This document is the thesis of Andy Kooren exploring the development of style and technique of the darbuka drum. The thesis will examine the darbuka's history and cultural influences across various regions. It will analyze the work of important darbuka musicians and the evolution of playing techniques. Kooren will draw conclusions by looking through historical, geographical, cultural, political, technological, and educational lenses. The goal is to answer how the darbuka's style and technique have developed over time.

1. Thesis
The
development
of
style
and
technique
of
the
darbuka
Andy William Kooren (1909795)
Bachelor thesis world music
Codarts Hogeschool voor de kunsten
1e begeleider: Prof. (Oscar) van Dillen
2e begeleider: Prof. (Ted) de Jong
2011/2012

2. ‘The darbuka, the percussion instrument, contains an illustrious history and
cultural heritage unmatched by any drum whatsoever. The musicians in the
field of today have enriched themselves with this heritage. They still continue
to pass on the tradition that the early nomadic tribes started. The darbuka
has an unique sound applicable in diverse situations from jam sessions to
band playing or supporting a dance group. There are multiple possibilities to
adapt this instrument, and there are countless rhythms as well as playing
techniques to discover. ‘
Andy Kooren

3. Part 1 Introduction! 1
Part 2 Theoretical background! 3
2.1 Historical background! 3
Mesopotamia/Irak! 3
Iran/Persia! 4
Modern Iran! 5
Jewish music! 5
Western Middle Ages and percussion! 6
Morocco! 6
Modern Morocco! 7
Roma! 7
Influence of Islam! 8
Egypt! 8
Modern Cairo! 8
The Gulf and Yemen! 10
Israel! 10
Syria! 10
Turkey! 10
Arabesque in Turkey! 11
Conclusion! 11
2.2.1 Development history nomadic tribes! 11
2.2.2 Cultural influence in Morocco! 12
2.2.3 Political influences! 12
2.2.5 Technological influences! 12
2.2.6 Summarising! 13
2.2.7 Jeff Senn! 13
Chapter 3! 15
Analyses genre and technique! 15
3.1.1 Musicians! 15
3.1.2 Choice of ensembles! 17
3.1.3 Conclusions & hypotheses! 18
3.2.1 New style and/or melting pot! 19

4. 3.2.2 Boundaries of free expression and tradition! 20
3.2.3 Application of Oriental percussion! 20
3.2.4 Previous results and comments! 20
3.2.5 Conclusions and hypotheses! 21
3.3.1 Darbuka technique! 21
3.3.2 Analysis origin contemporary technique! 21
3.3.3 Anatomy of the darbuka! 22
3.3.4 Conclusions and hypotheses! 23
Chapter 4! 24
4.1 History! 24
4.2.1 Available education and notation! 25
4.2.2 Darbuka methods! 25
4.2.3 Conclusion and assumptions! 25
Chapter 5 Conclusion and assumptions! 27
Literature & resources! 28
Visited www resources:! 30

5. Part
1
Introduc2on
After hours of discussion and many sleepless nights, I finally decided on the subject of my essay:
‘The darbuka’. I realized soon that this was going to be a tough job as I did not write a major thesis
before.
That is why I hoped I would gain the required knowledge and inspiration by reading books and
articles as ‘How to write a thesis’ by Umberto Eco.
This
provided
me
with
a
clear
image
on
what
I
was
supposed
to
do.
Wri2ng
the
thesis
I
encountered
a
huge
problem;
there
were
almost
no
specific
sources
available
about
this
subject.
I
have
been
playing
the
percussion
instrument,
the
darbuka
since
I
was
very
young.
However,
the
cultural
heritage
of
this
instrument
s2ll
remained
a
mystery.
In
all
the
books
on
darbuka
prac2se
was
no
explana2on
to
be
found
on
the
historical
journey
and
specific
origin
of
this
instrument.
Many
countries
use
this
instrument
in
their
music,
yet
who
claims
it
the
most?
Does
this
imply
something
about
its
ancestry?
How
did
it
get
there?
These
are
actually
ques2ons
that
raise
more
ques2ons
and
force
me
to
further
research
this
area.
With
the
purpose
to
define
a
plausible
research
ques2on
that
covers
the
complexity
of
this
subject
and
really
answers
the
key
ques2ons,
I
phrased
the
following
ques2on:
‘How
is
the
development
of
the
style
and
technique
of
the
darbuka?’
We
will
have
a
look
on
the
musicians
that
contributed
to
this
field.
By
considering
the
modern
players
of
today
we
can
place
the
different
approaches
that
exist
in
this
field
in
perspec2ve.
To
answer
the
main
ques2on
we
will
have
to
look
from
different
angles
to
the
ques2on.
The
angels
used
are
not
similar
to
each
other.
This
way
we
can
form
a
total
image
of
this
subject
which
allows
us
to
draw
several
conclusions.
Among
other
we
will
review:
• Historical
part,
because
we
need
to
discover
where
this
instrument
came
from
and
what
is
the
star2ng
point
in
terms
of
development.
This
angle
is
important
because
it
determines
the
measure
we
can
use
to
mirror
the
leading
musicians
of
today.
• Geographical
development,
because
the
use
of
this
instrument
in
more
places
over
the
globe
suggest
there
is
a
broad
dispersion
of
its
tradi2on
and
associated
elements.
By
tracking
the
route
we
can
determine
the
roots
of
this
instruments
and
the
pad
it
has
travelled.
• Cultural,
because
habits
and
behaviours
of
a
culture
influence
and
guide
the
musical
development.
In
some
cases
it
may
help
or
obstruct
development.
In
other
words
a
culture
can
have
a
stagnant
or
a
supported
effect
on
music.
• Poli2cal,
considering
that
policy
has
a
direct
impact
on
a
culture
and
thereby
the
music.
• Technological,
because
technologic
developments
had
and
s2ll
has
a
great
contribu2on
to
the
music
sector.
1

6. • Furthermore
we
will
have
an
overview
on
the
educa2onal
part
of
making
music,
because
also
this
angle
is
a
factor
that
influences
the
way
of
playing
on
these
instruments.
• Besides
viewing
from
these
angels
we
should
not
forget
to
analyse
the
technique
used
to
play
this
instrument.
This
sec2on
provides
us
with
informa2on
which
may
support
further
understanding
of
the
development
of
this
instrument.
• And
last
but
not
least
we
will
carefully
observe
the
darbuka
players
that
have
a
principal
role
at
this
moment.
To
have
an
objec2ve
and
righteous
outcome
all
of
the
above
men2oned
fields
will
be
discussed
in
this
thesis.
In
the
conclusion,
this
thesis
aims
to
answer
the
research
ques2on.
But
where
and
how
can
the
journey
start?
In
order
to
have
an
ideal
base
for
darbuka
research
it
is
a
good
idea
to
take
off
in
the
countries
where
this
instrument
is
a
part
of
the
standard
instrument
repertoire.
From
that
point
this
thesis
con2nues
to
explore
each
of
the
previously
men2oned
angles.
2

7. Part
2
Theore2cal
background
The
aim
of
this
chapter
is
to
close
the
gap
in
knowledge
in
background
theory.
The
background
is
important
in
order
to
further
study
the
development.
There
fore
we
start
to
look
at
the
countries
and
areas
where
this
instrument
was
ini2ally
used.
For
this
research
I
collected
data
per
country.
In
this
way
I
am
trying
find
common
grounds
which
hopefully
leads
to
the
roots.
2.1
Historical
background
Let
us
have
a
look
on
the
development
of
the
countries,
areas
and
regions
where
this
music
is
believed
to
arise,
and
also
the
effect
of
this
development
on
the
darbuka.
Mesopotamia/Irak
Mesopotamia
refers
to
the
region
of
what
is
currently
Irak,
Eastern
Syria,
South-­‐East
Turkey
and
the
South-­‐West
of
Iran.
Excava2ons
have
proved
that
there
was
musical
ac2vity
in
Mesopotamia.
For
at
least
2500
B.C.
music
was
played
by
people
on
drums
and
harps.
There
were
no
cup-­‐shaped
drums
in
use
which
we
know
now
as
the
darbuka.
An
Babylonian
plaque
dated
from
1100
B.C.
that
is
now
to
be
found
in
a
Bri2sh
museum
shows
a
big
egg-­‐shaped
drum
that
stands
on
a
tail.
This
drum
called
lilis
stretches
from
the
ground
to
the
middle
of
the
body,
that
is
around
90
cen2metre.
The
player
strikes
the
drum
with
his
bar
hands.
This
is
probable
the
first
prototype
of
what
we
now
know
as
the
darbuka.
Big
ancient
drums
like
the
lilis
and
the
mesopotamian
framedrum
were,
as
2me
went,
adjusted
in
a
way
that
the
players
could
carry
them
along
their
journeys.
This
miniatures
of
the
original
drums
were
more
light
and
easier
to
handle.
The
propor2on
was
changed
to
a
shape
that
could
held
firm.
Sandwiched
between
the
knee,
arm
and
chest
of
the
player
with
the
play
head
facing
forward.
Such
a
drum
could
also
stand
upright
or
even
upside
down
with
the
head
to
the
ground.
A
Tibetan
pain2ng
of
the
Egyp2an
eighteenth
dynasty
(New
Kingdom),
shows
the
small
drum
in
ceremonies.
There
is
also
a
clay
statue
of
an
Egyp2an
man
(eighteenth
dynasty
new
kingdom).
This
small
version
of
the
drum
was
known
to
the
Arabs
and
was
distributed
by
them.
Ex2nct
in
Western
Europe
and
today
probably
the
primary
drum
of
the
Islamic
world.
Alias
the
modern
darbuka
of
North
Africa
and
the
near
East,
known
by
different
names
varied
from
Morocco
to
Iran
and
Bulgaria,
these
drums
are
made
of
metal
or
po^ery.
The
following
text
is
deriva2ve
of
an
ar2cle
wri^en
by
Lynda
Aiano.
I
summarized
the
ar2cle
to
highlight
the
important
notes.
Lynda
Aiano
(graduated
in
2005
with
an
MA
degree
in
experimental
archeology
of
the
Department
of
Archaeology,
University
of
Exeter)
explains
in
her
ar2cle
Resonators
and
holders:
Around
the
2me
of
5000
BC,
there
were
pots
and
membrane
covered
with
skins,
as
this
turns
out
by
excava2ons
of
fragments
of
those
pots.
In
the
architecture
of
Anatolia
images
are
known
from
framedrums.
These
were
played
with
the
hands
or
s2cks.
The
drum
familiar
as
the
darbuka
were
actually
found
in
central
Europe
and
date
from
the
Neolithic
period.
This
is
the
period
when
the
end
of
the
Stone
Age
came
insight
and
a
more
'human'
civiliza2on
arose.
Many
pots
were
designed
as
drums
and
were
found
in
Denmark
and
Germany.
In
Russia
a
drum
was
found
from
500
B.C.
that
looked
exactly
like
the
darbuka.
The
darbuka
mainly
known
in
North
of
Africa,
Asia,
Turkey
and
the
Middle
East
as
darbuka
seems
rather
a
survivor
type
of
drums
found
in
Denmark
3

