y c o
n s t a n t , t h e y did n o t allow offenders to
s w i t c h b a c k a n d f o r t h b e t w e e n h i g h a n d
low offense r a t e s , a n d t h a t t h e law would
b e i m p l e m e n t e d a n d e n f o r c e d as w r i t t e n .
5 A s i m i l a r a r g u m e n t was m a d e b y S c h m e r t m
a n n , A m a n k w a a , a n d Long
21. (1998) i n t h e i r a n a l y s e s of t h e i m p a c t of t h r e
e s t r i k e s l a w s on p r i s o n p o p u l a t i o n
figures. S c h m e r t m a n n e t al. concluded t h a t f a i l i n
g to c o n s i d e r age effects o n
c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s r e s u l t s i n a n i n c o m p l
e t e a n a l y s i s of t h e costs a n d b e n e f i t s of t h e
policy i n w h i c h t h e costs of t h e policy a r e u n d e r e
s t i m a t e d w h i l e i t s b e n e f i t s a r e
o v e r e s t i m a t e d .
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212 " S T R I K I N G O U T " A S C R I M E R E D U C T I
O N P O L I C Y
see g r e a t e r reductions in crime a n d t h a t age group
populations (in
this case t h e over-30) m o s t t a r g e t e d by t h e law
would show g r e a t e r
decreases in crime p a t t e r n s . To examine this question,
23. Males a n d
Macallair (1999) collected county FBI index offense arrest
statistics
for t h e state's 12 l a r g e s t counties, disaggregated by age,
3 y e a r s
after t h e law took effect (1995-1997) a n d c o m p a r e d
those d a t a w i t h
3 years' w o r t h of prior d a t a (1991-1993) in t h e s a m e
counties. 6
They found t h a t county crime d a t a for post-law years
failed to
s u p p o r t t h e p r e s u m e d crime reduction promised by t
h e law, either
t h r o u g h selective incapacitation or deterrence. Counties t h
a t
invoked t h e law at h i g h e r r a t e s did n o t experience t
h e g r e a t e s t
decrease in crime. I n fact, S a n t a Clara, one of six counties
m o s t
frequently i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e law, w i t n e s s e d an
increase in violent
crime. Males a n d Macallair (1999) also failed to find age-
related
incapacitative effects, regardless of how often t h e law was
invoked.
T h e i r s t u d y t h u s suggested t h a t California counties
t h a t vigorously
a n d strictly enforced t h e state's t h r e e strikes law did not
experience a decline in any crime category compared to
counties
t h a t applied it less frequently.
Z i m r i n g et al. (2001) u s e d various d a t a to examine t h
e
potential d e t e r r e n t a n d incapacitative effects of t h e
law. They
24. found t h a t "the odds of i m p r i s o n m e n t for second and
t h i r d strike
d e f e n d a n t s w e n t up only modestly" a n d t h a t t h e
r e was "no credible
case to be m a d e for d r a m a t i c qualitative i m p r o v e m
e n t s in t h e rate
of i m p r i s o n m e n t from t h e a d v e n t of t h r e e
strikes in 1994 a n d 1995"
(p. 94). T h e y also a r g u e d t h a t lower crime rates found
statewide in
1994-1995 were evenly spread a m o n g both t a r g e t
(second a n d
t h i r d strike offenders) a n d n o n t a r g e t e d populations
(first strike
offenders). Overall, t h e y concluded t h a t s h o r t - t e r m
felony crime
reduction in t h e state as a r e s u l t of t h e t h r e e strikes
law was
b e t w e e n 0% and 2%. ~
S h e p h e r d (2002) u s e d time-series cross-section d a t a
for 58
California counties for t h e 1983-1996 period to m e a s u r e t
h e full
d e t e r r e n t effect on crime rates. She s u g g e s t e d t h a t
prior studies
(Zimring et al., 1999; Greenwood et al., 1994) u n d e r e s t i m
a t e d t h e
effect because t h e y focused only on r e p e a t offenders. If
strike
sentences d e t e r only r e p e a t offenders facing t h e i r last
strike, she
hypothesized, t h e n t h e laws should d e t e r both strikeable
a n d
nonstrikeable felonies. O n t h e other h a n d , if t h e law
deters all
25. 6 T h e counties i n c l u d e d A l a m e d a , C o n t r a
Costa, F r e s n o , Los A n g e l e s , O r a n g e ,
Riverside, S a n B e r n a r d i n o , S a n Francisco, S a c r a
m e n t o , S a n t a C l a r a , S a n Diego,
a n d V e n t u r a .
7 T h e Z i m r i n g e t al. (2001) s t u d y did n o t focus
exclusively o n t h e crime-
r e d u c i n g effects of C a l i f o r n i a ' s t h r e e s t r i k e
s s t a t u t e . R a t h e r , i t w a s a m u c h b r o a d e r -
b a s e d a n a l y s i s of t h e politics, j u r i s p r u d e n c e ,
a n d i m p a c t of t h e s t a t u t e .
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27. initial strikes, avoid committing crimes t h a t qualify as
strikes. To
examine this possibility, Shepherd regressed county-level crime
rates on the n u m b e r of offenders receiving a two or three
strike
sentence divided by the total n u m b e r of those receiving any
sentence and used numerous demographic, economic, and
deterrence control variables to mitigate omitted variable bias.
The
findings supported the theory of full deterrence because only
strikeable felonies were reduced by the probability of two and t
h r e e
strike sentences. Specifically, Shepherd estimates t h a t strike
sentences led to 8 fewer homicides, 12,350 fewer robberies,
5,222
fewer aggravated assaults, 7 fewer rapes, and 144,213 fewer
burglaries during t h e first 2 years. With the exception of
Shepherd,
then, studies on the impact of three strikes laws in California
did
not support their efficacy.
N a t i o n a l Studies
Two published studies, Marvell and Moody (2001) a n d
Kovandzic et al. (2002), examined the impact of three strikes
laws
on state crime rates and city homicide rates, respectively.
Marvell
a n d Moody (2001) used state panel data for 1970 to 1998 to
examine changes in crime rates in three strikes states compared
to
non-three strikes states. They reported t h a t in states with the
laws, homicides increased by 10% to 12% in t h e short term, a
n d
23% to 29% in the long term. They suggested t h a t offenders
28. facing
the possibility of life in prison for a third strike m a y be more
likely
to kill witnesses at t h e crime scene in an effort to avoid
detection.
Marvell and Moody also found t h a t three strikes laws did not
reduce rates of rape, robbery, assault, burglary, larceny, or auto
theft.
Kovandzic et al. (2002) found similar results for homicide
using panel data from 188 cities for the 1980-1999 period.
Results
indicated that, compared with cities in states without the laws,
cities in states with three strikes laws experienced a 13% to
14%
increase in homicide rates in the short t e r m and a 16% to
24%
increase in t h e long term.
In summary, published studies of the impact of three strikes
laws on crime have generally concluded t h a t the laws either
have
minimal impact on crime or m a y "backfire" and cause an
increase
in homicide. The latter situation may, as Kovandzic et al.
