Thesis; Students Homework Motivation

Running Head: STUDENTS’ HOMEWORK MOTIVATION 1
Students’ Homework Motivation:
Adapting Homework Instruction to Students’ Characteristics
10-06-2013
Bianca Pater (3797538), Patrick Van Schaik (3906868), Lidy Van Den Tweel (3781240)
Bachelor thesis group 29
Department of Social Studies, Utrecht University
Supervisor: Dr. Chris Phielix

STUDENTS’ HOMEWORK MOTIVATION 2
Abstract
Lack of homework motivation is one of the problems mentioned concerning Dutch HAVO students.
A quasi-experiment is conducted, assuming homework motivation can be positively influenced by
adapting homework instruction to students’ characteristics. HAVO students in fourth grade of a Dutch
secondary school received homework instructions in an experimental way, using motivational
strategies that fit HAVO students’ characteristics. Effects on homework motivation were measured in
variables ‘expectancy’ and ‘value’. Data from 81 students, participating in four different school
subjects, reveals a significant increase in motivation which is mainly due to an increase of the
expectancy variable. Studying the effect on students’ motivation in separate subjects however, data
reflect differences. Students in the subjects mathematics and economy report significantly higher
expectancy and value levels, as students in history and chemistry report non-significant differences in
expectancy and value levels. Additionally the scores of all participating students were used to
determine whether pre-existing differences in HAVO characteristics ‘overall motivation’, ‘planning
skills’ and ‘student-teacher relationship’ had an effect on students’ homework expectancy and
homework value. Comparing groups of students with below average scores and above average scores
on characteristic scales reveals significant differences between these groups for characteristics
‘planning skills’ and ‘student-teacher relationship’ on homework expectancy levels. The results of
this study can be seen as an inspiration for teachers in HAVO 4 to find ways to increase their
students’ homework motivation. Teachers are advised to differentiate students or student groups on
their characteristics and to search for appropriate interventions on homework instruction. Researchers
recommend systematic research on homework instruction and homework motivation. Suggestions for
further research are given.
Keywords: characteristics, expectancy, HAVO student, homework, instruction, motivation, value

Students’ Homework Motivation
In 1998 the Dutch government introduces a major change in the general secondary
educational system of HAVO1
and VWO2
students in the Netherlands, referred to as the introduction
of the Second Phase (Tweede Fase). The overall objectives of this change, ‘establish a better
connection of general secondary education to higher education’, and ‘modernization of the curriculum
in the upper general secondary education’, are widely accepted by professionals in the field of
education (Spijkerboer, Maslowski, Keuning, Van Der Werf, & Béguin, 2012). Nevertheless this
change entails increasing problems for HAVO students in fourth grade (Vermaas & Van Der Linden,
2007). The core problem mentioned is students’ lack of motivation. Problems are also attributed to
students’ lack of study skills, referring specifically to reflect, plan and work independently. In
addition, teachers apply a different teaching method in fourth grade, and have less personal contact
with students. All this results in poor grades, school failure, demotivated students and discouraged
teachers (Klomp & Thielen, 2010). In the past ten years research has been conducted into explicating
the various problems and doing proposals for solving them. A recurrent item in these reports is
homework and students’ homework attitude (Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007).
Vermaas and Van Der Linden (2007) conclude in their study ‘Better responding to HAVO
students’ that in need of problems mentioned - considering homework and motivation - education
must focus on the specific characteristics of HAVO students. School managers and teachers are
recommended to change the learning environment, so that it fits the profile of the HAVO student. An
elaboration into concrete recommendations regarding homework assignments is missing. The present
study focuses on homework and influencing students’ motivation for homework assignments by
adapting homework instruction to the specific characteristics of the HAVO students, and thereby
contributing in translating the overall conclusion of the report ‘Better responding to HAVO students’
to an operational level.
Research on homework
Homework is defined as “tasks assigned to students by school teachers that are meant to be
carried out during non-school hours” (Cooper, 1989). Problems regarding homework are not
1
HAVO = Higher General Secondary Education, a five year course, preparing students aged 12 – 17 years for higher or professional education.
2
VWO = Pre-university secondary education, highest variant in the secondary school educational system, six year course, preparing students
aged 12 – 18 years for university.

restricted to HAVO students in the Netherlands. It is recognizable on an international level and has
been the subject of several studies. Homework purposes (Warton, 2001; Epstein & Van Voorhis,
2001; Xu, 2005), homework compliance (Cooper, 2006; Trautwein & Lüdtke, 2009), parental
involvement and learning environment (Hoover-Dempsey, Battiato, Walker, Reed, De Jong, & Jones,
2001), and achievement (Trautwein & Köller, 2003; Cooper, 2006) have been repeatedly studied and
show contradicting outcomes. As Corno (1996) states: “Homework is a complicated thing”,
explaining why the role of research in forming homework policies and practices is limited to a
minimum in comparison with other educational domains. Cooper (2006) explains this as a result of
the many complex influences on homework and the difficulties to generalize the outcomes in the
homework domain. One of these complex influences is motivation. Motivation directly influences
homework effort and homework effort is positively related to achievement (Trautwein & Lüdtke,
2009).
A homework model
Figure 1. Homework model – adapted version (Trautwein, Lüdtke, Schnyder, & Niggli, 2006).
Trautwein, Lüdtke, Schnyder, and Niggli (2006) conclude in their study about homework
compliance that students’ homework effort or homework behaviour is influenced by several variables
at the same time. They propose the use of a domain-specific, multilevel homework model. It takes
into account the three major protagonists in the homework process; teachers assigning homework,

parents providing the environment in which it is done, and finally students doing the homework, with
their unique profile of motivation and preference for learning (Hong & Milgram, 2000). The model
predicts homework behaviour to be positively related to achievement and influenced by homework
motivation with the components homework expectancy and homework value. These components are
in accordance with expectancy-value theory as described by Eccles and Wigfield (2002), and used in
this study to evaluate the effect of adapting homework instruction to students’ characteristics.
Motivation and expectancy-value theory
Motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs and maintains behavior (Woolfolk,
Hughes, & Walkup, 2013). There are several explanations for motivation. It can be explained in terms
of individual characteristics (personal traits), as a temporary situation (a state), or as a combination of
traits and state. Motivation generally refers to that which explains people’s desires and choices
(Keller, 2010). Doing homework starts with the question: ‘Am I going to do my homework?’
followed by ‘Why should I?’ (Keller, 2010). The answer depends on two forces: ‘Do I have a good
chance to succeed?’ (expectancy) and ‘Is the outcome valuable or rewarding to me?’ (value). The
modern expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) is based in Atkinson’s (1957) work, and
explains motivational choices with an emphasis on individuals’ expectations for success in
combination with their valuing of the goal. Expectancies are defined as individuals’ beliefs about
competence in a given domain and one’s expectancies for success on a specific upcoming task. Task-
value is outlined in four components: attainment value – the personal importance of doing well on the
task, intrinsic value – the enjoyment the individual gets form performing the activity or the subjective
interest the student has in the subject, utility value - how well a task relates to current and future goals,
and costs – the negative aspects of engaging in the task as anxiety or fear, the amount of effort needed
to succeed and the lost opportunities that result from making a choice (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
ARCS model and motivational or instructional design
The ARCS model (Keller, 1987) provides a set of categories; attention, relevance, confidence,
and satisfaction, representing the components of motivation that correspond to the expectancy-value
theory (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Confidence generally refers to people’s
expectancies for success and beliefs regarding the degree to which they can predict or control the