8. and
Germany
than
the
exact
descendant.
The
only
possible
conclusion
is
that
the
darbuka
originally
descended
from
Europe.
Lynda
Aino
also
suggests
that
the
diversity
of
the
drum
depic
the
a^empts
of
designers
to
modify
this
instrument
to
make
a
be^er
one.
Iran/Persia
In
the
development
of
Oriental
percussion
the
old
‘Persia’
meant
a
lot.
When
we
keep
the
history
of
Persia
in
mind,
more
will
be
clear
about
the
use
of
the
darbuka
in
the
Middle
East.
The
name
Iran
has
been
used
since
the
habita2on
of
the
na2ve
Sassanid
ages,
and
has
been
interna2onal
recognized
since
1935.
Before
this
the
country
was
known
to
the
western
world
as
Persia.
Both
Persia
and
Iran
are
used
in
cultural
context,
but
Iran
is
more
correct
in
poli2cal
context.
In
a
nutshell
the
reign
in
Persia:
From
3200
B.C.
un2l
651
A.D.
Nomadic
tribes,
the
Elamite
kingdom
and
Irakesa
Medes.
Followed
by
Acheamid
kingdom
and
Hellenist
Seleucid
kingdom
followed
by
the
Parth
and
Sassanied.
There
was
a
real
structure,
in
Persia
already
lived
nomadic
tribes.
A
series
of
them
had
se^led
in
Persia
between
3200
BC
and
625
BC,
together
with
the
Dilmun
civiliza2on.
For
a
long
2me
the
most
important
se^lement
occured
on
the
southern
coast
of
the
Persian
Gulf,
Gerrha.
In
the
2nd
century
the
Lakhum
tribe
who
lived
in
what
is
now
as
Yemen,
they
migrated
north
and
founded
the
Lakhmid
Kingdom
along
the
southern
coast.
This
shows
there
were
several
different
tribes
who
have
lived
and
spread
through
the
Middle
East.
Most
of
them
descended
from
the
same
nomadic
background.
This
makes
several
factors.
Important
in
any
case
is,
they
share
the
same
background
and
all
have
contributed
to
the
spread
of
Persian
culture.
Cyrus
the
Great,
brought
most
of
the
tribes
together
in
the
Achaemenieden
empire.
This
empire
stretched
from
the
Indus
and
Oxus
rivers
2ll
the
Mediterranean
Sea,
Turkey
(Anatolia)
and
Egypt.
Shortly
aier
the
Greeks
invaded
Persia
and
have
dominated
it.
Aier
the
Greeks,
the
kingdom
of
the
Parthians
rose.
They
lost
at
one
point
control
and
then
the
Sassanied
era
emerged.
They
con2nued
expand
on
behalf
of
the
earlier
accomplishments
of
the
Parthians.
The
Parthians
were
innovators
of
many
designs
in
the
architecture,
such
Ctesiphon,
they
have
influenced
European
Romanesque
architecture
in
there
turn.
Under
the
Sassanids
the
rela2onships
extended
to
China
(Silk
Route).
Art,
music
and
architecture
flourished,
there
were
ins2tu2ons
like
the
school
and
the
Academy
of
Gundishapur
which
is
know
as
a
world
famous
centre
of
science.
The
musical
instruments
on
Sassanid
images
that
were
found
are
the
harp,
the
horn,
the
daf,
the
drum
and
the
flute
or
pipe.
The
darbuka
had
not
yet
been
recognized
as
an
instrument.
Muslims
conquered
Persia
around
651
A.D.
in
1501
and
have
installed
the
Safavid
dynasty,
known
from
that
2me
the
establishment
of
Sharia
Islam.
4

9. Modern
Iran
Due
to
the
Iranian
revolu2on,
culture
and
tradi2on
was
brought
back
to
the
roots,
the
music
became
therefore
strictly
tradi2onal.
Music
became
strongly
influenced
by
poetry.
This
music
was
a
medium
for
the
people,
percussion
Tombak
adopted
a
strong
role
in
this.
At
a
certain
point
aier
the
emerge
of
the
revolu2on,
there
were
musicians
who
produced
more
modern
classical
music,
an
example
of
which
is
the
Kamkar
family.
The
poli2cs
were
skep2cal
towards
the
arrival
of
this
new
type
of
music.
The
music
in
Iran
was
passed
on
by
oral
tradi2on.
The
whole
repertoire
was
played
from
memory.
This
way
there
was
always
re-­‐crea2on
of
the
tradi2on
happening
on
stage.
This
way
of
performing
and
learning
kept
the
tradi2on
alive.
Un2l
60’
a
typical
performance
would
consist
of
a
singer
and
a
solo
player.
In
addi2on
there
could
be
a
tombak
(percussion)
player
as
well.
Nowadays,
in
Iran
it
is
common
for
songs
to
start
with
a
pulse
played
on
a
percussion
instrument,
as
well
as
end
with
percussion.
In
respect
to
music,
the
rhythm
highly
developed
in
Iran.
Around
the
70's
a
pop
music
scene
flourished,
but
with
its
aboli2on
during
the
Islamic
revolu2on
many
musicians
fled
to
the
West
(U.S.).
They
were
successful
over
there
instead
of
Iran.
An
good
example
is
the
ar2st
Googoos
who
made
dance
and
rap
music
in
a
mix.
Numbers
were
oien
up
tempo
and
rhythms
were
based
on
the
folk
and
popular
Iranian
rhythms,
very
innova2ve.
Ar2sts
like
Googoos
gave
Iranian
music
a
modern
twist.
To
do
that
they
had
to
flee
the
country
and
se^le
there
household
elsewhere.
Jewish
music
In
the
Middle
Ages,
Jewish
musicians
in
Spain
had
different
types
of
hand
percussion
including
frame
drums
and
tambourines.
The
use
of
these
instruments
can
also
be
found
in
the
music
of
the
20th
century.
Jewish
music
consists
among
others
out
of
sephardic
and
klezmer
music,
which
descended
from
Eastern
Europe.
Much
of
this
music
is
reproduced
in
the
U.S.
How
could
this
music
emerge?
The
Jews
copied
throughout
the
centuries,
the
melodies
and
rhythms
of
the
places
where
they
had
been,
including
the
local
Greek,
Turkish
and
Moroccan
styles,
but
they
also
preserved
the
melodies
and
styles
of
the
O^oman
scales
(maqamat),
not
to
men2on
the
Moroccan
rhythms
which
in
turn
was
partly
inspired
by
west
Africa,
Argen2ne
tango
and
gypsy
music.
Jewish
Sephardic
music
is
played
in
the
Jewish
/
Hispanic
community.
That
community
exists
of
various
characteris2cs,
just
like
their
language
namely,
Spanish,
Portuguese,
Hebrew
Greek,
Arabic
and
later
Italian,
French
and
modern
Spanish.
The
music
includes
tradi2onal
tunes
of
Greek,
O^oman,
Turkish,
Moroccan
and
Roma
tango
songs.
Sephardic
songs
were
played
in
Turkish
and
Bulgarian
weddings
on
a
9/8
rhythm
and
in
Morocco
6/8
rhythms.
We
can
state
that
Jewish
music
is
a
mixture
of
many
different
styles.
Since
the
darbuka
is
also
used
in
this
music,
we
can
say
that
this
music
is
also
had
a
small
share
in
the
development
of
the
darbuka.
5