(2002)
concluded, illustrate the "law of u n i n t e n d e d
consequences" in
action. Not only does the policy choice not reduce the extent or
seriousness of the problem targeted, but actually intensifies it.
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214 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME R E D U C T I O N
POLICY
To w h a t e x t e n t h a s t h e r e b e e n a l o n g - t e r m
backfire effect of
t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s on serious crime? H a v e cities in
s t a t e s w i t h
t h e s e l a w s e x p e r i e n c e d significant declines or i n c
r e a s e s in s e r i o u s
crime over time? In t h e a n a l y s e s below, w e a d d r e s s
t h e s e a n d
r e l a t e d issues. We f i r s t t u r n to a d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e m e t h o d s a n d
d a t a a n a l y t i c p l a n u s e d in t h e c u r r e n t study.
D A T A A N D M E T H O D S
This s t u d y e s t i m a t e d t h e overall a n d state-specific
effects of
t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s on U C R index crimes u s i n g a
m u l t i p l e time-
series design (MTS), w i t h city-level t i m e - s e r i e s
cross-section d a t a
31. for t h e y e a r s 1980 t h r o u g h 2000 for all 188 U.S. cities
w i t h a
p o p u l a t i o n of 100,000 or m o r e in 1990 a n d for w h i
c h r e l e v a n t U C R
d a t a w e r e available. O f t h e 188 cities w i t h p o p u l
a t i o n s of 100,000
or m o r e in 1990, 110 w e r e in s t a t e s t h a t p a s s e d
t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s
b e t w e e n 1993 a n d 1996.
M T S is c o n s i d e r e d one of t h e s t r o n g e s t q u a s
i - e x p e r i m e n t a l
r e s e a r c h d e s i g n s for a s s e s s i n g t h e i m p a c t
of criminal j u s t i c e policy
w h e n m o r e t h o r o u g h e x p e r i m e n t a l control is
n o t possible or
practical, as is t h e case h e r e (Campbell & S t a n l e y ,
1963, pp. 5 5 -
57). s Its m a i n a d v a n t a g e is t h a t it allows t h e r e s
e a r c h e r to t r e a t
t h e p a s s a g e of t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s as a " n a t u
r a l e x p e r i m e n t , " w i t h
t h e 110 cities r e s i d i n g in t h r e e s t r i k e s s t a t e s
as " t r e a t m e n t cities"
a n d t h e 78 n o - c h a n g e cities as "controls."
Specifically, w e c o m p a r e d
o b s e r v e d c h a n g e s in crime r a t e s in t h e t r e a t m
e n t cities (before a n d
a f t e r t h r e e s t r i k e l a w s ) to o b s e r v e d c h a n g
e s in crime r a t e s in t h e
control cities. I f t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s r e d u c e d
crime t h r o u g h
d e t e r r e n c e a n d i n c a p a c i t a t i o n t h e n t h e t r
e a t m e n t cities s h o u l d
e x p e r i e n c e a n i m m e d i a t e drop in crime g r e a t e
r t h a n t h e control
32. cities a t t h e t i m e t h e l a w s w e r e adopted, w i t h a
n a d d i t i o n a l
r e d u c t i o n s p r e a d o u t over t i m e a s o f f e n d e r
s b e g a n s e r v i n g t h e
a d d i t i o n a l portion of t h e i r prison t e r m s d u e to t
h e t h r e e s t r i k e s
s e n t e n c e e n h a n c e m e n t .
A d d i t i o n a l a d v a n t a g e s of t h e M T S design
include, first, t h e
ability to e n t e r proxy v a r i a b l e s for o m i t t e d v a r i
a b l e s t h a t c a u s e
c r i m e r a t e s to v a r y across y e a r s a n d cities (the p
r o x y v a r i a b l e s ,
w h i c h n u m b e r n e a r l y 400 here, a r e d i s c u s s e d
f u r t h e r below);
second, a l a r g e r s a m p l e size (n= 3,320 or more), p e r m
i t t i n g u s to
a The MTS design has been utilized in many recent evaluations
of criminal
justice interventions including juvenile curfew laws (McDowall
et al., 2000), firearm
sentence enhancement laws (Marvell & Moody, 1995),
concealed-carry handgun
laws (e.g., Ayres & Donahue, 2003; Kovandzic & Marvell,
2003; L o t t & Mustard,
1997), Brady law (Ludwig & Cook, 2000), and earlier studies
examining the effects
of three strikes laws (Kovandzic et al., 2002; Marvell & Moody,
2001; Shepherd,
2002).
D
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KOVANDZIC, SLOAN, AND VIERAITIS 215
include n u m e r o u s controls in t h e crime r a t e models
for factors
t h a t might be correlated with other explanatory variables and
therefore lead to spurious associations among these variables
(Wooldridge, 2000, p. 434); and, third, g r e a t e r statistical
power
(due to the large sample size) a n d with it the ability to detect
more modest effects of t h r e e strikes laws on crime rates (see
Wooldridge, 2000, p. 409).
The city was chosen as the u n i t of analysis because it is the
smallest and most internally homogeneous unit for which UCR
crime d a t a for a large national sample of geographical areas
were
available. Analyses using states or regions are more susceptible
to
aggregation bias because t h e y are too heterogeneous and
necessarily ignore important within-state variation in crime
rates
35. and variables affecting those rates. For example, a state could
have
one jurisdiction with relatively low crime rates where t h r e e
strikes
sentence enhancements are applied quite frequently, and other
areas with much higher crime rates and little or no application
of
t h r e e strikes sentence enhancements, consistent with the idea
t h a t
t h r e e strikes sentence e n h a n c e m e n t s reduce crime. 9
However,
when t h e areas are aggregated to the State level, the high-
crime
areas could dominate t h e crime m e a s u r e so much t h a t t
h e state
would show a higher-than-average crime rate despite a causal
effect of t h r e e strikes laws on crime rates operating at lower
levels
of aggregation.
One drawback of using city data, however, is t h a t disturbance
t e r m s for cities within the same cluster (i.e., state) might be
serially correlated during a particular y e a r because of some
undefined similarity. In such a situation, s t a n d a r d errors
are likely
to be underestimated, t h u s inflating t-ratios for the three
strikes
law variables (Greenwald, 1983; Moulton, 1990). To avoid this
problem, we used a Huber-White correction for s t a n d a r d
errors
(available in SAS 8.0), t h a t accounts for the tendency of
within-
cluster error terms to be correlated.
Econometric Methods for Time-Series Cross-Section Data
36. Following convention for time-series cross-section data, our
basic model is t h e fixed-effects model, which entails a
dichotomous
d u m m y variable for each city and year, except the first y e a
r and
city, to avoid perfect collinearity (Hsiao, 1986, pp. 41-58;
Pindyck
9 Zimring et al. (2001) made this very point. In California, for
example, there
apparently is wide variation in how the state's three strikes law
is applied to
offenders with second and third strikes. Obviously, despite what
the law says, how
the sentencing policy is implemented has tremendous
implications for any possible
crime reducing effects generated by the law.