outcomes of their behaviour. Value is represented by attention and relevance. Attention, in the context
of motivation, is a synthesis of several related concepts including curiosity, boredom, and sensation
seeking, and contains the attainment and intrinsic value components. Relevance refers to people’s
feelings or perceptions of attraction toward desired outcomes, ideas, or other people based upon their
own goals, motives, and values. Relevance contains the utility value, and costs component of
expectancy-value theory. Satisfaction, the outcome component of the ARCS model as a result of
effort, performance and consequences, illustrates that one’s actual experiences with the outcomes of a
goal oriented set of behaviors afterwards influences the value one attaches to that goal (Keller, 2010).
Keller’s ARCS model also includes sets of strategies to enhance motivation, and a systematic
design process for teachers to influence motivation. Influencing students’ motivation is considered to
be a challenge for teachers. Although it is impossible to control another person's motivation, much of
a teacher's job involves stimulating learners’ motivation. Learning environments, assignments,
instructional behavior and instructional design should ideally be designed towards this goal (Keller,
2010). Although the ARCS model is designed for broader use in instructional design, the model’s
strategies can be applied to enhance motivation to the smaller area of homework instruction.
A homework instruction model
Figure 2. Homework Instruction Model (Pater, Van Schaik, & Van Den Tweel, 2013)
Based on the homework model by Trautwein et al. (2006; see Figure 1), expectancy-value
theory (Eggles & Wigfield, 2002) and the ARCS model (Keller, 1987), the Homework Instruction

Model (Pater, Van Schaik, & Van Den Tweel, 2013) explains how adapting homework instruction
strategies to students’ characteristics can affect homework expectancy and homework value.
Attention, Relevance and Confidence cover the elements of the expectancy-value theory. Satisfaction,
the fourth component of Keller’s ARCS model, is not included in the Homework Instruction Model.
Effects on Satisfaction are influenced greatly by subjective evaluations of an outcome based on
expectations and social comparisons (Keller, 2010).
HAVO 4 students’ characteristics
An explanation for lack of (homework) motivation is sought in not taking into account
specific characteristics of HAVO 4 students. In order to adapt homework instruction to HAVO 4
students’ characteristics a closer look at these characteristics is required. Vermaas and Van Der
Linden (2007) composed a profile of HAVO students’ characteristics (see Figure 3) based on a study
among 50 schools that provide HAVO education. The profile is a representation of the characteristics
of the average HAVO 4 student, and shows the greatest common divisors. Pre-existing differences in
HAVO 4 students affect the premise of the research. To determine the influence of pre-existing
differences, the main problems in fourth grade of HAVO according to Klomp and Thielen (2010);
overall motivation, planning skills and student-teacher relationship, are taken into account in the
present study. These problems form the basis for the determination of the experimental interventions
to influence student’s homework motivation.
Figure 3. HAVO 4 students’ profile (Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007)
HAVO 4 students’ characteristics
a) Intelligent, creative, active and sociable,
b) Many activities beside school, less motivated for school – all day classes are boring;
c) Not knowing what they want to do after HAVO exams;
d) Focused on short term, lack of long-term focus on exams or further education;
e) Experiencing curriculum’s level of abstraction as too high, low relevance to authentic
experiences, preferring active and application-oriented learning;
f) Performance goal oriented, working harder for tests and exams;
g) Need for guidance and structure, lack of planning skills - postponing activities;
h) Short concentration curve;
i) Pragmatic, choosing the easiest way, responding to gaining points or free hours;
j) Responding to teachers’ attitude of involvement and individual contact;
k) Valuing social aspects: sensitive to the group process and their individual relationship to the
teacher.

Overall motivation corresponds to HAVO 4 student’s characteristic b) and f), referring to
students being less motivated for school in general and spending time on other activities beside
school. Motivation increases when tests or exams lie ahead. Planning skills corresponds to
characteristics d) and g), referring to beginning with homework assignments and learning for exams
and tests on time. Jolles (2007) suggests that planning problems are due to the inability to set
priorities, to balance between the imperative task of the teacher and the social cognitions about peer
pressure and implicit expectations that peers have of behavior. The adolescent is able to relatively
simple choices. But choices at a higher level means taking into account your own abilities, with the
consequences for the long term and with the desires or emotions of others. Problems experienced in
student-teacher relationships correspond to characteristics j) and k). They can be attributed to
organizational changes associated with the Second Phase (Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007).
Teachers in the first three grades of HAVO have a learner-centered approach, in the Second Phase
teachers show a more subject-orientated approach (Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007). HAVO 4
students indicate that they need individual time and attention of teachers and highly value the
relationship with the teacher (Klomp & Thielen, 2010).
The present study
The present study focuses on a better alignment between students’ characteristics and the
instruction of homework assignments, and measuring effects on homework expectancy and value. As
researchers we want to contribute to the body of knowledge about homework by focusing on a small
part of Trautwein’s homework model. The present study also wants to contribute in translating the
conclusions of the report ‘Better responding to HAVO-students” (Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007)
to an operational level by answering one of many teachers’ questions: “What can I do to motivate
students for doing their homework?” In this study we intend to inspire teachers by implementing
simple adaptions to homework instruction in the current daily process of assigning homework.
The effects of adapting homework instruction on the homework expectancy and homework
value of HAVO 4 students, taking into account the characteristics of HAVO 4 students, are explored
in a quasi-experiment. The study must give answers to the following research question: ‘What is the

effect on homework expectancy and homework value of HAVO 4 students when adapting homework
instruction to HAVO 4 students’ characteristics?’
Hypothesis 0: Adapting homework instruction to HAVO 4 students’ characteristics has no effect on
HAVO 4 students’ homework expectancy and homework value.
Hypothesis 1: Adapting homework instruction to HAVO 4 students’ characteristics has a positive
effect on HAVO 4 students’ homework expectancy and homework value.
Pre-existing differences lead to the following sub-questions and hypotheses: ‘What is the effect of
pre-existing differences in HAVO 4 students’ overall motivation, planning skills and/or student-
teacher relationship on the homework expectancy and homework of HAVO 4 students?’
Hypothesis 02
: Pre-existing differences in HAVO 4 students have no effect on HAVO 4 students’
homework expectancy and homework value.
Hypothesis 2: Pre-existing differences in HAVO 4 students effect HAVO 4 students’ homework
expectancy and homework value.
Method
Research design
The experiment followed a 2 x 2 x 5 switching replications design. There were two levels of
measurements on homework motivation (homework expectancy and homework value) and two
conditions (traditional or control and experimental). The groups consisted of eight classes equally
divided over four subjects (chemistry, economics, history and math).
Figure 4. Switching replications design of the experiment.