10. Western
Middle
Ages
and
percussion
Many
medieval
instruments
had
arrived
in
Europe
from
Asia
via
Byzan2um
(
Constan2nople,
Istanbul
)
but
also
by
the
Arabs
in
North
Africa
and
Spain.
It
is
unlikely
that
instrumental
music
existed
in
the
early
Middle
Ages
which
had
nothing
to
do
with
singing
and
dancing.
Medieval
dances
were
not
only
accompanied
by
singers
but
also
with
instruments.
Thus,
the
estampie
(musical
form),
is
the
oldest
known
form
of
instrumental
dance
music.
The
music
of
the
late
Middle
Ages
(14th
century)
was
performed
both
vocal
and
instrumental
and
vocal-­‐
instrumental.
No
specific
composers
wrote
instrumental
music
,
the
performers
themselves
determined
(based
on
the
present
musicians),
the
way
the
music
was
conducted.
Throughout
the
Middle
Ages
instruments
were
subordinate
to
the
singing
and
dancing.
Few
instruments
survived
this
period,
that
is
why,
the
most
knowledge
about
these
instruments
is
based
on
illustra2ons
in
manuscripts
and
sculptures
in
churches.
The
oldest
medieval
instruments
are
the
harp,
viol
and
lute.
Another
instrument
that
is
oien
used
in
the
Middle
Ages,
the
psaltery
(a
kind
of
citer).
Among
the
instruments
we
also
find
the
zinc
(straight
or
curved
horn).
The
sackbut
(the
forerunner
of
the
trombone).
The
schalmei
or
pommer
(the
forerunner
of
the
oboe)
and
the
flute.
An
instrument
that
was
also
widely
used
is
the
small,
portable
organ
(the
porta2ef).
This
was
played
with
one
hand
while
the
other
hand,
the
galgen
filled
with
air.
Percussion
instruments
were
also
used,
around
the
12th
century,
mainly
to
give
the
measure
in
song:
drums,
cymbals
and
tambourine.
In
folk
music
hurdy-­‐gurdy
and
bagpipes
were
played
frequently.
Flute,
fiddle
(forerunner
of
the
violin)
and
drums
were
played
by
minstrels
and
jugglers.
From
this
we
can
conclude
that
percussion
in
the
early
Middle
Ages
had
not
much
contribu2on
to
the
darbuka
although
later
on
the
tambourines
and
drums
were
used,
the
darbuka
back
then
had
no
existence.
During
the
Middle
Ages
the
West
has
meant
something
to
the
East
in
terms
of
music
nota2on.
We
will
get
there
in
the
chapter
'nota2on'.
Morocco
In
Morocco,
most
music
was
played
for
entertainment
rather
than
religion.
Besides,
we
do
not
view
the
Berber
music,
which
is
in
fact
quite
tradi2onal
and
very
different
from
the
commonly
used
Moroccan
music.
Renown
from
Berber
music
are
the
rwais
ensembles,
which
is
another
sub-­‐
culture
.
Classical
music
comes
from
the
Arabic
Andalusian
tradi2on.
Ini2ally
this
style
developed
1000
years
ago
in
Cordoba,
then
ruled
by
the
Moors
(Arabs).
There
is
also
the
classic
forms
and
milhun
gharna2
.
When
the
Moroccans
were
expelled
from
Spain,
they
have
spread
themselves
and
there
music
through
Morocco.
There
orchestras
founded
containing
the
darbuka
in
it.
6

11. The
most
famous
orchestra
were
conducted
by
Fes
Abdelkrim
Rais.
Abdelkrim
Rais
had
a
great
reputa2on
in
Morocco.
In
1969
he
par2cipated
as
an
expert,
in
the
Congress
of
Arab
Music
in
Fez.
Renown
ensembles
are
Tetouan
o.l.v.
Abdesadak
Chekara
and
Rabat
o.l.v.
Mola
Ahmed
Oukili.
Most
ci2es
had
their
own
Andalusian
orchestras,
Rochester
Tangier
is
a
familiar
one.
These
orchestras
used
the
darbuka
as
a
elementary
part
of
the
orchestra.
Abdelkrim
Rais
was
born
in
1912.
During
the
20th
century,
the
darbuka
became
a
part
of
the
repertoire
of
orchestras.
The
rhythms
developed
at
that
2me
are
s2ll
played
on
the
darbuka
and
bendir
.
Modern
Morocco
The
Moroccan
word
chaabi
means
popular
and
includes
a
mix
of
various
styles.
It
was
heard
in
cafes,
theatres
and
weddings.
During
the
70’s
there
was
a
more
advanced
chaabi
popping
up,
the
seong
of
the
band
competed
with
commercial
music
from
Libya
and
Egypt
.
This
new
music
was
a
fusion
of
Arabic
and
African
music
with
Western
influences
combined
with
also
Berber
music.
The
music
also
contained
the
Arab
milhun
and
Sufi
rituals
.
Morocco
was
(around
1960)
the
star2ng
point
for
mixing
styles
.
Morocco
also
made
rai
music.
this
was
later
popularized
by
the
famous
ar2st
Cheb
Chaled.
The
darbuka
is
always
featured
in
this
new
modern
music
.
From
this
becomes
clear
that
the
music
has
started
to
develop
modern
forms.
The
darbuka
was
always
included.
Roma
Roma
had
much
influence
on
the
development
of
the
darbuka.
Composers
such
as
Franz
Liszt
were
influenced
by
them.
The
roots
of
the
Roma
people
come
from
India.
There
are
probably
different
migra2on
groups
departed
at
different
2me,
this
is
to
distract
from
the
various
dialects
that
exist
among
the
Roma.
Today,
there
are
about
12
million
Roma
outside
India.
The
developments
within
the
Roma
community
indicates
a
migra2on
of
people
and
their
culture
to
other
peripheral
areas.
Important
language
elements
connected
in
Persian,
Armenian
and
Greek
are
also
found
in
Roma
language,
this
indicates
that
these
cultures
are
interconnected.
Roma
people
were
drawn
from
Istanbul
to
Europe
before
and
aier
the
O^oman
conquest.
While
many
Roma
migrated
to
Western
Europe,
many
of
them
also
lei
to
the
south
to
Egypt.
Many
musicians
from
Roma
families
played
important
parts
in
the
Arab
music.
Muhammad
Matar
is
an
example
of
a
great
bouzouki
player.
In
Turkey
they
had
great
support
on
the
radio
for
pop
and
arabesque
recordings.
The
style
of
the
Roma
has
always
been
inextricably
linked
to
fasil
and
bellydance
music.
They
are
known
to
be
virtuoso
on
their
instruments.
In
the
Balkan,
Roma
are
most
represented.
Every
style
they
encountered
on
their
path,
they
integrated
in
their
music.
Known
in
Spain
are
the
Gypsy
kings
and
Ojos
de
Brujo.
Ojos
de
Brujo
mixed
the
melancholy
of
flamenco
with
North
African
music,
Cuban
and
pop
music.
These
facts
indicate
that
the
Roma
have
developed
tremendous
in
their
music.
Burhan
Ocal
is
a
famous
virtuoso
darbuka
player
from
Turkey
and
is
also
Roma.
Since
1970
there
has
been
an
certain
awareness
of
the
iden2ty
of
the
Roma
.
7

12. What
did
they
exactly
contributed
to
the
musical
development
of
the
darbuka?
Since
the
darbuka
is
used
regularly
in
their
music
standards,
especially
when
combined
with
the
clarinet,
they
developed
the
use
of
the
darbuka.
If
you
think
of
Roma
then
you
think
of
the
rhythm
that
goes.
InFluence
of
Islam
The
arrival
of
Islam
played
an
important
role
in
the
stabiliza2on
of
music
in
general.
Before
the
arrival
of
the
Islam
poetry
was
prominent.
The
vocabulary
of
poetry
extended.
When
the
Koran
got
together
with
the
Arabs,
the
Koran
became
a
songbook
for
ar2st
crea2ons.
It
did
not
change
the
rhythm,
because
rhythm
on
percussion
was
not
used
that
2me.
Music
according
to
the
standards
of
the
O^oman
empire
You
would
think
that
the
expansion
of
the
O^oman
empire
had
a
great
influence
on
music
and
thereby
percussion.
The
empire
surely
conquered
a
large
area
and
dominated
it
for
a
long
2me.
However,
the
only
percussion
instrument
played
in
this
2me
were
framedrums,
kudm
and
cymbals.
This
music
is
called
mevlevi
music.
In
a
nutshell,
in
O^oman
music
there
was
1. art
music
subdivisions
of
fasil
and
mevlevi
2. inside
and
outside
dance
music
3. urban
popular
songs
4. army
music
In
mevlevi
music
you
can
see
that
framedrum
works
in
favour
of
the
music.
In
this
study,
no
further
evidence
of
the
use
of
the
darbuka
is
found.
O^oman
culture
in
its
occupied
territories
actually
knocked
out
the
indigenous
music
and
brought
changes.
In
the
context
of
this
study,
you
can
say
that
the
development
of
percussion
was
actually
frozen
during
temporary
occupa2on
of
the
O^omans.
Egypt
The
discover
more
about
the
development
of
the
darbuka
we
certainly
have
to
take
a
look
at
Egypt,
actually
Cairo.
This
city
tells
us
more
about
the
first
employment
of
the
darbuka
we
know
today.
It
is
not
necessary
to
look
into
the
whole
country.
What
is
more
interes2ng
are
the
ci2es.
They
profile
them
selfs
in
a
certain
way.
Cairo
for
example
is
the
heart
of
the
Middle
East
what
concerns
to
the
Arabic
music.
If
you
look
at
the
countries
round
Egypt
it
stands
out
that
everybody
listened
to
the
same
music
as
in
Egypt.
The
were
guided
by
this
enormous
trendse^er.
An
interes2ng
fact
regarding
the
darbuka
is
that
before
the
O^oman
empire
ruled
Egypt,
nomadic
tribes,
probable
origina2ve
from
Mesopotamia
had
already
established
their
roots.
These
nomadic
tribes
already
had
percussion
instruments
in
use.
The
modern
darbuka
can
be
strong
related
to
this
types.
Modern
Cairo
When
Egypt
colonizers
came
with
brass
bands
and
operas
played
in
theatres
of
Verdi
and
Mozart,
people
were
confronted
with
modernity.
This
contributed
to
establishment
of
an
Arab
Renaissance.
Thanks
to
that
the
Arab
music
scene
expanded
greatly
in
a
short
2me.
There
was
a
8