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38. 216 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
& Rubinfeld, 1991, pp. 224-226). The y e a r and city dummies
are
an integral p a r t of the approach because t h e y partially
control for
omitted or difficult-to-measure variables not entered in the
crime
rate equations. Specifically, the city dummies control for
unobserved factors t h a t remained approximately stable over
the
study period and t h a t caused crime rates to differ across
cities.
Examples include demographic characteristics, economic
deprivation, criminal gun ownership, and deeply embedded
cultural and social norms. The city dummies also control for
m e a s u r e m e n t errors in UCR crimes due to reporting
differences
across cities.
The year dummies control for national events t h a t could raise
or lower crime rates in a given y e a r across t h e entire
country. For
example, the 1994 Crime Control a n d L a w Enforcement A c
t - -
which contained several major crime-reduction programs
including
truth-in-sentencing, the federal version of a three strikes law,
funds for 100,000 new police officers, expansion of the death
penalty, a ban on possession of guns by juveniles, and enhanced
penalties for drug offenses and using firearms in c r i m e s - c o
u l d
have affected crime rates throughout the country. Another
example
is the emergence and proliferation of crack cocaine in the mid-
1980s, which m a n y scholars have suggested was indirectly
39. respon-
sible for dramatic increases in violent crime, especially
homicide
and robbery, in most American cities during the late 1980s and
early 1990s (Blumstein, 1995). Because the analysis includes
fixed-
effects for both years and cities, the coefficient estimates for t h
e
t h r e e strikes law variables and specific control variables
(discussed
below) are based solely on within-city changes over time.
Finally, we followed Ayres and Donahue's (2003) and Marvell
and Moody's (1996, 2001) recommendation of including linear-
specific time-trend variables for each city. Each of t h e time-
trend
variables is coded zero for all observations except in a
particular
city, where it is a simple counter. The trend variables control
for
trends in a city t h a t depart from national trends captured by
the
y e a r dummies. They are important because without t h e m
the
coefficient on the three strikes law variables would simply m e
a s u r e
w h e t h e r crime rates are higher or lower for the years after t
h e law
(relative to national trends captured by the y e a r dummies),
even if
the increase occurred before or well after the law went into
effect.
The city-specific t r e n d variables, however, do not control
for trends
t h a t are erratic (e.g., drug m a r k e t and gang activity) or t
h a t depart
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K O V A N D Z I C , S L O A N , A N D V I E R A I T I S
217
Three Strikes Laws
The laws and their effective dates were obtained from Marvell
and Moody (2001), and verified by checking relevant secondary
sources (Dickey & Hollenhorst, 1998; Clark, Austin & Henry,
1997;
T u r n e r et al., 1995). Because three strikes laws are designed
to
both deter and incapacitate highly active criminals, and because
both of these effects are unlikely to manifest themselves at
similar
time points, we could not m e a s u r e and evaluate the effects
of the
42. laws using a single variable. Instead, we created two separate
variables to account for both causal processes.
To capture any d e t e r r e n t effects, we used a post-passage
d u m m y variable scored "1" starting the full first y e a r after
a law
w e n t into effect and "0" otherwise. In the y e a r a law w e n
t into
effect, t h e variable is the portion of the year remaining after
the
effective date. The post-passage d u m m y variable allowed us
to test
for a once-and-for-all d e t e r r e n t effect as prospective
strike
offenders l e a r n e d about t h e stiffer penalties provided by
the laws,
most likely through "announcement effects" surrounding
passage
of t h e laws. 1° If t h r e e strikes law supporters are correct t
h a t
passage of these laws reduces crime by deterrence, one would
expect to see a sudden and persistent drop in crime captured by
t h e post-passage d u m m y in the city panel regression.
Because the
dependent variables in the panel regressions are the n a t u r a l
logs
of the crime rates, the coefficient on the post-passage d u m m y
can
be i n t e r p r e t e d as the percent change in crime associated
with
adoption of t h e l a w - - t h a t is, the law will raise or lower
crime, by
(for example) 5%. Because it is possible the laws h a d a
greater
d e t e r r e n t effect in later years as prospective strike
offenders
43. learned about the laws through application to other offenders,
we
also estimated crime models with the post-passage d u m m y
variable lagged one year. Although the results are not shown,
lagging the post-passage d u m m y variable one y e a r has
virtually no
impact on the results. That variable might, however, reflect
mild
incapacitation effects of t h r e e strikes laws, because some
offenders
would not have received prison sentences prior to the passage of
the laws. For example, California's two and three strike laws
m a n d a t e t h a t offenders convicted of any second (for the
two strike
law) or third felony be sentenced u n d e r the law's provisions.
Because t h e majority of offenders sentenced u n d e r the
laws have
been convicted of nonviolent crimes such as burglary, drug
lo O f course, one way t h a t prospective t h r e e s t r i k e s
d e f e n d a n t s could avoid
t h e additional p e n a l t i e s from s u c h a law would be to
move t h e i r criminal activity to
a m o r e h o s p i t a b l e j u r i s d i c t i o n ( p r e s u m a b
l y one w i t h o u t a t h r e e s t r i k e s law).
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218 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
possession, and weapons possession (Zimring et al., 2001), it is
conceivable t h a t some of t h e less serious offenders would
have
escaped receiving prison t e r m s in t h e absence of t h e
laws
(Marvell & Moody, 2002). The laws m a y also have an i m m e
d i a t e
incapacitative impact by leading potential strike d e f e n d a n t
s to
plead to g r e a t e r crimes t h a n t h e y would have prior to
passage of
t h e law (Marvell & Moody, 2001).
While it is therefore conceivable for incapacitative effects to
begin immediately, one would not expect t h e m to reach full
long-
t e r m impact until a substantial portion of strike d e f e n d a n
t s begin
serving t h e extended portions of t h e i r prison t e r m s due
specifically to the t h r e e strikes sentence enhancement.
Because
most convicted felony offenders with serious prior criminal
records would probably have received lengthy prison t e r m s
prior
to t h e t h r e e strikes laws, these effects would not occur
until m a n y
46. years after t h e laws are passed (Clark et al., 1997; King &
Mauer,
2001; Kovandzic, 2001; Marvell & Moody, 2001). T h a t most
strike
defendants would have received prison t e r m s even in the
absence
of the laws m a y explain w h y Marvell a n d Moody (2001)
and
others have found no i m m e d i a t e impact on state prison
populations. Providing additional support for the claim t h a t
most
strike defendants would have received prison t e r m s before t
h e
laws, Kovandzic (2001) found t h a t roughly 80% of those
sentenced
u n d e r Florida's 1988 h a b i t u a l offender law would have
received
m a n d a t o r y prison t e r m s even if t h e y h a d been
sentenced u n d e r
the state's sentencing guidelines. Another 17% fell in a
discretionary range and could have received prison terms.
Perhaps more noteworthy is Kovandzic's (2001) finding t h a t
of
the habitual offenders who would have been subject to m a n d a
t o r y
prison t e r m s in the absence of the habitual offender law,
75.2%
would have received prison t e r m s of 3 y e a r s or more,
61% t e r m s
of 5 y e a r s or more, and 18% t e r m s of 10 years or more.