The switching replications design is known as a very strong design with respect to internal
and external validity (Trochim, 2006). Main advantage is the possibility to correct on contingency
influences on the experiment. Caution should be exercised regarding the occurrence of an order effect.
Teachers of four subjects participated in this study, each one of them teaching two parallel
HAVO 4 classes. In the first phase one group was not given the experimental intervention and served
as control group (class X), and the other group (class Y) was given the experimental intervention. In
the second phase the experimental intervention switched to the other group (class X), and the original
group (class Y) served as control group. At the end of each phase both groups were tested on
homework motivation.
Participants
Students in HAVO 4 classes of the Calvijn College in Goes (n = 81) participated in this study.
Students came from Goes or smaller towns and villages in the area. The group of students included 41
young women between the age of 15 and 17 years (M = 15.85, SD = 0.58) and 40 young men between
15 and 17 years (M = 15.90, SD = 0.64). Some students (n = 26) participated in multiple courses.
Students (n = 10) participating but not finishing both measurements and students (n = 4) with a mean
score of 1.00 on one or both measurements were excluded.
Four teachers with parallel HAVO 4 classes at the Calvijn College voluntarily participated,
teaching in different subjects; chemistry, economics, history and mathematics.
Experimental intervention
The experimental intervention on homework instruction was designed to meet HAVO 4
students’ needs, fit their profile (see Figure 3), increase the motivation aspects, expectancy and (task-)
value as mentioned in expectancy-value theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002), and corresponded to the
conditions of attention, relevance and confidence in Keller’s ARCS model (Keller, 2010) (see Figure
2).
Attention. Instead of assigning homework at the end of the lesson, the teacher starts the
lesson with instruction on the upcoming homework assignment, and provides an immediate
connection to an overview of this of the subject and tests or exams (study planner). This part of the
intervention meets several HAVO 4 students’ characteristics, in particular b) and f) (see Figure 3).

Relevance. During the presentation of the new part of the curriculum the teacher connects
this lesson two times to the upcoming homework assignment. This part of the intervention meets
several HAVO 4 students’ characteristics, in particular d) and g) (see Figure 3).
Confidence. Instead of being able to choose when to start doing homework, the last ten
minutes of the lesson students all start with their assigned homework, while the teacher actively
answers individual questions and gives feedback to the students work. This part of the intervention
also meets several HAVO 4 students’ characteristics, in particular g), j) and k) (see Figure 3).
Instruments
In this quasi-experimental study four instruments were used: a questionnaire on students’
characteristics, a student- and teacher questionnaire on homework motivation, and an intervention
checklist (see Appendices A up to E). The first three measurements were assessed on a 5-point Likert-
type scale, with responses from ‘not true’, ‘a little true’, ‘sometimes true’, ‘true’ to ‘very true’. A
consistent scale format was selected for ease of administration and statistical analyses.
Student characteristics questionnaire. To determine the effect of pre-existing differences
between HAVO-students students filled in the Student Characteristics Scale (SCS; see Table 1),
measuring their overall motivation, planning skills and student-teacher relationship. The SCS was
offered to students three weeks prior to the experimental phases. Working with student numbers made
it possible to retrieve personal data from the database of the Calvijn College, including age and
gender.
Motivation. The subscale ‘motivation’ retrieved from the ‘Vragenlijst Studievoorwaarden’
(VSV; Crins, 2002), assesses the willingness to learn and do homework.
Planning Skills. The subscale ‘planning’ retrieved from VSV (Crins, 2002) assesses
beginning with homework assignments and learning for exams and tests on time.
Student-teachers relationship. The subscale ‘student-teacher-relationship’ contains adapted
questions from a previously conducted test, constructed by Calvijn College in Goes (2009) to assess
generally perceived teacher behavior in relation to the student.
Scores on the SCS (n =78) were used to determine whether pre-existing differences in
students in the subscales overall motivation, planning skills or student-teacher relationship had an

effect on students’ homework expectancy and homework value. Characteristic subscales were divided
in two groups based on the average score, named below average and above average, to create equal
sized groups and avoid underpowered, small sample sizes.
Table 1
Student Characteristics Scale (SCS)
Subscale Items Example item α
Motivation 9 “I work hard for tests or exams.” .70
Planning Skills 9 “I find it hard to keep me on my schedule.” .82
Student-Teacher Relationship 9 “My teachers encourage me to actively participate in the lesson.” .61
Student questionnaire on homework motivation. The student questionnaire Homework
Expectancy and Value Scale (HEVS) was constructed and adapted from Subject Interest Survey (CIS;
Keller, 2010) and Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS; Keller, 2010), including the
subscale ‘confidence’ for assessing the homework motivation component expectancy, and the
subscales ‘attention’ and ‘relevance’ for assessing homework motivation component value in students
(Table 2). Items were adapted to the specific homework conditions of HAVO 4 classes during the
experimental and non-experimental phase. Cronbach’s alpha for the 15-item HEVS was .90. For
Cronbach’s alphas on the subscales see Table 2.
Table 2
Homework Expectancy and Value Scale (HEVS)
Component Subscale Items Example item α
Homework expectancy Confidence 5 “The homework assigned this week is just too difficult for me” .75
Homework value
attainment value
intrinsic value
Attention 5 “There was something interesting at the beginning of lessons
this week that got my attention”
.77
Homework value
utility value
costs
Relevance 5 “The instructor made the homework of this week seem
important”
.80