13. changing
balance
between
tradi2onal
music
and
modern
music
from
the
new
West.
Arabic
music
became
vulnerable
to
the
musical
science
from
Europe.
In
1932,
a
conference
with
among
others,
Bela
Bartok
was
held.
The
aim
of
this
conference
was
to
organize
the
supply
of
musical
material
spread
over
the
Middle
East.
Aier
this
conference
there
was
a
standard
for
Arabic
Music.
The
West
became
a
source
of
inspira2on
to
the
composers
in
the
East.
This
inspira2on
led
to
the
development
that
a
tradi2on
passed
on
over
1000
of
years
suddenly
adapted.
The
instrument
rabab
got
replaced
by
the
violin.
The
concept
of
harmony
was
applied.
New
instruments
as
the
cello
entered
the
musical
scene.
The
familiar
ensembles
called
takht
ensemble
were
expanded
with
oboes
and
electric
guitars.
Music
studio’s
became
more
advanced
and
composers
started
to
make
use
of
elements
of
music
from
the
West,
such
as
Beethoven
and
Bela
Bartok.
There
were
inspired
by
Hollywood
and
jazz
as
well.
Due
to
the
Arabic
renaissance
the
play
style
of
the
darbuka
developed
and
thereby
the
rhythmic
and
use
of
the
darbuka.
The
instrument
received
a
func2on
within
the
music.
This
is
clearly
seen
from
the
takht
ensembles.
Mul2ple
examples
show
that
the
employment
of
the
darbuka
is
a
fact.
When
we
have
a
look
on
the
following
developments
more
will
be
clear
about
how
the
change
of
more
contemporary
use
of
the
darbuka
instead
of
classical
could
occur.
It
is
about
a
development
which
cons2tuted
more
rhythms
played
on
this
instrument
then
before.
During
the
modernisa2on
of
the
Arab
music
world
television,
radio
and
movies
were
introduced.
Suddenly
there
was
a
plaqorm
created
for
music.
How
did
that
con2nue?
There
arose
a
some
kind
of
superstar
industry
of
ar2st
wan2ng
to
break
through.
Meanwhile
big
Western
entrepreneurs
invade
Cairo
to
set
up
business.
The
amount
and
size
of
the
media
started
to
grew.
Since
President
Sadat
applied
a
open
door
policy,
Western
companies
were
able
to
exploit.
At
a
certain
moment
new
product
emerged
in
the
country.
Through
these
media
poets
like
Ahmed
Ramy
and
Ahmed
Shawki
had
spread
revolu2onary
messages,
oien
texts
about
culture
and
faith.
Their
popularity
was
thereby
increased
substan2ally.
With
the
arrival
of
casse^e
tapes,
music
fell
into
the
hands
of
the
people
and
the
distribu2on
and
trade
was
ini2ated.
Due
to
this
technical
development
the
music
industry
enhanced
the
produc2on.
There
was
a
huge
change
in
social
live.
In
the
80’s
and
90’s
classical
music
was
se^led,
but
on
the
other
hand
a
youth
culture
arose
and
with
that
the
demand
of
pop
music.
New
styles
like
shaabi
(folk
blues)
en
al-­‐jil
(Arab
pop)
were
born.
This
was
the
output
of
the
social
revolu2on.
The
pressure
to
change
had
already
built
a
while
and
since
Cairo
is
the
trendse^er
other
countries
were
drawn
to
this
change
and
followed.
Un2l
then
the
classical
music
was
a
recogni2on
for
the
iden2ty
of
Egypt.
Shaabi
music
is
characterized
by
suddenly
changing
pace
and
rhythms.
The
darbuka
received
a
different
func2on.
New
rhythms
were
developed
and
interpreted
differently.
Similarly
with
the
emerge
of
new
technical
products
as
quarter
tone
keyboards
and
computer
soiware
a
new
pop
music
was
introduced,
Al
Jil.
Al
Jil
is
a
movement
created
by
and
for
young
people.
The
beat
is
fairly
similar
to
techno
and
reggae.
Al
jil
and
Algerian
rai
example,
made
it
possible
to
break
free
from
the
tradi2onal
9

14. community.
The
al
jil
scene
has
also
influenced
the
European
dance
scenes.
There
have
been
many
crossover
projects
You
can
see
that
the
development
of
music
had
purely
a
social
func2on.
In
the
beginning
of
this
shiiing
music,
Mohamed
Abd
El-­‐Wahaab
insisted
on
making
a
strong
dis2nc2on
between
new
and
classical
music.
Superstars
as
Umm
Kalthum
and
Abd
El-­‐Halim
had
made
the
Egyp2an
iden2ty.
The
Gulf
and
Yemen
Khaleeyi
music
is
very
popular
in
the
gulf
and
Yemen,
the
percussion
in
this
style
is
very
broad.
The
rhythms
are
based
on
the
tradi2onal
rhythms.
This
has
remained
prac2cally
conserved.
Israel
Israel
a^empted
to
form
a
musical
bridge
between
the
West
and
the
East
The
results
were
some2mes
forced
oriental
(Orientalism),
the
rhythms
and
melodic
mo2ves
did
not
really
lend
themselves
to
western
classical
music.
There
were
successful
crossovers
made
by
the
oud
player
Yair
Dalal
and
trio
Ziryab.
In
these
styles
Turkish
and
Arabic
styles
were
brought
together.
Kurdish
music
In
Kurdish
music
the
framedrum
is
primarily
used.
Since
the
division
in
1920,
the
Kurdish
music
has
encountered
many
changes.
Urban
Kurdish
musicians
were
be^er
off
in
Iraq
because
there
they
were
allow
to
study
music
at
the
conservatory.
As
long
as
they
were
poli2cal
in
there
statements
it
was
okay.
Syria
In
Syria,
Goerge
wasouf
became
very
familiar
with
mixing
Syrian,
Egyp2an,
levant
and
classic
melodies.
Turkey
Ataturk
and
his
ideologies
caused
a
diminishing
of
the
Arab
civiliza2on
in
Turkey.
"The
ability
to
change
his
country
would
be
demonstrated
by
the
ability
to
change
his
music,"
said
by
Ataturk,
he
forbade
circula2on
of
Arabic
language,
music
and
movies.
He
began
collec2ng
recordings
of
orchestral
music
reflec2ng
the
folk
music
in
other
words
halk
music.
From
this
posi2on,
the
Turkish
Sanat
music
originated
in
other
words,
the
classical
music.
There
was
also
a
conservatory
formed
in
Istanbul.
In
1980
Prime
Minister
Turgut
Ozal
slightly
disturbed
the
media.
From
then
Pop,
rock
and
arabesque
music
could
heard
again
on
the
private
radio
sta2ons.
The
rhythm
had
a
new
significant
meaning
in
the
new
sanat
music.
For
this
music
another
type
model
of
darbuka
was
used,
namely
the
darbuka
with
a
90
-­‐degree
angle
.
If
you
listen
to
the
composer
Belkis
Akkale
you
no2ce
that
his
way
of
arranging
has
pumped
up
the
rhythm.
His
well-­‐known
big
saz
concerts
needed
a
clear
support
of
rhythm
that
was
constantly
pushing
the
composi2ons.
Because
his
music
was
a
kind
of
example
to
other
this
type
of
music
started
to
develop.
Here
you
see
rhythm
became
more
important
in
Turkish
music.
10