Because it is impossible to know exactly when strike defendants
would have otherwise been released from prison had they not
been
sentenced under three strikes provisions, we followed Marvell
and
47. Moodys (2001) approach of using a post-passage linear trend
variable indicating the number of years since enactment of three
strikes legislation. For example, consider a city in California,
which
passed its law in 1994. In this case, in 1995 the time trend
variable
is equal to one, in 1996 it is equal to two, in 1997 it is equal to
three
and so on, until the year 2000 where the time trend variable is
equal
to six. The post-passage linear trend variable assumes that each
year an increasing n u m b e r of strike defendants are serving t
h a t
portion of their prison term due specifically to the three strikes
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49. reflecting a
dampening effect on crime that grows progressively stronger
over
time (at least until the increase in the number of defendants
serving
extended prison terms under the three strikes laws came to an
end).
I f the estimated coefficient on the post-passage trend variable
were
virtually zero, one would conclude that three strikes laws have
no
incapacitative impact on crime rates.
Crime Rates
The dependent variables are the rates of homicide, robbery,
assault, rape, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft, per
population of 100,000. The crime data were t a k e n from the
FBI's
Uniform Crime Reports (1981-2001), which reports crime
counts
for a city only if the individual law enforcement agency
responsible
for t h a t jurisdiction submits 12 complete monthly reports. D
e s p i t e
having a population greater t h a n 100,000 in 1990, we
dropped
seven cities due to missing data problems: Moreno Valley, CA,
Rancho Cucamonga, CA, Santa Clarita, CA, Overland Park, KS,
Kansas City, KS, Cedar Rapids, IA, and Lowell, MA.
Specific Control Variables
In addition to the y e a r dummies, city dummies, and city-trend
variables, we included eight specific control variables t h a t
prior
50. macro-level research has suggested are important correlates of
crime (see Kovandzic et al., 1998; Land, McCall, & Cohen,
1990;
Sampson, 1986; Vieraitis, 2000). Most account for causal
processes
emphasized by strain/deprivation, social disorganization, and
opportunity/routine activity theories. Failure to control for these
factors could suppress (i.e., mask any negative impact of three
strikes laws on crime) or lead to spurious results if t h e y are
corre-
lated with the passage of three strike laws and with crime rates.
The specific control variables in the crime rate models
included percent of the population t h a t was African
American,
percent t h a t was Hispanic, percent aged 18-24 and 25-44,
percent
of households headed by females, percent of persons living
below
t h e poverty line, percent of the population living alone, per
capita
income, and incarceration rate. These data for 1980 and 1990
were
obtained from U.S. B u r e a u of the Census (U.S. Bureau of
the
Census, 1983, 1994). Year 2000 data were obtained from the
U.S.
Census B u r e a u website using American Fact Finder
(http://factfinder.census.gov). Because these m e a s u r e s
were
available only for decennial census years, we used linear
interpolation estimates between decennial census years. Given
the
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220 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
small changes in these variables, a linear t r e n d was assumed
and
considered justified. Income data for 1980-2000 were obtained
from the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Commerce's Bureau of
Economic
Analysis website (http://www.bea.doc.gov). Income data were
county-level estimates t h a t we used as imperfect substitutes
for
city-level income. Personal income data were converted from a
c u r r e n t dollar estimate to a constant-dollar 1967 basis by
dividing
per capita income by the consumer price index (CPI). Prison
population was the n u m b e r of inmates sentenced to state
institutions for more t h a n a y e a r divided by state
population,
available annually at the state level; these values were used as
proxies for city-level imprisonment. State prison population
data
53. were obtained from the Bureau of Justice Statistics website
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs). Because the prison population
data
were year-end estimates we took the average of the c u r r e n t
y e a r
and prior years to estimate mid-year prison population.
Data Transformations and Regression Assumptions
All continuous variables were expressed as n a t u r a l logs to
reduce the impact of outliers and divided by population figures
to
avoid having large cities dominate t h e results. This procedure
allowed coefficients for the continuous variables to be
interpreted
as elasticities--the percent change in the crime rate expected
from
a 1% change in the independent variable (see Greene, 1993).
With
respect to the dichotomous and post-passage linear t r e n d
variables,
exponentiating the variables and subtracting the result from 100
produced t h e useful interpretation of the percent change in the
crime rate associated with the passage of a three strikes law and
the percent change in the crime rate for each additional year the
law is in effect, respectively (see Wooldridge, 2000). Hetero-
scedasticity was detected using the Breusch-Pagan test, mainly
because variation in crime rates was greater over time in the
smaller cities t h a n in the larger ones. To avoid inefficient
and
biased estimated variances for the p a r a m e t e r estimates,
we
weighted the crime models by functions of city population as
determined by the test (Breusch & Pagan, 1979). Results of
panel-
unit-root-tests (Levin & Lin, 1992; Wu, 1996) indicated t h a t
54. the
crime rate series were stationary, i.e., t h e unit root hypothesis
was
rejected in all instances. That the crime rate variables had a
constant mean suggested t h a t the analysis be conducted in
levels
and not differenced rates. In any event, we reestimated the
crime
rate models using differenced rates and t h e p a r a m e t e r
estimates
for t h e three strikes law variables were similar to those in
Table 1.
Autocorrelation was mitigated by including lagged dependent
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added benefit of controlling for omitted lagged effects (Moody,
2001). The results for the three strike variables were essentially
t h e same without them. Examination of collinearity
diagnostics
developed by Belsley, Kuh, and Welsh (1980) revealed no
serious
collinearity problems for the three strike variables. While t h e r
e
were collinearity problems among the proxy variables, this did
not
impact the results for the three strikes variables, and we
measured
only the significance of proxy variables in groups using the F
test.
R E S U L T S
Crime Trends Before and After Implementing Three Strikes
Laws
Before proceeding to results of the more sophisticated
econometric analysis, we began our empirical investigation of
the
effect of three strikes laws on crime by graphing t h e p a t t e r
n of
index crime rates (per 100,000 population) over time in three
groups of cities: those in states t h a t adopted a t h r e e
strikes law in
1994, those in states t h a t adopted t h e laws in 1995, a n d
those in
states t h a t never adopted them. 11 As discussed, if passage of
a
t h r e e strikes law reduces crime primarily through deterrence,
presumably through a n n o u n c e m e n t effects, one would
expect cities
57. in states with the laws to experience a more sudden and
persistent
drop in crime t h a n t h a t in cities in states without the laws.
On t h e
other hand, if t h r e e strike laws reduce crime mainly through
incapacitation, one might expect cities in states with t h e law
to
experience a more gradual and continuing decrease in crime t h
a n
t h a t in cities in states without the laws as offenders in three
strikes cities begin serving the extended portion of their prison
terms due to sentence enhancement.
Analysis reveals a number of interesting findings (see Figure 1).