Teacher questionnaire on homework motivation. The Perceived Homework Behavior
Questionnaire (PHBQ; see Table 3) gave teachers the opportunity to express their perceived and
experienced differences in students’ homework expectancy and homework value including
comparable questions to the students’ questionnaire based on the CIS (Keller, 2010) and IMMS
(Keller, 2010). Cronbach’s alpha for the 15-item PHBQ was .59. A closer examination of the
questionnaire item-total statistics indicated that alpha would increase to .67 after deleting 3 items one
by one. One item on expectancy, ‘I noticed that homework seemed important last week’ and two
items on value, ‘I paid attention on homework at the start of lesson for upcoming lesson’, and ‘I
contributed special attention towards homework this week’, were considered to be ambiguous and not
asking about the perceived homework behavior in students. Consequently these items were dropped
from the questionnaire, and subsequent analyses are based on teachers’ responses to the remaining
twelve items.
Table 3
Perceived Homework Behavior Questionnaire (PHBQ)
Component Subscale Items Example item
Homework expectancy Confidence 5 “This week I noticed that my students were well prepared for the
lessons started”
Homework value Attention 5 “This week I succeeded in bringing the homework to the attention of
the students”
Homework value Relevance 5 “This week I noticed that my students have recognized the
importance of homework”
Intervention checklist. Teachers received an intervention checklist (see Appendix E) with a
summary of the intervention per lesson with experimental homework. The results of the intervention
checklist have been used to determine whether the teacher has performed the various parts of the
intervention as required (see Appendix F).
Procedure
Teachers and students received global information of the research that is conducted and all
participants remained anonymous. There was no financial compensation. Time for participating was

scheduled during students’ presence at school and data were collected during classes at the Calvijn
College. Whether a teacher volunteered in participating in this study determined the participation of
individual students or classes.
In week 12 the intervention was presented to the participating teachers in a manual, and
discussed this manual in week 13 in a one-to-one conversation with one of the researchers to check if
they understood and were able to perform the intervention.
In week 12 all 152 HAVO 4 students were invited to complete the digital students’
characteristics questionnaire (see Table 4) during classes in the computer lab, and were thereby
informed about the study on motivation in HAVO students that was about to take place in the fourth
grade at the Calvijn College. Students were unaware about the conditions they were assigned to.
Because interventions on homework were implemented by teachers, students may have been able to
recognize these interventions.
Table 4
Planning of measurements
Test Week Participants
Student Characteristics Scale 12 81 HAVO 4 students
Homework Expectancy and Value Scale,
measurement 1
15 Students class X
Student class Y
Homework Expectancy and Value Scale,
measurement 2
16 Students class X
Student class Y
Perceived Homework Behavior
Questionnaire
15/16 Participating teachers
In week 15 for each participating subject, class X received the experimental intervention and
class Y got traditional homework (see Figure 4). At the end of week 15 HAVO 4 students in
participating subjects took the pencil-and-paper test on homework motivation during the last 5-10
minutes in class (see Table 4). In week 16 for each participating subject, class Y received the
experimental intervention and class X got traditional homework. At the end of week 16 all HAVO 4

students in participating subjects took the pencil-and-paper test on homework motivation during the
last 5-10 minutes in class.
In week 15 and 16 teachers completed the intervention checklist for lessons with experimental
homework. At the end of week 15 and 16 teachers were asked to fill in the PHBQ for classes X and
Y.
Data Analysis
Two separate databases were constructed for analysis in SPSS in order to meet the
assumptions for data analyses. In database A all participants in a subject (nsubjects = 107) are present. In
database B the participants (n = 26) who took part in multiple subjects were randomly assigned to one
of the four subjects (ntotal = 81).
To determine whether there has been an order effect an independent samples t test is done on
data classes X and classes Y.
To investigate the impact of the experimental intervention a one-way repeated measures
ANOVA was used on data of both conditions – traditional and experimental. A one-way ANCOVA
was used to compare homework motivation in students after the experiment undertaking four different
subjects (chemistry, economy, history and math). A covariate (students’ score on traditional
homework) was included to partial out the effects of participants’ homework motivation without the
interventions on homework. A MANOVA was used to examine the effectiveness of the interventions
on the two component of homework motivation - expectancy and value – in relation to the four
different subjects. One tailed paired sample t tests were used to compare homework expectancy or
homework value levels within the four subjects.
A descriptive analysis was performed on perceived homework motivation in students by
teachers, compared to homework expectancy and homework value levels perceived by students.
To determine the effect of pre-existing differences in HAVO 4 students’ characteristics, two-
tailed paired sample t tests were used to compare homework expectancy or homework value levels
within the characteristic groups. Repeated measures ANOVA with split-plots have been conducted to
compare the differences in homework expectancy or homework value between characteristic groups.

Results
Manipulation check
The switching replications design implicates that caution should be exercised regarding the
occurrence of an order effect. An independent samples t test was used to compare the differences on
the measurement score of participants (n = 40) receiving the experimental intervention in week 1 (M
= 0.11, SD = 0.55) and participants (n = 41) receiving the experimental intervention in week 2 (M =
0.31, SD = 0.77). The t test was non-significant, t(71.98) = 1.37, p = .174, two-tailed, d = 0.45, 95%
CI [-0.92, 0.50]. Absence of an order effect implicated that scores on students’ questionnaires on
measurement 1 and 2 can be combined and partitioned in test scores on traditional homework (or
control group) and test scores on experimental homework.
Homework motivation
A one-way repeated measures ANOVA was used to investigate the impact of the
experimental intervention. The repeated measures ANOVA indicates there is a significant increase on
homework motivation levels after the experimental intervention (M = 2.91, SD = 0.78) in comparison
with traditional homework (M = 2.71, SD = 0.74), F (1, 80) = 7.71, p = .007, partial η2
= .09.
Table 5
Summary of scores on measurements on HEVS in different subjects
Homework Motivation Homework Expectancy Homework Value
Traditional Experimental Traditional Experimental Traditional Experimental
Subject n M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Chemistry 15 2.18 0.59 2.39 0.88 1.76 0.47 2.19 0.84 2.39 0.72 2.49 0.91
Economy 36 2.94 0.62 3.16 0.61 2.59 0.77 2.90 0.83 3.10 0.60 3.29 0.57
History 30 2.82 0.70 2.87 0.61 2.45 0.85 2.57 0.76 3.01 0.70 3.02 0.59
Math 26 2.92 0.76 3.27 0.60 2.65 0.80 2.87 0.68 3.05 0.77 3.48 0.64
Totala
81 2.71 0.74 2.91 0.78 2.32 0.80 2.61 0.82 2.90 0.77 3.06 0.82
Note. a
Ntotal = 81; chemistry (n = 14); economy (n=28); history (n = 19); mathematics (n = 18); 26 students participate in multiple
subjects.