15. Music
in
Turkey
is
oien
related
to
the
dances
that
go
with
it.
This
dance
music,
mostly
known
by
the
ceremonial
events,
oien
played
by
a
balata
and
darbuka.
Fasil
music
alias
Roma
music
is
a
style
of
music
where
the
darbuka
and
clarinet
are
very
dominant.
Famous
Roma
musicians,
the
Eros
brothers
where
off
Burhan
Ocal
is
known
for
his
epic
darbuka
solos
.
Arabesque
in
Turkey
Arabesque
music
is
for
the
most
people
the
basic
essen2als
of
Turkish
music.
This
music
addresses
itself
to
the
working
class
with
their
poverty
and
oppression.
Arabesque
music
also
has
deep
roots
in
oriental
dance
music
also
known
as
raks
sharki.
Haydar
Tatliyay
introduced
this
as
first.
When
Turkey
forbade
Arabesque
music,
people
found
other
ways
to
listen
to
Arabic
music.
Arabesque
music
was
legalized
by
the
Government
of
Ozal.
Soon
aier
this
many
Arab
stars
took
advantage
of
this.
Arabesque
films
were
shown
again.
Even
young
stars
could
par2cipate
in
the
industry,
think
off
names
like
Mahsun
Kirmizigül
or
singers
with
classical
background
as
Muazzez
Ersoy
and
Yilmaz
Morgul
.
Also,
genres
such
as
pop
and
rock
conquered
the
Turkish
music
scene.
In
fact,
Turkey
always
par2cipated
in
a
trend
that
prevailed
in
the
world.
For
example
tango.
The
Arabesque
way
of
playing
the
darbuka
was
more
in
favour
then
tradi2onal
theyTurkish
one.
Aier
the
ban
on
the
Arabesque,
culture
was
liied,
the
Arabesque
style
of
play
became
popular.
Turkish
darbuka
models
were
hardly
played.
Ul2mately,
the
development
darbuka
elaborated
on
the
Arabian
model.
Conclusion
2.2.1
Development
history
nomadic
tribes
Different
nomadic
with
shared
backgrounds
had
spread
themselves
through
the
Middle
East.
When
civilisa2on
came
more
in
progress,
culture
developed
with
it.
For
example,
renown
from
the
Sassanid
is
the
use
of
percussion
instruments.
These
civilisa2on
carried
percussion
instruments
similar
to
the
darbuka.
This
instruments
most
assumable
originates
from
the
Middle
East
(Mesopotamia).
It
is
also
plausible
that
percussion
instruments
like
the
darbuka
came
from
Europe
as
discussed
earlier.
Jewish
people
proves
that
there
music
is
a
mixture
of
different
styles
as
a
result
of
dispersion
from
the
culture
and
the
people
themselves.
The
darbuka
is
the
perfect
example
of
the
interconnec2on
of
this
culture
in
music.
This
because
the
rhythms
played
derived
from
other
regions
and/or
countries.
The
same
applies
to
the
Roma
people.
There
influence
on
music
and
especially
the
darbuka
is
huge.
The
route
the
people
of
this
society
had
taken,
goes
from
South-­‐
India
2ll
the
South
of
Spain.
Every
city
that
crossed
their
path
created
a
xenogamy.
Roma
are
widely
known
as
virtuoso
musicians.
The
facts
indicate
Roma
people
contributed
tremendously
in
the
development
of
music
itself
and
as
well
the
percussion
instrument
the
darbuka.
The
dispersion
of
people
makes
the
development
of
the
music
and
their
instrument
logical.
11

16. When
we
go
more
in
depth,
we
can
ask
ourselves,
what
did
the
Roma
people
exactly
contributed
to
the
development
of
the
darbuka.
I
can
clarify
this
phenomenon
that
they
used
this
instrument
regularly.
Oien
in
combina2on
with
a
clarinet.
This
is
quite
tradi2onal
and
familiar.
The
main
development
is
within
the
mixing
of
culture
of
places
they
had
been
to.
An
interes2ng
side-­‐note.
It
is
plausible
that
the
darbuka
got
the
shape
as
it
is
now
because
it
was
more
easy
to
carry
on
a
journey.
2.2.2
Cultural
inFluence
in
Morocco
When
the
mores
ruled
over
Spain
they
developed
a
Morocco
Andalusian
tradi2on.
Later
on
they
taught
the
music
in
Morocco
they
had
been
developing
in
Spain.
The
darbuka
entered
later
in
to
the
music
scene,
namely
in
the
20th
century
together
with
the
Fez
orchestras.
In
Morocco
the
darbuka
started
to
develop
in
a
modern
context.
In
the
late
70’s
it
was
more
adapted
in
music.
The
Arab
renaissance
contributed
to
a
turning
point
within
the
Arabian
community.
With
the
arrival
of
the
takht
ensembles
the
darbuka
received
a
prominent
func2on
in
the
music.
In
the
classical
music
the
darbuka
was
now
a
standard.
Also
with
the
arrival
of
modern
music
made
by
the
new
genera2on
implied
modernisa2on
and
use
of
the
darbuka.
Think
of
shaabi
and
al-­‐Jil
music.
2.2.3
Political
inFluences
Some
poli2cal
choices
led
to
a
‘freeze’
of
development.
Take
a
look
at
the
Iranian
revolu2on.
The
music
was
brought
back
to
a
very
strict
tradi2onal
state.
At
the
same
2me
this
caused
people
to
flee
from
the
country
and
create
new
music
else
where.
This
new
music
demand
new
rhythms
and
feeling.
The
same
applies
to
the
occupa2on
of
the
O^oman
empire.
This
caused
a
temporally
stop
on
the
development
of
this
instrument
as
they
used
only
framedrums
and
other
percussion.
Since
the
gross
development
on
terrain
of
the
darbuka
took
place
in
Turkey
we
can
state
that
the
removal
of
the
restrains
on
Arabesque
music
and
lifestyle
played
a
big
part
in
the
development
of
the
darbuka,
because
aier
that,
the
right
condi2ons
were
there
to
further
develop
this
instrument.
Nowadays
Turkey
is
leading
in
development
of
the
darbuka.
Economical
and
social
influences
Different
ar2sts
from
countries
of
North-­‐Africa
started
to
compete
with
each
other.
Take
a
brief
no2ce
on
Egypt,
Tunisia,
Libya
and
Morocco
where
the
new
genera2on
needed
ways
to
express
themselves,
or
Egypt
where
the
liiing
of
the
prohibi2on
of
trade
with
the
West
caused
a
entry
of
import
of
Western
culture.
These
development
caused
a
big
posi2ve
change
in
the
use
of
darbuka.
2.2.5
Technological
inFluences
The
technological
developments
caused
that
the
music
industry
could
make
a
faster
progress.
If
we
look
at
Egypt,
we
can
state
that
the
circula2on
of
music
tapes
made
more
possible.
Also
with
the
arrival
of
soiware
and
keyboards
the
development
arose.
12

17. 2.2.6
Summarising
Based
on
the
collected
data
comes
clear
that
this
instrument
is
used
world
wide
in
different
areas,
music
styles
and
cultures.
Just
like
the
Roma
people
this
instrument
has
walked
a
long
path.
At
certain
moment
the
Arabic
culture
made
use
of
this
instrument
as
their
primary
rhythm
instrument.
2.2.7
Jeff
Senn
A
writer
who
has
conducted
research
on
the
dispersion
of
instruments
also
brought
another
side
note
to
the
discussion:
‘concerning
the
music
we
know
as
much
as
we
know
of
the
Greek
music.
This
is
because
Middle
Eastern
(Arabic
speaking)
scien2sts
had
studied
and
also
conserved
the
old
Greek
scriptures.
The
Arabic
music/rhythm
tradi2on
once
started
in
the
nomadic
tribes
as
vocal
music.
We
are
talking
about
the
nomadic
tribes
in
the
run
of
the
Arabic
emporium.
Oien
there
was
taken
use
of
a
simple
percussion
instrument
to
accent
parts
of
the
music.
But
when
the
nomadic
live
was
exchanged
with
urban
live
new
instruments
were
made.
Poetry
became
more
adult
and
students
started
to
study
the
ancient
Greek
scriptures.
A
method
had
been
developed
with
long
and
short
vowels
(dura2on),
and
pa^erns
based
on
a
poe2c
metric
system
as
a
basis.
It
is
typical
that
when
the
poetry
had
the
tendency
to
repeat
a
certain
pa^ern,
the
rhythm
as
well
changed
with
it.
When
the
Arabic
speaking
empire
became
more
adult
and
spread
to
the
Middle
East,
North-­‐Africa,
Spain
and
Portugal
they
exercised
a
more
academic
approach
to
the
music.
New
instruments
were
added,
tradi2ons
were
integrated
in
exis2ng
structures.
(This
I
partly
discussed
in
the
sec2on
Morocco).
The
music
of
today
in
the
North
of
Africa
is
s2ll
more
influenced
by
Arabic
roots
then
African.
It
is
mono
tonal
and
easy
in
rhythm.
That
does
not
take
away
that
the
music
is
not
easy,
an
interes2ng
and
unique
aspect
of
this
music
is
that
it
consists
out
of
ornaments
of
a
melody
or
rhythm
instead
of
mixing
different
tones
of
instruments
and
2ming
which
is
structured
by
harmony
and
polyrhythm.
An
interes2ng
footnote;
the
Islamic
tradi2on
makes
a
unusual
dichotomy.
Many
Islamic
fundamentalists
have
held
that
music
for
pleasure
(rather
than
to
worship
or
to
explain
the
glory
of
God)
was
a
sinful
distrac2on
-­‐
however,
in
history,
many
Muslim
rulers
(and
no
doubt
the
general
popula2on),
have
tended
to
to
patronise.
musical
arts.
The
term
caliphate
refers
to
the
first
system
of
government
established
in
Islam
and
represented
the
poli2cal
unity
of
the
Muslim
Ummah
(community).
In
theory
it
is
an
aristocra2c-­‐cons2tu2onal
republic
(the
Cons2tu2on
as
the
Cons2tu2on
of
Medina),
which
means
that
the
head
of
state,
the
Caliph,
and
other
officials
are
representa2ves
of
the
people
and
of
Islam
and
ruling
should
be
in
accordance
with
the
cons2tu2onal
and
religious
law,
or
Sharia.
Caliphates,
together
with
courts
in
Maghreb
(North
Africa)
developed
many
new
musical
and
rhythmic
structures
of
stylized
concerts.
These
concerts
subsequently
formalized
the
musical
and
rhythmic
structures,
including
a
complex
style
of
concert
called
"Nuba".
This
phenomenon
present
in
Europe,
together
with
the
cultural
interac2on
during
the
Crusades,
has
ensured
that
many
13