First, crime rates in all three city groupings moved roughly in
t a n d e m over the past 20 years: crime rates declined in the
early
1980s, began rising in the mid-1980s, and then declined
markedly
through the 1990s. This pattern indicates broad forces t h a t
tended
to push crime rates up and down nationwide. Second, despite all
three city groupings having experienced a sizeable drop in
crime
throughout the 1990s, crime rates in three strikes cities declined
slightly faster. Because the drop in crime grows gradually over
time
11 B e c a u s e W a s h i n g t o n a d o p t e d its t h r e e s t
r i k e s law i n l a t e 1993 ( D e c e m b e r
1993), we decided to i n c l u d e S e a t t l e , S p o k a n e , a
n d T a c o m a i n t h e 1994 g r o u p i n g of
cities. S i m i l a r l y , we decided to i n c l u d e A n c h o r a
g e , A l a s k a i n t h e 1995 g r o u p i n g of
cities since t h e law w a s a d o p t e d i n e a r l y 1996 ( M
a r c h , 1996).
75. KOVANDZIC, SLOAN, AND VIERAITIS 223
r a t h e r than abruptly, it appears t h a t incapacitation is the
main
force behind three strikes laws. As a result, if one were forced
to make
causal attributions based on Figure 1, one might conclude t h a t
three
strikes laws tend to reduce crime rates through incapacitation.
Of course, one cannot place much confidence in such a
conclusion because the evidence in Figure 1 assumes t h a t the
only
unique factor working to influence crime in three strikes cities
is
the t h r e e strikes law. As discussed, prior macro-level crime
theory
and research have identified numerous correlates of crime. I f
any
of these factors were correlated with both the laws and with
lower
crime, t h e n the apparent causal relationship between the laws
and
crime observed in Figure 1 would be spurious. For example,
states
t h a t enacted three strikes laws m a y have also relied more
heavily
on incarceration as part of a larger effort to "get tough on
crime,"
such t h a t their prison populations grew faster t h a n in other
states.
If this was the case, t h e n the apparent incapacitative effects
noted
in Figure 1 might really be due to an overall increase in prison
76. populations, for which the graph does not control. Because
crime
rates in all t h r e e city groupings began declining well before
the
passage of most t h r e e strikes laws in 1994 and 1995 this
seems
like a logical possibility. We therefore now t u r n to regression
analysis to examine the d e t e r r e n t and incapacitative
impact of
t h r e e strike laws on crime while controlling for n u m e r o u
s potential
confounding factors.
Estimating the Impact of Three Strikes Laws
Estimates of the aggregate impact of three strikes laws on city
crime rates using the described regression procedures are
presented in Table 1. The major features include using
aggregate
post-passage d u m m y and post-passage t r e n d variables,
loga-
rithmically transformed rates for all continuous variables, city
dummies, year dummies, and city-trend dummies. The use of the
aggregate law variables implicitly assumes the laws have a
uniform impact on crime, which t u r n s out not to be the case
given
the large n u m b e r of negative and positive coefficients found
for the
disaggregated law variables (see state-specific analysis below).
The
results in Table 1 do not support what was shown in Figure 1, t
h a t
three strikes laws were associated with slightly lower crime
rates,
most likely due to incapacitation. Although six of the seven
post-
77. passage trend variables are, as expected, negative and therefore
consistent with the hypothesis that three strike laws reduce
crime
through incapacitation, the coefficients are small and not close
to
statistically significant, even at the generous .10 level. Given
the
large n u m b e r of degrees of freedom (D.F. = 3,320 or more
in each
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K O V A N D Z I C , S L O A N , A N D V I E R A I T I S
225
model), even m o d e s t incapacitative effects should h a v e
produced
significant negative coefficients for t h e post-passage t r e n d
variable.
The m o s t likely r e a s o n for t h e d i s p a r a t e results b
e t w e e n
F i g u r e 1 a n d Table I is prison population, which is
associated w i t h
statistically significant lower r a t e s in five of the seven crime
categories. To e x a m i n e this possibility f u r t h e r , we re-
ran t h e crime
regressions from Table 1 w i t h o u t t h e prison population
variable.
The r e s u l t s confirmed our initial suspicions t h a t prison
144. population
g r o w t h was largely responsible for t h e small
incapacitation effects
observed in Figure 1. A l t h o u g h n o t shown, t h e
coefficients for t h e
post-passage t r e n d variables were negative a n d
statistically
significant for robbery a n d larceny (the bulk of t h e index
crime
rate) a n d m a r g i n a l l y significant for homicide, burglary,
a n d auto
theft. These findings s u p p o r t t h e supposition t h a t
states a d o p t i n g
t h r e e strikes laws were t h e s a m e ones relying more
heavily on
incarceration as a crime-control s t r a t e g y d u r i n g t h e "
i m p r i s o n m e n t
binge" of t h e 1980s a n d 1990s. The finding t h a t prison
population
g r o w t h reduces crime is consistent w i t h a sizable body of
research
showing t h a t incarcerating criminals reduces crime,
especially
homicide (Devine, Sheley, & Smith, 1988; Kovandzic et al.,
2002;
Levitt, 1996; Marvell & Moody, 1994, 1997, 1998, 2001).
T h e r e is also no evidence t h a t t h r e e strikes laws
reduce crime
t h r o u g h deterrence. The coefficients for t h e post-passage
d u m m y
are about evenly divided by sign a n d are far from significant,
except for homicide, whose coefficient is positive a n d
significant.
T h e s e p a r t i c u l a r results suggest t h a t homicide r a t
e s in cities
145. increase, on average, by 10.4% after a t h r e e strikes law is
adopted. 12 This finding is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h results r e
p o r t e d by
Kovandzic et al. (2002) a n d Marvell a n d Moody (2001). The
m o s t
likely explanation is t h a t a few criminals, facing l e n g t h y
prison
t e r m s on conviction for a t h i r d strike, m a y a t t e m p t
to avoid such
penalties by killing victims, witnesses, or police officers to
reduce
t h e i r c h a n c e s of a p p r e h e n s i o n a n d conviction.
Robustness Checks
Additional analyses (not r e p o r t e d in Table 1) indicated t h
a t t h e
nonsignificant effects of t h r e e strikes laws on crime r a t e s
a p p e a r to
be fairly r o b u s t u n d e r v a r y i n g model specifications.
T h a t is, t h e
r e s u l t s for both variables were fairly consistent u n d e r a
l t e r n a t i v e
analyses with o t h e r possible model specifications a n d
regression
procedures. T h e s e included e n t e r i n g t h e t h r e e
strikes law variables
in t h e crime regressions separately r a t h e r t h a n
simultaneously,
12 TO calculate t h i s p e r c e n t a g e we u s e d t h e a p p
r o x i m a t i o n 100 * [exp (5) - 1].
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226 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
using differenced rates, dropping the city-trend variables, not
logging the continuous variables, not weighting the crime
regressions, dropping t h e lagged dependent variables, and
using
conventional standard errors. The major exception occurs for
homicide, where the coefficient on the post-passage dummy
variable
in the homicide regression is no longer significant when using
differenced rates and is highly significant when using
conventional
s t a n d a r d errors.