Homework motivation per subject. A one-way ANCOVA was used to compare homework
motivation in students after the experiment undertaking four different subjects (chemistry, economy,
history and math). A covariate (score on traditional homework) was included to partial out the effects
of participants’ homework motivation without the interventions on homework. The ANCOVA
indicates that after accounting for the effects of traditional homework, there was a statistically
significant effect of the subject on homework motivation, F (3,76) = 4.48, p = .006, partial η2
= .150.
Post-hoc testing revealed that participants in economy and mathematics subject reported a higher
increase in homework motivation than students in chemistry class, even after controlling for
homework motivation measurement score on traditional homework. The remaining pairwise
comparisons were not significant.
Figure 5. Homework motivation levels per subject after traditional and experimental homework.
In order to compare scores on homework motivation in students in the traditional and
experimental condition within the various subjects, one-tailed paired sample t tests with an alpha level
of .05 were used. Participants (n = 26) previously assigned to one of the subjects for data analyses
were placed back in their original subjects. Expecting homework motivation to increase after the
intervention as stated in hypothesis 1, p values are divided by two. As Table 6 shows all scores on
homework motivation after the intervention were higher. Participants in the experimental condition of
the subjects chemistry (M = 2.39) and history (M = 2.87) reported higher homework motivation
levels, compared to participants in the control condition of chemistry (M = 2.18) and history (M =

2.82). However, these differences were not statistically significant for both chemistry, t(14) = 0.78, p
= .226, d = 0.29, and history, t(29) = 0.42, p = .340, d = 0.08. Participants in the experimental
condition in the subject economy reported significantly higher homework motivation levels (M =
3.16) compared to participants in the control condition (M = 2.92), who received traditional
homework, t(35) = 2.65, p = .006, d = 0.36. Also participants in the experimental condition in the
subject mathematics reported significantly higher homework motivation levels (M = 3.27) compared
to participants in the control condition (M = 2.92), who received traditional homework, t(25) = 3.13, p
= .002, d = 0.51.
Homework expectancy and homework value
A MANOVA was used to examine the effectiveness of the interventions designed to increase
homework motivation. Findings showed that there was a significant effect of the interventions on the
combined dependent variables homework expectancy and homework value F(1,159) = 3.08, p = .050,
η2
= .04. Analysis of the dependent variables individually showed non-significant effects for
homework value, F(1,160) = 1.08, p = .193, η2
= .01. However the homework expectancy variable
was statistically significant at a Bonferroni adjusted alpha level of .025, F(1,160) = 3.62, p = .021, η2
= .03. Participants in the experimental condition reported significantly higher homework expectancy
levels (M = 2.61) compared to participants in the control condition (M = 2.32), who received
traditional homework (see Figure 6).
Figure 6. Display of students’ scores on homework motivation divided in components expectancy and
value.

Homework expectancy per subject. One tailed paired sample t tests with an alpha level of
.05 were used to compare homework expectancy levels in different subjects in students in the control
condition, after receiving traditional homework and the experimental condition, after receiving the
intervention on homework. A summary of scores on measurements can be found in Table 5.
Figure 7 shows an increase in all subjects on homework expectancy. The participants reported
non-significant differences in homework expectancy levels in the experimental condition of the
subjects chemistry (M = 2.19), t(14) = 1.62, p = .064, d = 0.66 and history (M = 2.57), t(29) = 0.74, p
= .234, d = 0.15, compared to participant in the control condition of chemistry (M = 1.76) and history
(M = 2.45). Participants in the experimental condition in the subject economics reported significantly
higher homework expectancy levels (M = 2.90) compared to participants in the control condition (M =
2.59), who received traditional homework, t(35) = 2.83, p = .004, d = o.39. Also participants in the
experimental condition in the subject mathematics reported significantly higher homework
expectancy levels (M = 2.87) compared to participants in the control condition (M = 2.45), who
received traditional homework, t(25) = 1.73, p = .048, d = 0.30.
Figure 7. Homework expectancy levels per subject after traditional and experimental homework
Homework value per subject. One tailed paired sample t tests with an alpha level of .05
were also used to compare homework value levels in different subjects in students after receiving

traditional or experimental homework. A summary of scores on measurements can be found in
Table 5.
Figure 8 shows an increase in the subjects chemistry, economics and mathematics on
homework value and a minimal increase in history. The participants reported non-significant
differences in homework value levels in the experimental condition of the subjects chemistry (M =
2.49), t(14) = 0.34, p = .370, d = 0.12, and history (M = 3.02), t(29) = 0.09, p = .465, d = 0.02, in
comparison with the control condition of chemistry (M = 2.39) and history (M = 3.01). Participants in
the experimental condition in the subject economics reported significantly higher homework value
levels (M = 3.29) compared to participants in the control condition (M = 3.10), who received
traditional homework, t(35) = 1.91, p = .033, d = 0.32. Also participants in the experimental condition
in the subject mathematics reported significantly higher homework value levels (M = 3.48) compared
to participants in the control condition (M = 3.05), who received traditional homework, t(25) = 3.22, p
= .002, d = 0.61.
Figure 8. Homework value levels per subject after traditional and experimental homework.
Teachers’ perception of homework motivation
Teachers revealed a difference in perceiving homework behavior in different classes. Results
shown are descriptive and were not statistically analyzed, as it concerned the comparison between a

single teacher and his or her classes (see Table 6). Only notable resemblances and differences are
mentioned.
Table 6
Teacher Perceptions versus Student Perceptions Concerning Students’ Homework Expectancy and Value
Expectancy Value
Teacher Students Teacher Students
T E T E T E T E
Subject Class M M M M M M M M
Chemistry X 1.80 3.20 1.63 2.38 2.60 3.60 2.23 2.53
Chemistry Y 3.00 1.80 2.24 2.66 3.80 3.00 2.47 2.06
Economy X 2.60 3.40 2.47 2.81 2.40 3.60 3.09 3.18
Economy Y 2.80 3.60 2.57 2.88 2.40 4.00 2.97 3.33
History X 3.00 3.20 2.62 2.60 2.40 2.40 3.19 3.19
History Y 3.40 3.00 2.24 2.66 3.00 2.80 3.04 2.95
Mathematics X 2.40 2.20 2.60 2.87 3.60 3.40 2.96 3.58
Mathematics Y 2.60 3.00 2.49 2.69 3.20 3.80 3.22 3.49
Note. T=traditional homework; E=experimental homework; X=experimental homework in second week; Y=experimental
homework in first week.
Teachers assign different scores to classes X and Y. A remarkable difference in perception is
found in classes X and Y in chemistry, and to a lesser extent in history. Students in chemistry classes
confirm these differences in their scores, but are more moderate. Student scores in history classes X
and Y show a different pattern than their teacher’s scores.
Teachers’ and students’ scores are not always consistent. In economy, teacher en students’
scores are quite consistent, but students initially value their homework more than the teacher
perceived. Inconsistent scores were found for example in mathematics class X. The teacher perceived
a drop in homework motivation in both expectancy and value, while students showed in increase on
both motivation components. The history teacher perceived opposite effects in homework expectancy
than students did in both classes. Finally teachers in general showed greater differences in perception
after the experiment than students revealed.