18. middle
Eastern
musical
styles
and
instrument
were
transferred
to
Europe.
For
example,
I
heard
people
say
that
the
framedrum
(very
popular
in
North
Africa
in
the
course
of
history)
found
its
way
in
Ireland
by
this
way
-­‐
this
is
probably
apocryphal
(non-­‐authen2c)
I
am
also
not
aware
of
anything
else
to
support
the
specula2on
than
this
theory.
When
out
off
the
remnants
of
the
Arab
Caliphate
arose
the
O^oman
Empire,
they
have
adapted
the
musical
forms
of
the
Arabs
and
developed
it
further.
Among
others,
they
developed
military
marching
bands.
They
were
very
useful
to
in2midate
their
enemies.
The
very
loud
noises
which
consisted
of
lots
of
percussion
instruments
and
wind
instruments
were
terrifying.
In
this
context
with
the
associated
reasons
for
developing
this
development
of
percussion
could
take
place.
At
the
same
2me
the
complexity
of
the
court
music
was
enhanced
with
more
complex
shapes
and
rhythmic
music.
Modern
middle
eastern
music
is
a
mix
of
local
folk
tradi2ons,
the
remains
of
ancient
tradi2ons,
aspects
of
Western
popular
music
and
classical
music.
When
the
O^oman
influences
gave
place
to
Western
influences
in
the
first
half
of
the
20th
century,
Egyp2an
composers
developed
music
which
can
be
described
as
a
fusion
of
western
classical
forms
of
music
and
middle
eastern
music.
As
previously
discussed
in
the
sec2on
Egypt.
This
branch
was
responsible
for
bringing
orchestras
and
harmony
in
music.
In
the
terminology
of
the
rhythmic
aspects,
it
seems
that
a
large
segment
odd
and
complex
rhythmic
forms
are
lost
or
neglected
in
favour
of
the
Westernized
image
with
equally
coun2ng
2me
signatures.
For
example,
modern
(tradi2onal)
Persian
music
has
rarely
rhythms
that
are
not
circles
of
2,
4,
or
6
beats
while
historical
data
seem
to
indicate
that
there
were
much
longer
circles
in
the
past.
Recently,
during
the
rise
of
the
oil
economies
(late
20th
century),
cheap
labour
came
to
the
Middle
East.
They
brought
African
polyrhythmic
tradi2on
from
Africa,
especially
to
the
areas
in
the
Persian
Gulf.’
14

19. Chapter
3
Analyses
genre
and
technique
Choice
of
musicians
and
ensembles
3.1.1
Musicians
The
darbuka
players
that
I
have
chosen
are
good
star2ng
points
for
this
research.
Because
their
musical
ac2vi2es
have
found
a
good
basis
in
the
musical
market.
On
top
of
that
they
are
all
good
representa2ves
of
the
instrument
technically
and
musically
speaking.
Plus
they
are
the
only
truly
professional
musicians
out
there.
Amir Sofi (Egypt)
Amir
Sofi
is
a
darbuka
player
who
in
his
work
mainly
focusses
on
belly
dancing,
but
he
has
also
worked
with
pop
ar2sts
like
Stevie
Wonder.
This
percussionist
is,
in
light
of
development,
a
key
figure
as
he
propagates
modern
playing
techniques
and
is
ac2vely
par2cipa2ng
in
crossover
related
projects.
Burhan
Ocal
(Turkey)
Burhan
Ocal
is
a
good
percussionist
and
a
excellent
composer.
With
albums
like
Trakya
all
stars
and
Groove
alla
turca
he
has
been
very
successful.
He
has
done
a
lot
of
crossovers
with
styles
like
jazz
and
funk.
The
music
he
makes
opens
up
a
new
world
when
it
comes
to
the
possibili2es
to
apply
percussion.
Gamal Goma (Egypt, stationed in the U.S.A.)
Gamal
Goma
is
a
typical
darbuka
player
who
made
music
for
belly
dancing.
His
style
of
playing
is
less
complex,
but
the
rhythms
and
pa^erns
he
uses
work
well
for
belly
dancing.
Hamdi
Akatay
(Turkey)
Hamdi
Akatay
is
an
excellent
darbuka
player.
His
way
of
playing
resembles
the
technique
used
on
tabla
and
accompanying
rhythmic
a
lot.
His
projects
are
crossover
related
and
the
percussion
he
uses
is
mainly
Eastern
percussion.
Hossam ramzy (England)
Hossam
Ramzy
is
an
ar2st
who
underwent
a
process
in
which
he
taught
himself
a
lot
of
percussion
instruments.
The
knowledge
he
acquired
he
then
applied
on
the
darbuka
as
he
started
to
focus
more
and
more
on
the
darbuka.
He
is
a
good
darbuka
player
and
an
even
be^er
arranger,
he
mostly
does
string
arrangements.
In
2001
he
had
a
big
hit
when
combined
darbuka
with
techno
sounds.
He
has
worked
together
with
numerous
well
known
ar2sts.
Hossam
has
his
own
study
in
which
he
created
a
lot
of
albums.
His
music
encompasses
different
genres.
Besides
tradi2onal
music,
there
has
been
numerous
crossover
project
in
which
he
gave
the
darbuka
a
new
plaqorm.
This
made
oriental
percussion,
and
darbuka
specifically,
known
beyond
the
boundaries
of
the
Arab
world.
15

20. Issam Houshan (U.S.A.)
Issam
Houshan
is
a
darbuka
player
who
fully
submerged
himself
in
the
belly
dance
scene.
Originally
he
is
from
Syria
and
his
technique
and
pa^erns
are
pre^y
basic.
For
belly
dance
music
he
is
an
important
figure.
Itamar Doari (Isreal)
Itamar
doari
is
a
percussionist
who
is
skilled
in
playing
the
darbuka
and
combines
this
with
cajon
and
small
percussion.
He
became
famous
with
the
jazz
ensemble
Avishai
cohen.
Misirli ahmet & Levent Yildrim (Turkey, Germany)
Levent
and
Misirli
are
brothers.Misirli
is
known
for
developing
split
finger
technique
on
the
darbuka,
and
this
makes
him
an
important
figure
in
this
thesis.
I
put
them
together
because
technique
wise
they
are
both
on
the
same
level.
The
produc2ons
they
have
made
are
mainly
crossover.
Misirly
Ahmet
studied
for
some
2me
in
Spain,
and
that
is
why
you
can
find
a
lot
of
characteris2cs
of
flamenco
in
his
music.
Okay Temiz (Turkey)
Okay
Temiz
is
a
versa2le
and
innova2ve
percussionist
who
plays
mul2ple
percussion
instruments.
This
musician
is
a
pioneer
when
it
comes
to
puong
world
music
on
the
map.
He
dabbled
in
mul2ple
musical
styles,
one
of
which
being
jazz.
One
of
his
contribu2ons
is
the
mixing
of
styles
and
rhythms
in
different
genres.
Ruben van Rompaey (Nederland)
Ruben
van
Rompaey
is
an
excellent
darbuka
player
and
jazz
drummer.
He
works
however
mostly
in
the
belly
dancing
music
genre.
His
style
of
playing
is
versa2le,
because
he
lets
himself
be
influenced
by
different
cultures
and
genres.
This
stops
his
music
from
being
monotonous
and
makes
it
divers
and
groovy.
Ruben
is
one
of
the
pioneers
when
it
comes
to
the
development
of
technique
and
genres
for
the
darbuka.
His
rhythmical
thinking
and
technique
borrow
a
lot
from
for
example
a
tabla
player.
Suat borazan (Germany)
Suat
Borazan
is
a
percussionist
that
brought
a
lot
of
innova2on
to
the
darbuka.
He
developed
his
own
style,
one
which
you
can
hear
in
a
lot
of
other
darbuka
players.
He
incorporated
Jazz,
African
and
Caribbean
styles
in
his
own
style.
In
2001
he
founded
the
percussion
group
Harem.
At
the
2me
it
was
the
most
famous
percussion
group
on
the
scene
when
it
comes
to
darbuka.
That
band
what
the
first
to
mix
darbuka
rhythms
with
a
techno
sound.
Suat
recorded
for
Steinberg
the
samples
that
are
used
in
studios.
Since
2006
he
is
endorsed
by
Remo
and
promotes
a
new
line
of
darbuka’s
made
by
Remo.
In
the
Dutch
tour
of
the
Big
Bang
fes2val
in
2007
they
had
a
musical
concept
in
which
they
made
connec2ons
to
different
styles.
Zohar fresco (Isreal)
Zohar
fresco
is
an
ar2st
from
Israel.
He
uses
the
darbuka
on
a
few
albums
he
has
recorded.
In
his
music
he
mainly
uses
framedrums
and
tef.
Zohar
Fresco
is
an
excellent
darbuka
player
who
employs
the
split
finger
technique,
but
when
listening
closely
technique
used
on
framedrums
and
zarb
is
also
recognizable.
The
pa^erns
and
rhythmic
movements
you
can
hear
when
he
plays
can
be
iden2fied
as
being
pa^erns
stemming
from
Indian
and
Iraqi
music.
Pa^erns
that
go
over
mul2ple
bars
and
disloca2on
that
bares
resemblance
to
2hai.
Zohar
Fresco
has
been
inspired
by
the
Israelian
musical
revolu2on
in
the
eigh2es
in
which
Western
and
Eastern
elements
rapidly
fused
together.
16