Other Notable Findings
Although not the focus of this study, results for some of the
control variables should be noted (Table 1). First, increases in
the
percentage of a citys population t h a t is African American or
Hispanic appear positively associated with property crime rates
148. but
has little impact on rates of violence. Second, prison population
growth is negatively associated with crime rates, though the
coefficients are somewhat smaller than those found in other
state
and national studies (Marvell & Moody, 1994, 1997; Levitt,
1996). As
expected, increases in the number of persons in a city between
the
ages 18 to 24 are positively related to rates of homicide,
robbery, and
larceny. Our results contradict recent works by Levitt (1999)
and
Marvell and Moody (2001) which concluded t h a t age
structure
changes have little impact on crime rate trends. Per capita
income
appears positively associated with rates of homicide, rape, and
auto
theft. This finding is inconsistent with theoretical expectations,
but
mirrors findings reported by other studies (Marvell & Moody,
1995;
Lott & Mustard, 1997). Finally, the number of families headed
by
females is positively associated with homicide rates. To our
knowledge, this is the first time this variable has been related to
cross-temporal variation in homicide rates.
Is A d o p t i n g a Three Strikes L a w Endogenous?
One possible explanation for the lack of impact of three strikes
laws on crime rates is simultaneity, which can happen if unusual
increases in crime lead policy makers to enact three strikes
laws. In
other words, adopting and applying three strikes laws m a y be
149. endogenous to the crime rate. I f simultaneity does occur, the
coefficients on the three strikes law variables would be biased,
most
likely positively, and mask any crime-reduction impact of the
laws.
The most common procedure used to address potential
endogeneity problems in evaluations of legal interventions is
two-
stage least squares (2SLS) regression. As Marvell and Moody
(1996) a n d others (Kennedy, 1998) have noted, the problem
with
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151. endogenous
explanatory variable (i.e., adoption of three strikes laws), is
uncorrelated with the error t e r m in the crime r a t e equation
and
does not conceptually belong in the crime equation, or is a
proxy
for a variable t h a t should be in the crime rate equation. These
r e q u i r e m e n t s are extremely difficult to satisfy, mainly
because
the i n s t r u m e n t s cannot be considered convincingly
exogenous or
are only weakly correlated with the endogenous explanatory
variable.
Perhaps the easiest way to test w h e t h e r t h r e e strikes
laws
have been adopted in response to u n u s u a l increases in
crime is to
simply exclude from the model specifications the years
immediately before t h e laws were adopted. If an upward t r e
n d in
crime is responsible for the law, then dropping these years from
the model specifications should produce significant negative
coefficients for t h e law variables. To examine this possibility,
we
excluded observations of t h e 3 years prior to the adoption of
the
laws but included the y e a r of the adoption (it is unlikely t h a
t
current-year crime could impact crime legislation contem-
poraneously). The results of this estimation procedure for all
seven
UCR crimes are presented in Table 2, but to conserve space
only
t h e coefficients for the three strike law variables are
presented.
152. The coefficients on the three strikes law variables reported in
Table 2 are roughly identical to those reported in Table 1,
which
indicates t h a t the lack of significant results for the t h r e e
strikes
law variables in Table 1 is not the result of abnormal crime
spikes
in the years immediately before a t h r e e strikes law was
adopted.
We also tried dropping 2 years prior to the passage of a law and
obtained similar estimates. Simultaneity also seems to be ruled
out
by Figure 1, because there is no evidence t h a t crime rates
were
growing faster (or declining more slowly) in three strike cities.
In
fact, Figure 1 suggests t h a t crime rates were actually
declining
slightly faster in three strikes cities t h a n in others
immediately
before the adoption of most three strikes laws in 1994 and 1995.
Thus, t h e r e is no statistical evidence t h a t policy m a k e r
s passed
t h r e e strikes laws because crime rates in their states were
rising
more quickly, or declining more slowly, t h a n in other states.
This
finding is not surprising given t h a t the public and policy
makers
respond mostly to news accounts of highly publicized crimes
(e.g.,
Polly Klaas), which in t u r n are uncorrelated with actual or
official
crime rates (Kappeler, Blumberg, & Potter, 1996; McCorkle &
Miethe, 2002; Surette, 1998).
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228 " S T R I K I N G O U T " A S C R I M E R E D U C T I
O N P O L I C Y
T a b l e 2. T h r e e S t r i k e s L a w V a r i a b l e s W i t
h O b s e r v a t i o n s F r o m 3 Y e a r s
P r i o r t o t h e A d o p t i o n o f T h r e e S t r i k e s L a
w E x c l u d e d
T h r e e S t r i k e s L a w V a r i a b l e s
P o s t - P a s s a g e D u m m y P o s t - L a w L i n e a r T r
e n d
D e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e Coef. t Coef. t
Homicide .2_! 3.01 -.00 -.11
155. Rape .06 1.69 .01 .85
R o b b e r y .0_99 2.24 -.01 -.78
A s s a u l t .05 1.49 -.00 -.40
B u r g l a r y .06 1.68 .00 .12
L a r c e n y .05 1.89 -.07 -1.37
Auto T h e f t .01 .21 -.00 -.41
Notes: T h i s t a b l e p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of c r i
m e r e g r e s s i o n s w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s for
t h e t h r e e y e a r s p r i o r to t h e a d o p t i o n of a t h
r e e s t r i k e s law excluded. Only t h e
r e s u l t s for t h e t h r e e s t r i k e s law v a r i a b l e s a
r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e c o n t r o l v a r i a b l e s
are s i m i l a r to t h o s e u s e d i n Table 1. S t a n d a r d
e r r o r s are c o r r e c t e d for c l u s t e r i n g .
Coefficients t h a t are s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .10 level a r
e italicized. Coefficients t h a t
are s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 level a r e b o t h italicized
a n d u n d e r l i n e d .
Estimating State-Specific Effects
of Three Strikes Laws on Crime Rates
T h e r e is little evidence in t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d
in T a b l e 1 to
s u p p o r t t h e claim t h a t t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s r e
d u c e crime r a t e s
t h r o u g h e i t h e r d e t e r r e n c e or incapacitation. H o
w e v e r , t h e
r e g r e s s i o n s s h o w n in T a b l e I e s t i m a t e d a n
aggregated effect for t h e
156. l a w s a c r o s s all cities in t h r e e s t r i k e states. If, for
e x a m p l e , t h e
i m p a c t of t h e l a w s on crime r a t e s v a r i e s
significantly across s t a t e s ,
t h e n t h e model p r e s e n t e d is misspecified. Moreover,
as noted, t h e
d a n g e r s of e s t i m a t i n g a single a g g r e g a t e d
effect a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y
a c u t e in t h i s case b e c a u s e of v a s t differences in,
first, t h e c o n t e n t s
of t h r e e s t r i k e s legislation across t h e s t a t e s (e.g.,
w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s
a "strike" as well as p r o s e c u t o r i a l a n d j u d i c i a l
discretion in
a p p l y i n g t h e laws, see C l a r k e t al., 1997); second, p
u b l i c i t y
s u r r o u n d i n g p a s s a g e o f t h e laws; and, third, t h e
application o f t h e
l a w s in practice.