Effect of pre-existing differences on homework expectancy levels per characteristic
Multiple two-tailed paired sample t tests were used to compare homework expectancy levels
in below average and above average groups per characteristic after traditional and experimental
homework (see Table 7).
Table 7
Homework Expectancy Levels in Students with Below and Above Average Scores on Characteristic
Homework Expectancy
Traditional Experimental
Characteristic Groupb
n M SD M SD Δa
t p d
Overall motivation
Below < 2.80 43 2.31 0.64 2.61 0.75 0.30 -2.46 .018* 1.45
Above > 2.80 35 2.33 0.98 2.58 0.91 0.25 -1.83 .076 0.26
Planning skills
Below < 2.95 40 2.11 0.63 2.47 0.76 0.36 -3.04 .004* 0.52
Above > 2.95 38 2.54 0.92 2.74 0.87 0.20 -1.42 .164 0.22
Relationship with teacher
Below < 2.99 33 2.07 0.69 2.33 0.79 0.26 -2.40 .022* 1.08
Above > 2.99 45 2.49 0.85 2.79 0.80 0.30 -2.12 .039* 0.36
Note.*Significant higher homework expectancy level after the intervention (p < .05) within the characteristic ; a
Δ = experimental
- traditional. b
Score computed with scores on SCS.
Overall motivation. Participants with below average overall motivation reported
significantly higher homework expectancy levels (M = 2.61) receiving experimental homework than
after receiving traditional homework (M = 2.31), t(42) = -2.46, p = .018, d = 1.45. Participants with
above average overall motivation reported non-significant differences in homework expectancy levels
after receiving experimental homework (M = 2.58) in comparison with receiving traditional
homework (M = 2.33), t(34) = -1.83, p = .076, d = 0.26 (see Table 7). The split-plot repeated
measures indicated that there was no difference between the below and above average overall
motivation group in homework expectancy, F(1,76) =0.00, p = .995, η2
= .00 (see Figure 9).

Planning skills. Participants with below average planning skills reported significantly higher
homework expectancy levels (M = 2.47) receiving experimental homework than after receiving
traditional homework (M = 2.11), t(39) = -3.04, p = .004, d = 0.52. Participants with above average
planning skills reported non-significant differences in homework expectancy levels after receiving
experimental homework (M = 2.74) in comparison with receiving traditional homework (M = 2.54),
t(37) = -1.42, p = .164, d = 0.22 (see Table 7). The split-plot repeated measures indicated that there
was a significant difference between the below and above average planning skills group in homework
expectancy, F(1,76) =4.95, p = .026, η2
Figure 9. Means on homework expectancy levels after traditional and experimental homework for below and
above average groups on characteristics scale; overall motivation; planning skills and student-teacher
relationship. Y axis starts with 2 because all homework expectancy levels are located between 2.0 and 3.0; the
graph is intended to show the differences between the groups.
Student-teacher relationship. Participants with below average student-teacher relationship
reported significantly higher homework expectancy levels (M = 2.33) receiving experimental
homework than after receiving traditional homework (M = 2.07), t(32) = -2.40, p = .022, d = 1.08.
Participants with above average student-teacher relationship also reported significantly higher
homework expectancy levels (M = 2.79) receiving experimental homework than after receiving
●Below Overall Motivation
○Above Overall Motivation
Below Planning Skills
Above Planning Skills
■Below Student-Teacher Relationship
□Above Student-Teacher Relationship

traditional homework (M = 2.49), t(44) = -2.12, p = .039, d = 0.36 (see Table 7). The split-plot
repeated measures indicated that there was a significant difference between the below and above
average student-teacher relationship group in homework expectancy, F(1,76) =7.81, p = .007, η2
= .09
(see Figure 9).
Effect of pre-existing differences on homework value levels per characteristic
Multiple two-tailed paired sample t tests were used to compare homework value levels in below
average and above average groups per characteristic after traditional and experimental homework (see
Table 8).
Table 8
Homework Value Levels in Students with Below and Above Average Scores on Characteristic
Homework Value
Traditional Experimental
Characteristic Groupb
n M SD M SD Δa
t p d
Overall motivation
Below < 2.80 43 2.89 0.62 3.05 0.70 0.16 -1.71 .094 0.24
Above > 2.80 35 2.91 0.95 3.08 0.98 0.17 -1.20 .240 0.17
Planning skills
Below < 2.95 40 2.83 0.73 2.93 0.68 0.10 -0.94 .351 0.14
Above > 2.95 38 2.97 0.84 3.21 0.95 0.24 -1.87 .070 0.27
Relationship with teacher
Below < 2.99 33 2.77 0.74 2.82 0.78 0.05 -0.45 .654 0.06
Above > 2.99 45 2.98 0.80 3.24 0.83 0.26 -2.18 .034* 0.32
Note.*Significant higher homework value level after the intervention (p < .05) within the characteristic; a
Δ = experimental -
traditional. b
Score computed with scores on SCS.
Overall motivation. Participants with below average overall motivation reported non-
significant differences in homework value levels after receiving experimental homework (M = 3.05)
in comparison with receiving traditional homework (M = 2.89), t(42) = -1.71, p = .094, d = 0.24.
Participants with above average overall motivation also reported non-significant differences in
homework value levels after receiving experimental homework (M = 3.08) in comparison with

receiving traditional homework (M = 2.91), t(34) = -1.20, p = .240, d = 0.17 (see Table 8). The split-
plot repeated measures indicated that there was no difference between the below and above average
overall motivation group in homework value, F(1,76) =0.02, p = .895, η2
Planning skills. Participants with below average planning skills reported non-significant
differences in homework value levels after receiving experimental homework (M = 2.93) in
comparison with receiving traditional homework (M = 2.83), t(39) = -0.94, p = .351, d = 0.14.
Participants with above average planning skills also reported non-significant differences in homework
value levels after receiving experimental homework (M = 3.21) in comparison with receiving
traditional homework (M = 2.97), t(37) = -1.87, p = .070, d = 0.27 (see Table 8). The split-plot
repeated measures indicated that there was no difference between the below and above average
planning skills group in homework value, F(1,76) =1.76, p = .188, η2
Figure 10. Means on homework value levels after traditional and experimental homework for below and above
average groups on characteristics scale; overall motivation; planning skills and student-teacher relationship. Y
axis starts with 2.5 because all homework value levels are located between 2.5 and 3.5; the graph is intended to
show the differences between the groups.
●Below Overall Motivation
○Above Overall Motivation
Below Planning Skills
Above Planning Skills
■Below Student-Teacher Relationship
□Above Student-Teacher Relationship