21. 3.1.2
Choice
of
ensembles
Looking
at
the
music
in
which
the
darbuka
is
used
gives
an
overview
of
the
contexts
in
which
the
instrument
is
placed.
Fist
a
short
statement
by
Misirli
Ahmet.
‘’Thirty
years
ago
the
Darbuka
as
an
instrument
had
a
sort
of
underdog
posi2on.
Misirli
Ahmet
claims
that
before
the
instrument
fell
into
his
lap,
it
was
regarded
an
inferior
instrument.”
The
way
he
puts
it,
is
of
course
in
the
advantage
of
him
as
a
performing
ar2st.
But
regarded
from
a
broader
angle,
the
case
is
of
course
a
bit
different.
If
you
like
at
the
number
of
darbuka
players,
students
and
performing
ar2st,
then
you
can
clearly
see
a
growth
in
the
usage
of
the
darbuka.
You
can
no2ces
different
methods
being
introduced.
And
even
the
instruments
are
being
intensively
developed.
Today
the
instrument
is
being
applied
in
a
variety
of
musical
genres.
All
these
developments
show
that
there
is
a
new
plaqorm
for
this
instrument
on
which
it
gets
different
and
new
func2ons.
Akatay project (Turkey)
Hamdi
Akatay
has
his
own
percussion
group.
They
play
rhythms
from
the
Turkish
rhythmic
system,
but
do
this
innova2vely
and
kind
of
in
a
crossover
way
as
earlier
described
in
the
Yakin
percussion
group
form
Turkey.
Amr diab (Egypt)
Is
an
ar2st
that
very
suddenly
became
popular
in
the
en2re
Arab
world.
It
is
actually
pop
music
but
the
darbuka
is
used
as
well.
The
instruments
serves
a
purely
decora2ve
func2on.
Even
though
the
rhythms
from
the
darbuka
are
being
used
they
oien
come
in
electronic
form.
Avishai Cohen trio (Egypt)
This
is
a
jazz
trio.
They
play
songs
in
which
the
percussionist
func2ons
as
a
rhythm
sec2on.
The
darbuka
plays
a
big
part
in
this
rhythms
sec2on.
in.
Bustan abraham, Yair dalal (Israël)
Yair
is
a
ud
player
that
plays
in
the
band
Bustan
abraham.
This
is
one
of
the
famous
East
meets
West
ensembles
from
the
Eastern
part
of
Israel.
On
the
recordings
the
darbuka
is
being
used
as
well.
This
music
is
known
to
be
the
most
successful
crossover
music.
Cheb Chaled (Morocco)
Cheb
is
an
ar2st
who
in
the
beginning
of
his
career
has
been
boyco^ed
a
lot.
His
music
was
compared
to
the
devil,
but
this
didn’t
stop
him
from
making
music.
The
percussion
instruments
used
are
amongst
other
the
darbuka,
but
percussion
only
serves
an
ornamental
purpose.
Harem (Turkije)
They
incorporated
the
use
of
the
darbuka
in
house
music.
This
turned
out
to
a
hugh
success
for
the
group
Harem.
Hossam Ramzy (England)
Hossam
Ramzy
truly
is
the
greatest
innovator
of
darbuka
music.
Besides
all
the
work
he
has
done
in
tradi2onal
music
he
has
occupied
himself
intensively
with
the
mixing
of
styles.
He
incorporated
Eastern
rhythmic
into
different
styles
making
him
one
of
the
biggest
innovators.
Besides
his
17

22. crossover
projects
he
also
made
a
lot
of
belly
dance
produc2ons
and
further
developed
belly
dancing
music.
Gamal
Goma,
Amir
Sofi
and
Issam
Houshan
are
examples
of
other
innovators
in
belly
dance
music.
Misirli ahmet (Turkey)
Misirli
Ahmet
has
made
several
produc2ons
of
which
the
most
important
ones
are
included
in
this
research.
The
album
The
Search
takes
a
lot
aier
flamenco
musically
speaking,
when
it
comes
to
structure
and
harmony
you
can
hear
the
echo
of
flamenco.
The
rhythms
used
in
the
music
consist
of
different
modern
and
newly
invented
rhythms
by
Misirli.
You
can
also
clearly
hear
the
harmonies
used
in
flamenco.
Mohamed Abdel Wahab (Egypt)
Mohamed
makes
music
in
the
classical
way.
In
the
classical
way
percussion
had
a
clear
func2on.
The
rhythm
sec2on
usually
consisted
of
darbuka,
bendir
and
riq.
Such
a
rhythm
sec2on
has
a
classical
set
up,
otherwise
known
as
Takht
ensemble.
Natascha
Atlas
(England)
With
her
music
Natascha
Atlas
proves
that
arabic
music
can
be
very
modern.
The
music
has
amongst
other
influences
from
hip
hop
and
techno.
The
darbuka
is
used
in
her
music,
thus
providing
another
plaqorm
for
darbuka.
She
proves
that
the
darbuka
is
an
instrument
that
can
be
used
in
a
very
broad
array
of
musical
styles.
One
side
note
to
this
is
that
the
rhythms
used
mainly
come
from
the
arab
world,
and
the
music
is
mainly
used
in
an
ornamental
way.
Rhythm grubu Turkey (Turkey)
This
group
incorporates
various
rhythms
via
Turkish
percussion.
They
redefine
the
use
of
the
darbuka
into
a
broader
defini2on.
You
can
hear
influences
coming
from
India,
La2n,
Turkey,
Africa
and
the
Western
world.
Ruben van Rompeay (Netherlands)
Ruben
van
Rompeay
is
an
ar2st
who
in
his
musical
pale^e
displays
a
diversity
of
colours
which
he
makes
visible
through
the
use
of
percussion
from
the
middle
east.
His
music
can
be
described
as
modern,
basically
because
the
music
encompasses
non-­‐standard
pa^erns
and
rhythms
unknown
to
the
arab
world,
but
also
because
of
hand
techniques
he
uses
to
get
certain
effects
otherwise
not
yet
know
on
the
darbuka.
He
liied
music
in
which
darbuka
plays
a
part
to
a
higher
level.
He
did
this
amongst
others
by
inven2ng
new
rhythms,
sounds
and
techniques.
Also
the
combina2on
of
different
instrument,
the
use
of
the
human
voice
and
other
a^ributes
make
his
approach
to
the
darbuka
unique
in
its
kind.
Sami Yusuf (England)
Sami
Yusuf
is
an
ar2st
that
is
known
in
the
Arab
world.
His
music
is
basically
arab
music,
but
with
his
own
“flavour”,
because
his
lyrics
are
in
English.
In
other
words
he
has
made
a
hugh
connec2on
to
the
western
world
with
his
music.
His
music
can
be
typified
as
modern
and
contains
various
sound
effects.
Sami
Yusuf
also
uses
influences
from
styles
like
hip
hop
and
pop
in
his
music.
This
is
the
example
of
moderniza2on
in
arab
music.
3.1.3
Conclusions
&
hypotheses
What
can
we
see
when
we
look
at
the
darbuka?
Mostly
the
arab
models
and
techniques
are
in
use.
Techniques
coming
from
other
percussion
instruments
are
being
adapted
on
the
darbuka.
18