O n e w a y to avoid a g g r e g a t i o n b i a s is to c h a n g
e t h e m o d e l
specification to e s t i m a t e a state-specific effect for e a c h
s t a t e
a d o p t i n g a t h r e e s t r i k e s law. In o t h e r words,
one w o u l d include in
t h e p a n e l d a t a r e g r e s s i o n s for each crime c a t e
g o r y a s e p a r a t e post-
p a s s a g e d u m m y a n d p o s t - p a s s a g e linear t r e
n d v a r i a b l e for e a c h
g r o u p o f cities in a t h r e e s t r i k e s s t a t e . T h e s e
e s t i m a t e s for all
s e v e n index crime c a t e g o r i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in
Table 3, w h i c h s h o w s
t h a t t h e coefficients on t h e p o s t - p a s s a g e d u m m
y and p o s t - p a s s a g e
157. t r e n d v a r i a b l e s e p a r a t e l y e s t i m a t e t h e d e
t e r r e n t a n d i n c a p a c i t a t i v e
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KOVANDZIC, SLOAN, AND VIERAITIS 229
effects of t h r e e strikes laws for each of the 25 states t h a t
passed
t h e laws between 1993 and 1996.
Results presented in Table 3 reject t h e more constrained
specifications of the aggregate regressions, which implicitly
assumed t h a t the impact of three strikes laws was constant
across
jurisdictions. Indeed, for each crime type, we were able to reject
the
hypothesis t h a t the 21 post-passage dummies and 21 post-
passage
t r e n d variables were essentially equal. This suggests t h a t
159. the
panel data regressions presented in Table 1, which assumed
uniform impacts for all three strikes cities, are too restrictive.
With
the exception of homicide and auto theft, t h e coefficients on
the
post-passage d u m m y variables from the disaggregated
analysis
suggest t h a t the n u m b e r of states experiencing a
statistically
significant decrease in crime after adopting three strikes law is
roughly identical to the n u m b e r experiencing a statistically
significant increase (see Table 3). For example, for robbery, six
states saw a decrease and four an increase. For homicide, the
disparity was nine to three. For auto theft, the numbers were
nine
and five. Of the 147 estimated impacts of the law on crime rates
(21 states by seven crime categories), 42 represented
statistically
significant decreases in crime on passage of the laws and 44
represented statistically significant increases. Overall, Table 3
shows 73 decreases and 74 increases in crime.
Results from the disaggregated analysis for the post-passage
t r e n d variables also suggest substantial h e t e r o g e n e i t
y in the
laws' impact on city crime r a t e s over time. For every crime
type,
the n u m b e r of states experiencing statistically significant
decreases in crime r a t e s over time was roughly equivalent to
the
n u m b e r of states experiencing significant increases.
Specifically,
out of 147 e s t i m a t e d impacts on crime over time, 54
exhibited
statistically significant decreases and 43 exhibited statistically
160. significant increases. Overall, t h e results for the state-specific
post-passage t r e n d variables indicate 76 decreases and 71
increases (Table 3).
The n e t 5-year d e t e r r e n t and incapacitative impact of
three
strikes laws on crime rates for each state are reported in Table
4.
To calculate t h e n e t 5-year impact, it is necessary to add t h
e
coefficients on t h e post-passage d u m m y a n d post-
passage t r e n d
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328. 232 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
v a r i a b l e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l y e a r s a n d t h e n s
u m t h e y e a r l y i m p a c t s . TM
E s t i m a t e s o f t h e 5 - y e a r i m p a c t s o f t h r e e
s t r i k e s l a w s o n c r i m e
r e v e a l t h a t o n l y o n e s t a t e ( A r k a n s a s ) s h o
w s a n e t 5 - y e a r d e c r e a s e
i n a l l s e v e n c r i m e c a t e g o r i e s w i t h o u t s h o
w i n g a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n a n o t h e r c r i m e c a t
e g o r y . T h r e e s t a t e s
( C a l i f o r n i a , L o u i s i a n a , a n d N e w J e r s e y )
s h o w a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e i n f o u r o r m o r e c r i m
e c a t e g o r i e s , b u t a
s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n a t l
e a s t o n e c r i m e c a t e g o r y
a s w e l l .
W h i l e i t w o u l d b e t e m p t i n g t o c o n c l u d e t
h a t t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w s
a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c r
i m e d r o p i n t h e s e s t a t e s ,
329. e s p e c i a l l y i n C a l i f o r n i a , w h e r e t h r e e s t r
i k e p r o v i s i o n s a r e a p p l i e d
q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y , o n e m u s t a c c o u n t f o r t h
e f a c t t h a t t h e r e s u l t s f o r
s o m e l a w s a r e p r o b a b l y n o t h i n g m o r e t h a
n r a n d o m a r t i f a c t s o r a r e
p r o x i e s f o r o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s c h a n g
e s t a k i n g p l a c e a r o u n d
t h e a d o p t i o n o f a t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w , n o t e x
p l i c i t l y c o n t r o l l e d f o r i n
t h e m o d e l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . M o r e o v e r , i f o
n e is w i l l i n g t o c o n c l u d e
f r o m T a b l e 4 t h a t t h e l a w s r e d u c e c r i m e i n
t h e s e s t a t e s t h e n o n e
h a s t o a t l e a s t e n t e r t a i n t h e p r o s p e c t t h a t
t h e l a w s a l s o l e a d t o
l a r g e c r i m e i n c r e a s e s a s w e l l . T a k e , f o r e
x a m p l e , N e v a d a a n d
P e n n s y l v a n i a , w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e d l a r g e s
t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
i n c r e a s e s i n c r i m e f o l l o w i n g t h e a d o p t i o
n o f a t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w .
U n l e s s o n e i s w i l l i n g t o c o n c l u d e t h e l a w
s h a v e h a d t h e u n i n t e n d e d
330. c o n s e q u e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g c r i m e i n t h e s e
s t a t e s , t h e n o n e c a n n o t
s i m p l y s e l e c t t h e s t a t e s t h a t s e e m t o do w e
l l u n d e r t h e l a w a n d
c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e l a w s w o r k t o r e d u c e c r i
m e . T h a t is, o n e c a n n o t
c h e r r y - p i c k t h o s e s t a t e s t h a t a p p e a r t o b
e n e f i t f r o m t h e p a s s a g e o f
a t h r e e s t r i k e s l a w a n d i g n o r e s t a t e s w h e r
e t h e l a w s a p p e a r t o
h a v e a d e l e t e r i o u s i m p a c t o n c r i m e .
13 The predicted impact of a law for individual years is:
Year 1: 1*beta(post-passage dummy for cities in state X) +
1*beta(post-
passage trend for cities in state X)
Year 2: 2*beta(post-passage dummy for cities in state X) +
2*beta(post-
passage trend for cities in state X)
Year 3: 3*beta(post-passage dummy for cities in state X) +
3*beta(post-
passage trend for cities in state X)
Year 4: 4*beta(post-passage dummy for cities in state X) +
4*beta(post-
passage trend for cities in state X)
Year 5: 5*beta(post-passage dummy for cities in state X) +
5*beta(post-
passage trend for cities in state X)
Where: beta (post-passage dummy) and beta (post-passage
trend) represent
the estimated coefficients on the post-passage dummy and post-
331. passage
trend variables. Summing the individual year impacts, we were
able to
calculate a net five-year impact as: beta (post-passage dummy
for cities in
state X) + 3*beta (post-passage trend for cities in state X). We
also tested
whether this linear combination of regression coefficients was
significantly
different from zero and report results of this testing in Table 3.