Student-teacher relationship. Participants with below average student-teacher relationship
reported non-significant differences in homework value levels after receiving experimental homework
(M = 2.82) in comparison with receiving traditional homework (M = 2.77), t(32) = -0.45, p = .654, d =
0.06. Participants with above average student-teacher relationship reported significantly higher
homework value levels (M = 3.24) receiving experimental homework than after receiving traditional
homework (M = 2.989), t(44) = -2.18, p = .034, d = 0.32 (see Table 8). The split-plot repeated
measures indicated that there was no difference between the below and above average student-teacher
relationship group in homework value, F(1,76) =3.78, p = .056, η2
Conclusion and discussion
First, the present study found empirical support for a positive effect on homework motivation
of HAVO 4 students, when adapting homework instruction to HAVO 4 students’ characteristics as
presumed in hypothesis 1. Results show significantly higher homework expectancy levels after the
intervention. Non-significant results were found for the homework value component. Looking closer
at the four different subjects participating in this study, homework expectancy levels and homework
value levels are significantly higher in both economy and mathematics after the intervention took
place. This could be explained by the fact that teachers in the subjects mathematics and economy
performed the experimental intervention almost as accurately as they were presented to them. But
different contents of the subjects can also contribute to the non-significance of chemistry and history.
Differences in expectancy and value levels between subjects are consistent with Trautwein et al.
(2006), promoting a domain-specific approach of homework. In their studies on homework
motivation a considerable variability in the perception of homework was found between subjects:
Mathematics homework scores lower on component expectancy than English homework, for the
value component this is reversed. Variables appear to make a difference in predictive value per
subject (Trautwein et al., 2006). Several other studies have been conducted on the effect of
motivational design strategies (Keller, 2010), generally focusing on instructional design for face-to-
face, computer-basis or blended courses. Most of them subscribe a positive effect on motivation
components (Visser & Keller, 1990; Song & Keller, 2001; Colakoglu & Akdemir, 2010). A study on
the effect of ARCS-based strategies with specific attention for the expectancy component (Huett,

Moller, Young, Bray, & Huett, 2008) did not produce a noted increase in learner confidence, but did
find an effect in overall motivation of students for their specific subject. This confirms the starting
point of this study, dividing motivation in at least two components. Each component can be
experimentally influenced in its own way, and measured as a separate variable. Point of attention is
that variables might influence each other. Besides the differences between the subjects, the short
period of the experimental intervention in this study could have caused faster results on homework
expectancy, students being confident in their ability in doing the assigned homework tasks, rather than
increasing students’ value on homework tasks as relevant and having their attention.
Second, hypothesis 2 stated that pre-existing differences ‘overall motivation’, ‘planning
skills’ and ‘student-teacher relationship’ would have an effect on HAVO 4 students’ homework
expectancy and homework value levels. Results of this study do reveal that dividing students in two
groups, based upon their below or above average score on a student characteristic, has different effect
on their scores on homework expectancy and homework value. All three groups scoring below
average on overall motivation, planning skills and student-teacher relationship show significantly
higher homework expectancy levels after the intervention took place. Only the above average student-
teacher relationship group also scored significantly higher after the intervention. This could mean that
having a good or less good relationship with your teacher has no effect on your homework
expectancy. But as Figure 9 reveals, it seems that no matter what your characteristics are, homework
expectancy will increase almost equivalent in all groups after the intervention. Although only the
above average student-teacher relationship group shows significantly higher levels of homework
value after the intervention, Figure 10 shows a different pattern in slopes as seen in homework
expectancy. Homework value levels after traditional homework start initially higher than homework
expectancy levels, but show a clear difference in increase between groups after the intervention. An
explanation can be given by stating that an intervention must connect to the initial level of a student,
and only then a student will profit from this ‘push in the right direction’. This has a positive impact on
the expectancy and/or value component of motivation. When an intervention is not connected to
students’ initial level a student can experience the intervention as incomprehensible or superfluous,
showing no effects on motivation or possibly even demotivating a student. In this study it seems the

part of the intervention designed to increase homework value levels is more in line with
characteristics of students in the above average groups. Anticipating on the wide range of individual
differences among students is consistent with Hong, Milgram, and Rowell (2010). Teachers should
encourage learners to match their preferences on doing homework with the actual situation, resulting
in higher motivation levels. This recommendation can be easily transformed to teachers being
encouraged to match their students’ characteristics.
Screening students on their pre-existing differences created awareness of the fact that each
individual student has a different set of characteristics. Interpreting the HAVO students’ profile
(Vermaas & Van Der Linden, 2007) as a blueprint of the average HAVO student, contains a risk of
not taking into account the individual differences of HAVO students and must be prevented by
researchers at any time. HAVO 4 is a composition of several groups of students (Vermaas & Van Der
Linden, 2007), with different sets of characteristics. Instead of giving all students the same treatment,
based upon the HAVO 4 students’ profile, individuals or groups of students should receive a
treatment adapted to their specific set of characteristics.
Limitations of the study
This study has been conducted on one Dutch secondary school. The HAVO-department
received the title of ‘Excellent School’ in 2012, referring to high quality of education and being an
example for other schools. Much attention is paid to an individual approach and guidance of each
student. This could have influenced the results.
Doing social research on a secondary school is a complicated process (Cooper & Valentine,
2001). The initial scope of our sample was 152 HAVO-students. Due to unexpected circumstances the
sample had to be reduced. Given the restricted number of students in the present study,
generalizability is an issue. A number of students participated in experimental classes in more than
one subject. This could have influenced the results, either in a positive or negative way. Another
reason to be cautious in generalizability is the influence of the individual teachers on performing the
experimental interventions. Although all teachers received the same instructions and there was control
of performing the parts of the intervention, there was no control of the manner in which the
instructions were performed.

Two other important factors on influencing homework motivation were no part of this study
and therefore need mentioning as limitations: the composition of students in one class, and the
characteristics of an individual teacher. In our study we recognize the differences in scores on
homework motivation in classes X and Y within a subject, and this might have influenced the final
scores on homework motivation. No attention was paid to the individual differences of teachers’
characteristics and their personal influence on students’ motivation. In their review of research on the
relationship between teachers characteristics and students’ achievement Wayne and Youngs (2003)
confirm the existence of a positive relationship, but it needs further research to be more specific.
Evaluating the present research the choice for the switching replications design was made,
because of its high internal validity (Trochim, 2006). The external validity is limited due to the
limited size of the sample. The student- and teacher questionnaire, developed for this study, scored
high on reliability. To promote a broader range in answers, a 7-point- instead of a 5-point Likert scale
is recommended in future research. The Student Characteristics Scale was partly reliable. Subscale
‘student-teacher relationship’ should be interpreted with caution because of the mediocre reliability.
Although the experimental interventions were matched to the amount of time available, the
time component makes it only possible to draw conclusions on the short term. To improve external
validity and draw conclusions for the long term, expanding the experimental period is recommended.
Further research
The limited quasi experiment in this study reveals a surprising positive effect of adapting
homework instruction on students’ characteristics to improve homework motivation. Results not only
contribute to the body of knowledge on homework and homework motivation in general, but can also
contribute in the attempts to tackle the existing problems in motivation of HAVO students in the
Netherlands. Drawing teachers’ attention to the results of this study can convince teachers that they do
have influence on students’ motivation, even by doing small interventions. Their perceptions of
motivation do not necessarily correspond to the experience of the student. Anticipating on student’s
characteristics, interventions can be done on both individuals and groups.
In line with this study, further research is recommended on ways of homework instruction to
influence homework motivation, using larger samples of students in different schools and thereby

making research results more generalizable and answer questions such as; ‘Which interventions on
homework instruction motivates students?’ and ‘To what extent is domain-specific approach of
importance of the adaptation of homework instruction?’. Further research can be done on the
application of the HAVO students’ profile in daily practice; ‘Is it possible to develop sets of
characteristics for the different groups of students in HAVO 4, and are teachers able to motivate
students by adapting homework instruction to these specific set of characteristics?’ or ‘Is the HAVO
student served by a more individual approach tailored to his or her individual profile?’
Corno (1996) stated that homework is a complicated thing. Aligning ourselves with the
general recommendation that research on homework instruction and homework motivation needs to
be extended, specific recommendations are made to work from one general model in which variables
get their place. Trautwein’s homework model (Trautwein et al., 2006) could be used as a starting
point. Systematic research, resulting in a further perfection of the homework model contributes to an
increasing knowledge base. Eventually all of this can lead to an influence of homework research on
policy and practice (Cooper & Valentine, 2001).