23. Techniques
of,
for
example
the
zarb
or
tabla,
but
not
only
the
techniques
also
the
rhythmical
thinking
that
comes
along
with
those
instruments.
In
the
mainstream
music
industry
darbuka
is
mainly
used
as
a
musical
filler.
The
sound
of
the
darbuka
very
dis2nc2vely
characterizes
the
arab
world,
unfortunately
it
is
being
used
in
mainstream
music
more
as
an
ornament.
Looking
at
produc2ons
of
darbuka
players
themselves
you
can
see
more
dept
hand
and
the
music
is
really
being
carried
by
the
rhythms
including
the
rhythmical
ornaments.
This
is
a
sort
of
music
by
itself.
You
can
see
when
it
comes
to
the
innova2ve
players/groups
the
rhythmic,
technique
and
the
applica2on
have
been
greatly
adjusted
and
changed.
It
actually
reached
a
form
that
can
be
called
completely
new
in
its
kind.
The
darbuka
in
mainstream
music
is
only
being
used
as
an
ornament,
even
though
the
rhythmic
comes
from
what
is
being
played
on
the
darbuka.
A
plaqorm
consis2ng
of
the
more
innova2ve
ar2st
has
already
taken
form
on
which
those
ar2st
uniquely
shape
the
music
with
percussion.
Posi=oning
of
the
ar=sts
The
loca2ons
from
where
the
ar2st
act
says
something
about
the
process
through
which
the
developments
took
place.
The
players
come
from
different
countries,
but
what
is
no2ceable
is
that
most
ac2vity
concerning
development
of
the
way
darbuka
is
played
takes
place
in
Turkey.
But
also
European
musicians
are
of
great
significance
to
the
development.
The
development
can
thus
be
characterized
as
taking
place
on
a
global
scale.
3.2.1
New
style
and/or
melting
pot
The
ques2on
in
this
chapter
is,
whether
the
‘new
modern’
music
played
by
the
percussionist
a
new
style
is,
a
mel2ng
pot
or
both?
This
way
we
can
get
a
be^er
impression
of
the
development
of
rhythmic
on
the
darbuka.
What is a melting pot and what causes it?
Mel2ng
pot
is
a
rela2vely
vague
term,
which
signifies
cross
pollina2on
of
different
elements.
Nowadays
the
world
became
extremely
small
and
the
composi2on
of
the
popula2on
dis2nctly
mul2cultural.
This
very
oien
leads
to
cross
pollina2on/mel2ng
pot,
but
also
to
groups
that
want
to
s2ck
to
their
own
tradi2ons.
A
new
societal
context
asks
for
rhythms,
sounds
and
combina2ons
of
the
two
that
result
in
the
fulfilment
of
the
desire
for
new
music.
New style of melting pot
Nowadays
a
lot
is
going
on
in
the
world
of
music.
Produces
label
music
in
different
ways.
Imagine
releasing
a
new
album,
than
from
a
marke2ng
point
of
view,
you
might
label
it
as
an
album
containing
the
newest
and
most
modern
rhythms.
But
if
you
make
music
from
a
poli2cal
standpoint
it
can
just
as
well
be
that
you
want
to
make
connec2ons
and
that
you
want
to
label
your
music
as
being
part
of
the
societal
mel2ng
pot.
When
you
put
aside
personal
interest
(subjec2ve)
en
analyze
the
music
you
can
draw
conclusions.
Let
us
first
look
at
the
look
at
the
defini2on
of
rhythm.
Here
is
a
proposal
for
a
defini2on
of
rhythm..
19

24. Technically
speaking
is
a
rhythm
a
specific
movement
through
2me
that
by
means
of
accentuated
and
non-­‐accentuated
strokes
flows.
You
can
think
for
example
of
clock
that
beats
2k-­‐tak-­‐2k-­‐tak,
or
a
woman
on
high
heels
walking
down
a
hall:
klik-­‐klik-­‐klik-­‐klik.
As
soon
as
the
movement
is
being
repeated
it
starts
to
sound
like
a
rhythm.
This
is
the
most
basic
explana2on
of
what
a
rhythms
is
and
follows
on
most
part
the
defini2on
of
a
dic2onary.
In
the
East
rhythms
are
usually
recorded
with
names,
just
like
the
scales.
But
also
La2n
en
Flamenco
music
have
names
for
different
rhythms.
In
La2n
and
Flamenco
the
names
for
the
rhythms
are
usually
synonym
to
the
musical
styles.
In
the
Western
world
it
is
done
in
a
different
way,
here
they
speak
about
rhythms
in
terms
of
¾
or
4/4,
in
other
words
musical
bars.
How
you
fill
out
the
bars
is
lei
completely
to
the
ar2st.
From
an
objec2ve
standpoint
with
the
goal
of
proving
that
a
rhythm
is
new
you
could
base
the
argument
on
the
following
points.
•
The
rhythms
that
are
being
played
can
be
new,
because
the
specific
rhythm
has
not
been
played
before
in
the
style
it
is
being
used
in
or
any
other
style.
•
The
rhythms
are
existent
already,
but
because
the
sound
of
the
instrument
voices
the
rhythms
in
a
different
the
rhythm
can
be
considered
a
new
rhythm.
•
The
combina2ons
of
pa^erns
used
to
play
a
rhythms
can
be
completely
different.
•
A
rhythm
van
be
made
up
of
different
components,
more
specifically
parts
which
derived
from
other
musical
styles.
When
you
have
combina2on
of
different
styles
you
also
have
a
new
rhythm,
because
it’s
neither
the
one
style
nor
is
it
the
other.
What
you
have
is
a
combina2on
with
maybe
even
its
own
addi2ons.
3.2.2
Boundaries
of
free
expression
and
tradition
Where
are
the
borders
of
free
expression
and
where
does
tradi2on
end?
A
logical
answer
is
that
at
the
border
of
tradi2on
free
expression
starts.
Free
expression
in
this
case
meaning
that
which
is
being
played
which
is
different
from
tradi2on.
Where
that
border
lies
can
be
different
for
each
specific
genre.
In
the
books
it
has
been
wri^en
down
what
tradi2on
is.
If
you
play
outside
of
that
pa^ern,
than
you
are
playing
outside
of
the
tradi2onal
style
and
you
will
have
crossed
the
border
of
tradi2on.
3.2.3
Application
of
Oriental
percussion
Oriental
percussion
is
being
applied
by
many
percussionist
in
a
lot
of
musical
styles.
You
can
no2ce
that
a
lot
of
allround
percussion
players
have
incorporated
the
darbuka
into
their
setup.
The
func2on
in
an
allround
percussion
setup
did
change.
Oien
it
is
a
small
addi2on
in
sound
to
the
percussionist
and
his
music.
You
cannot
really
call
it
playing
darbuka.
In
bellydance
music
darbuka
is
the
main
instrument
in
the
rhythm
sec2on.
Individual
produc2ons
of
percussionists
who
operate
independent,
inser2ng
a
unique
product
in
the
market.
3.2.4
Previous
results
and
comments
Let
us
take
a
look
at
a
select
group
of
ar2sts
who
have
achieved
success
with
their
music.
Misirli
Ahmet
has
established
a
private
school
in
which
he
shares
a
unique
vision
of
playing
the
darbuka
and
the
use
thereof.
His
album
‘The
search’
is
nearly
the
most
famous
crossover
album.
20

25. Hossam
Ramzy,
his
collabora2ons
with
various
ar2sts
from
different
fields
have
led
to
music
produc2ons
that
are
quite
diverse.
Burhan
ocal,
in
his
produc2ons
he
has
extended
the
use
of
the
darbuka
to
other
types
of
music.
Bustan
Abraham/Yair
Dala
,
they
have
produced
cross-­‐over
albums
trying
to
make
musical
and
poli2cal
connec2ons.
Natascha
Atlas,
music
produc2ons
in
which
the
darbuka
is
used
very
oien.
Sami
Yusuf
Sami
made
many
modern
music.
I
this
music
the
darbuka
is
also
used.
These
are
the
figures
that
are
most
notable
for
their
achievements
and
results
of
this
moment
.
They
are
successful
with
their
music
and
have
a
wide
range
of
people.
The
responses
have
been
posi2ve
and
have
led
to
global
demand
for
their
music
.
3.2.5
Conclusions
and
hypotheses
Many
progressive
percussionists
who
make
Oriental
music
are
increasingly
playing
music
according
to
a
Western
model.
In
this
model,
they
are
much
more
free
in
playing
and
interpre2ng
the
music.
All
kinds
of
styles
are
combined.
This
creates
new
rhythms
that
are
propagated
as
contemporary
rhythms.
Certain
performers
and
composers
Some2mes
they
also
give
names
rhythms
.
During
this
period
rhythm
rapidly
developed
and
con2nues
to
redefine
more
itself
even
more.
When
does
the
development
of
rhythm
stabilizes
into
a
well-­‐known
accepted
standard
for
the
style?
In
tradi2onal
styles
the
func2on
of
the
darbuka
is
determined.
Then
there
is
the
freedom
to
combine
and
mix
what
this
instrument
in
different
ways.
However,
the
darbuka
has
proven
to
be
a
versa2le
tool
and
can
be
applied
for
different
purposes.
3.3.1
Darbuka
technique
The
darbuka
is
a
instrument
that
can
look
backwards
at
thousands
years
of
development.
The
shape
of
the
darbuka
as
it
is
now
is
obtained
by
thousands
years
of
innova2on.
The
fabricants
of
this
instrument
adjusted
the
shape
of
this
instrument
with
the
aim
to
improve
the
sound
and
playing
style.
There
have
even
been
cases
where
the
darbuka
was
played
in
a
standing
posi2on,
this
is
similar
to
the
2mbao
from
Brazil.
3.3.2
Analysis
origin
contemporary
technique
The
technology
of
today
is
the
result
of
rapid,
large-­‐scale
and
complex
development.
A
development
that
is
influenced
by
many
different
styles,
musicians
and
instruments.
This
development
does
not
result
in
a
standard,
but
there
is
a
huge
differen2a2on
present
in
the
technique
and
playing.
That
explains
why
so
many
players
use
different
approaches
in
playing.
We
know
that
un2l
about
1970,
only
the
single
hand
technique
existed,
so
we
can
draw
up
an
inventory
of
the
opportuni2es
that
exist
now,
and
place
those
techniques
in
this
analyses.
Not
all
methods
derive
per
se
from
other
instruments,
there
are
also
techniques
that
are
unique
to
the
darbuka
and
I
consider
them
unique
to
the
darbuka.
21