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K O V A N D Z I C , S L O A N , A N D V I E R A I T I S 2
3 3
T u r n i n g now to t h e i n d i v i d u a l crime categories t h
e m s e l v e s ,
t h e r e does n o t a p p e a r to be a s t r o n g correlation b e
333. t w e e n t h e
p a s s a g e of a t h r e e s t r i k e s law a n d a decrease in a
n y i n d i v i d u a l
crime category. I n m o s t cases t h e n u m b e r of s t a t e s
t h a t exhibited a
T a b l e 4. S t a t e - S p e c i f i c A n n u a l i z e d 5 - Y e a
r I m p a c t o f T h r e e
S t r i k e s L a w s O n U C R I n d e x C r i m e R a t e s .
A u t o
Aggr. B u r g l a r y L a r c e n y T h e f t Homicide Rape R o
b b e r y A s s a u l t
A l a s k a -13.0% 5.5% -30.1% -8.9% -6.5% -4.8% -13.7%
A r k a n s a s -35.8% -9.3% -29.3% -48.8% -15.5% -16.7% -
17.7%
C a l i f o r n i a -1.5% 14.7% -12.3% -5.2% -9.1% -6.2% -
21.6%
Colorado 1.7% 19.8% 1.5% -11.2% 3.9% 1.4% 4.6%
C o n n e c t i c u t -12.0% -13.3% -.6% -.2% -17% 2.2% -
10.9%
F l o r i d a 20.8% 3.3% -4.9% 4.5% -4.0% -6.8% -6.9%
G e o r g i a 16.6% -.2% 5.9% 15.5% 3.9% -3.7% 6.9%
I n d i a n a 24.8% -8.5% 4.7% -13.4% 3.5% -2.0% .3%
K a n s a s 22.4% 3.1% -23.4% 12.1% -18.7% -.8% -11.8%
L o u i s i a n a -4.7% 26.1% -14.8% -13.1% -9.5% -3.4% -
334. 9.7%
M a r y l a n d 23.0% -3.9% -.4% 20.9% -3.6% -1.3% -19.6%
N e v a d a 57.3% 17.1% 19.7% 4.1% 22.2% 3.2% 26.6%
N e w J e r s e y 34.8% -17 6% -19. 0% -.3% -22.2% -13.2% -
8.4%
N e w Mexico 8.5% 22.8% 17.1% -20.9% .1% 8.9% 21.5%
N o r t h C a r o l i n a -6.0% -11.1% -12.1% 12.2% -3.6% .3%
26.2%
P e n n s y l v a n i a 26.1% 20.6% 9.7% 27.2% 3.2% 4.3%
7.8%
T e n n e s s e e 12.1% 5.8% 3.8% -4.1% 1.3% 5.1% 2.7%
U t a h 12.6% -4.7% 33.0% 41.6% 11.1% 3.3% 23.0%
V i r g i n i a -3.7% -14.2% -1.2% 6.8% 6.0% -4.1% -3.1%
W a s h i n g t o n 6.7% -5.1% 5.2% -8.2% 14.4% .5% 17.6%
W i s c o n s i n 9.8% -15.9% 7.2% 45.4% 14.2% 8.9% -10.5%
S u m m a r y of 5-Year Effects
N e g a t i v e &
1 8 7 6 6 6 9
S i g n i f i c a n t
N e g a t i v e & n o t
6 3 4 5 4 5 2
335. s i g n i f i c a n t
P o s i t i v e &
8 6 7 9 4 4 6
s i g n i f i c a n t
Positive & n o t
6 4 3 1 7 6 4
s i g n i f i c a n t
N o t e s : T h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e is t h e n a t u
r a l log of t h e c r i m e r a t e l i s t e d a t t h e t o p of
e a c h column. T h e d a t a s e t is c o m p r i s e d of a n n
u a l city-level o b s e r v a t i o n s . While n o t
shown, city, year, a n d city t r e n d effects a r e i n c l u d e
d i n all specifications. All
r e g r e s s i o n s a r e w e i g h t e d b y a f u n c t i o n of
city p o p u l a t i o n as d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e b r e u s c
h
p a g a n t e s t . S t a n d a r d e r r o r s a r e c o r r e c t e d
for c l u s t e r i n g b y s t a t e . Coefficients t h a t a r e
s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .10 level a r e u n d e r l i n e d .
Coefficients t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05
level a r e italicized, coefficients t h a t a r e s i g n i f i c a n
t a t t h e .01 level a r e i t a l i c i z e d a n d
u n d e r l i n e d .
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234 "STRIKING OUT" AS CRIME REDUCTION POLICY
statistically significant decrease in any individual crime
category
was roughly identical to the n u m b e r of states t h a t
exhibited a
statistically significant increase. The greatest disparity between
significant increases and decreases occurs for homicide, with
eight
states showing a statistical increase in homicide and only one
reporting a statistical decrease. Overall, 72 of the 147 tests
indicate t h a t t h r e e strikes laws reduced crime, with 29 of
these
estimates being statistically significant (at the .05 level). At t h
e
same time, 31 of t h e 147 estimated n e t 5-year effects
indicated a
statistically significant increase in crime, resulting in a ratio of
about one crime decrease for every one increase.
D I S C U S S I O N A N D C O N C L U S I O N
Consistent with other studies, ours finds no credible statistical
evidence t h a t passage of three strikes laws reduces crime by
338. deterring potential criminals or incapacitating repeat offenders.
The results of the aggregate law variable analysis provided no
evidence of an immediate or gradual decrease in crime rates,
and
homicide rates were actually positively associated with the
passage
of three strike laws. The findings for the state-specific analysis
were mixed, with some states showing increases in some crimes,
and others showing decreases. Overall, 29 of the 147 tests were
negative and significant, indicating t h a t t h r e e strikes laws
reduced
crime, while 31 demonstrated a statistically significant increase
in
crime.
We offer several possible explanations for why passage of three
strikes laws does not appear to be negatively correlated with
crime
rates. First, ethnographic research on criminals (Hochstetler &
Copes, 2003; Jacobs, 1999; Shover, 1996; Wright & Decker,
1994,
1997) suggests t h a t rarely are they concerned about getting
caught
(i.e., they are confident in their ability to commit crime or they
can
successfully manage any fear), or they simply aren't aware of
the
laws or the way in which the laws operate (Marvell & Moody,
1995;
Kovandzic, 2001). In addition, m a n y offenders are u n d e r
the
influence of alcohol and/or drugs (U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of
Justice,
2003) and this m a y serve to lessen their concerns with getting
caught (Shover & Honaker, 1999). Second, as Stolzenberg and
D'Alessio (1997) suggest, the laws frequently target offenders
339. beyond t h e peak age of offending, and thus, t h e impact on
crime
is minimal because t h e y are already committing fewer
crimes. In
addition, the effectiveness of three strikes laws for reducing
crime
rates depends on the ability of the system to identify potential
high-rate offenders before they commit a large n u m b e r of
crimes.
This would entail incarcerating youthful offenders because the
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