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Appendix A
Instruments - Student Characteristics Scale (SCS)
Student Characteristics Scale – 27 items
5-point Likert-schaal
Motivatie (9 items, subschaal VSV)
Code Volgorde Item
M1 1 Ik doe bepaalde dingen extra voor mijn studie, ook als daar niet om
wordt gevraagd.
M2 2 Ik ga naar school om te leren.
M3 6 Ik leer alleen omdat het moet. REVERSE
M4 9 Ik maak graag huiswerk.
M5 16 Ik werk hard voor een overhoring of een proefwerk.
M6 18 Leren komt bij mij op de tweede plaats. REVERSE
M7 19 Ik kijk of leerstofonderdelen uit een hoofdstuk met elkaar verband
houden.
M8 23 Wanneer ik een proefwerk of toets terugkrijg, kijk ik na welke fouten ik
heb gemaakt en probeer hier iets van te leren.
M9 25 Ik wil meer weten van de stof dan de leraar vraagt.
Planningsvaardigheden (9 items, gebaseerd op subschaal VSV)
P1 3 Aan het begin van de week maak ik een verdeling van mijn huiswerk
over de week.
P2 5 Een toets of proefwerk leer ik meerdere malen.
P3 10 Voordat ik begin met mijn huiswerk bepaal ik de volgorde waarin ik dit
ga maken.
P4 11 Van tevoren schat ik in hoeveel tijd ik nodig heb voor het uitvoeren van
een huiswerkopdracht.
P5 13 Ik houd rekening met onvoorziene omstandigheden en daarom bouw ik
reservetijd in bij het studeren voor een toets of proefwerk.
P6 15 Ik vind het lastig me aan mijn eigen planning te houden. REVERSE
P7 21 Op dagen dat ik niet veel huiswerk heb, begin ik aan het huiswerk van
een zware dag.
P8 24 Ik begin te laat met het leren van een proefwerk of een toets. REVERSE
P9 27 Voor een toets of proefwerk houd ik tijd vrij om de leerstof nog eens
extra te kunnen herhalen.
Relatie docent (gebaseerd op vragenlijst Calvijn College)
R1 4 Ik voel me op mijn gemak bij mijn docenten.
R2 7 Ik heb nauwelijks persoonlijk contact met mijn docenten. REVERSE
R3 8 De docenten geven duidelijk antwoord op vragen over de leerstof en het
huiswerk.
R4 12 De docenten moedigen mij aan om actief mee te doen in de les.
R5 14 Mijn docenten zijn enthousiast en betrokken.
R6 17 Docenten bespreken regelmatig met ons hoe we werken en wat we
daarmee bereiken.
R7 20 Mijn docenten doen er alles aan om mijn prestaties te helpen
verbeteren.
R8 22 Docenten houden zich aan de afspraken die ze met ons maken.
R9 26 Mijn docenten weten nauwelijks iets van mijn leven buiten schooltijd. REVERSE

Appendix B
Instruments – Homework Expectancy and Value Scale (HEVS)

Appendix C
Instruments – Perceived Homework Behaviour Questionnaire (PHBQ)

Appendix D
Instruments – Accountability check on HEVS and PHBQ
Vragen voor Huiswerk Belevingsschaal
Confidence
1. Tijdens het maken van het huiswerk deze week had ik het gevoel goed bezig te zijn met dit vak.
2. Ik denk dat mijn leraar vindt dat ik mijn huiswerk goed gemaakt heb deze week.
3. Mijn leraar heeft laten merken hoe ik deze week mijn huiswerk heb gemaakt.
4. Door de uitleg van het huiswerk geloofde ik dat ik het huiswerk zelf kon maken.
5. Door de manier waarop de leraar het huiswerk toelichtte wist ik wat ik zou moeten leren van dit
huiswerk
Attention
1. Mijn leraar heeft me in de afgelopen week enthousiast gemaakt voor het huiswerk.
2. Er was iets aan het begin van de lessen wat mijn aandacht voor het huiswerk trok deze
week.
3. Ik was deze week nieuwsgierig naar het huiswerk voor dit vak
4. De docent heeft op een ongewone of verassende manier aandacht gegeven aan het huiswerk
5. Door de manier waarop het huiswerk werd uitgelegd, werd mijn aandacht op het huiswerk gericht.
Relevance
1. Het huiswerk voor dit vak was de afgelopen week was voor mij zinvol.
2. De leraar zorgde ervoor dat het huiswerk van deze week belangrijk leek
3. Ik ben de afgelopen week actief bezig geweest met maken van huiswerk tijdens de les.
4. Het huiswerk van deze week was belangrijk om een goed een cijfer voor dit vak te kunnen halen.
5. Het huiswerk van de afgelopen week sloot goed aan bij de inhoud van de les.

Appendix E
Instruments – Intervention Checklist

Appendix F
Results on Teacher Intervention Checklist
Table F1
Teacher Intervention Checklist
Intervention
Start During End
Subject Lesson
Instruction on
upcoming
homework
Provide
connection to
curriculum
Connect content
to homework
Provide
relevance, short
+ long term
Homework start
at the last ten
minutes
Active rol
teacher, provide
feedback
Chemistry
a
Class X 1 + + + + + +
2 + + + + + +
Class Y 1 + + + + + +
2 + + + + + +
Economy
Class X 1 + + + + - -
2 + + + + + +
3 + + + + + +
Class Y 1 + + + + - -
2 - + + + + +
3 + + + + + +
History
Class Xb
1 + + + + + +
2 + + - + + +
3 + - - - - -
Class Y 1 + + + + + +
2 + + + + + +
3 + + + + + +
Math
Class X 1 + + + + + +
2 + + + + + +
3 + + + + + +
Class Y 1 + + + + + +
2 + + + + + +
3 + + - - + +
Note. + = intervention performed; - = intervention not performed. a
Only two lessons given during the experimental week. b
Trainee conducted
lessons not satisfactorily according to teacher.

Thesis; Students Homework Motivation

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