NASA scientists hypothesized that a ceramic material could provide thermal protection for the space shuttle during reentry, based on its success protecting guided missiles. They gathered information on material properties and tested their hypothesis by performing experiments under controlled conditions. After collecting and analyzing the experimental data, they determined that ceramic coatings did effectively protect the shuttle from high heat, validating their hypothesis.
Introduction to Science
12
The Scientific Method
Observations
Variables
Controls
Data Analysis
Calculations
Data Collection
Percent Error
Scientific Reasoning
Writing a Lab Report
Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384
B.C. - 322 B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek philosophers
(Figure 1). Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Pla-
to. These three philosophers are considered to be the greatest thinkers of
their time.
Aristotle’s views on science profoundly shaped medieval academics, and his
influence extended into the Renaissance (14
th
- 16
th
century). His opinions
were the authority on science well into the 1300s. Unfortunately, the philoso-
pher’s method was logical thinking and did not involve making direct observa-
tions on the natural world. As a result, many of Aristotle’s opinions were incor-
rect. Although he was extremely intelligent, he used a method for determining
the nature of science that was insufficient for the task. For example, in Aris-
totle’s opinion, men were bigger than women. Therefore, he made the de-
duction that men would have more teeth than women. It is assumed that he
never actually looked into the mouths of both men and women and counted
their teeth. If he had, he would have found that males and females have ex-
actly the same number of teeth (Figure 2).
In the 16
th
and 17
th
centuries, innovative thinkers began developing a new
way to investigate the world around them. They were developing a method
that relied upon making observations of phenomena and trying to explain
why that phenomena occurred. From these techniques, the scientific method
was born. The scientific method is a process of investigation that involves
Figure 1: Neoclassical statue
of ancient Greek philosopher,
Plato, in front of the Academy
of Athens in Greece.
Figure 2: Humans—male and
female—have 20 baby teeth
and 32 permanent teeth.
13
experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. Scien-
tists eventually perfected the methods and reduced it to a series of steps (Figure 3).
Today, the scientific method is used as a systematic approach to solving problems. Science begins with ob-
servations. Once enough observations or results from preliminary library or experimental research have been
collected, a hypothesis can be constructed. Experiments then either verify or disprove the hypothesis. If
enough evidence can support a hypothesis, the hypothesis can become a theory, or proven fact. Theories
can be further refined by other hypotheses and experimentation. An example of this is how we further refine
our knowledge of germ theory by learning about specific pathogens. A scientific law is a summary of obser-
vations in which there are no current exceptions using the most recent technology. It can be a.
SCI 110Course
http://create.mcgraw-hill.com
Copyright by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as
permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part
of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
This McGraw-Hill Create text may include materials submitted to
McGraw-Hill for publication by the instructor of this course.
The instructor is solely responsible for the editorial content of such
materials. Instructors retain copyright of these additional materials.
ISBN-10: ISBN-13:
2013
1121838936 9781121838932
Contents
1. The Scientific Method 1
2. Section for Chapter 1 27
3. Motion 29
4. Section for Chapter 2 65
5. Energy 68
6. Section for Chapter 3 97
iii
Credits
1. The Scientific Method: Chapter 1 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 1
2. Section for Chapter 1: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 27
3. Motion: Chapter 2 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 29
4. Section for Chapter 2: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 65
5. Energy: Chapter 3 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 68
6. Section for Chapter 3: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 97
iv
Hell
I Sphe
re of the Moon
II Sphe
re of Mercury
III Sph
ere of Venus
IV Sph
ere of the Sun
V Spher
e of Mars
VI Spher
e of Jupiter
of SaturnVI
II Sph
ere of the fixed stars. The Zodiac
IX Cry
stalline sphere. Primum Mobile
VII Sphe
re
Purgatory
He
mis
pher
e
of
wa
ter
The D
ark
W
oo
d
Ai
r
Jerusalem
Earthly
Paradise
H
em
isphere
of Earth
Fire
Confirming Pages
1
1
How Scientists Study Nature
1.1 The Scientific Method
Four Steps
• What the scientific method is.
• The difference between a law and a
theory.
• The role of models in science.
1.2 Why Science Is Successful
Science Is a Living Body of Knowledge,
Not a Set of Frozen Ideas
• Why the scientific method is so success-
ful in understanding the natural world.
The Solar System
1.3 A Survey of the Sky
Everything Seems to Circle the North
Star
• Why Polaris seems almost stationary in
the sky.
• How to distinguish planets from stars
without a telescope.
1.4 The Ptolemaic System
The Earth as the Center of the Universe
• How the ptolemaic system explains the
astronomical universe.
1.5 The Copernican System
A Spinning Earth That Circles the Sun
• How the copernican system explains
the astronomical system.
1.6 Kepler’s Laws
How the Planets Actually Move
• The significance of Kepler’s laws.
1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right
Evidence Was Needed That Supported
His Model Wh.
Introduction to Science
12
The Scientific Method
Observations
Variables
Controls
Data Analysis
Calculations
Data Collection
Percent Error
Scientific Reasoning
Writing a Lab Report
Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384
B.C. - 322 B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek philosophers
(Figure 1). Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Pla-
to. These three philosophers are considered to be the greatest thinkers of
their time.
Aristotle’s views on science profoundly shaped medieval academics, and his
influence extended into the Renaissance (14
th
- 16
th
century). His opinions
were the authority on science well into the 1300s. Unfortunately, the philoso-
pher’s method was logical thinking and did not involve making direct observa-
tions on the natural world. As a result, many of Aristotle’s opinions were incor-
rect. Although he was extremely intelligent, he used a method for determining
the nature of science that was insufficient for the task. For example, in Aris-
totle’s opinion, men were bigger than women. Therefore, he made the de-
duction that men would have more teeth than women. It is assumed that he
never actually looked into the mouths of both men and women and counted
their teeth. If he had, he would have found that males and females have ex-
actly the same number of teeth (Figure 2).
In the 16
th
and 17
th
centuries, innovative thinkers began developing a new
way to investigate the world around them. They were developing a method
that relied upon making observations of phenomena and trying to explain
why that phenomena occurred. From these techniques, the scientific method
was born. The scientific method is a process of investigation that involves
Figure 1: Neoclassical statue
of ancient Greek philosopher,
Plato, in front of the Academy
of Athens in Greece.
Figure 2: Humans—male and
female—have 20 baby teeth
and 32 permanent teeth.
13
experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. Scien-
tists eventually perfected the methods and reduced it to a series of steps (Figure 3).
Today, the scientific method is used as a systematic approach to solving problems. Science begins with ob-
servations. Once enough observations or results from preliminary library or experimental research have been
collected, a hypothesis can be constructed. Experiments then either verify or disprove the hypothesis. If
enough evidence can support a hypothesis, the hypothesis can become a theory, or proven fact. Theories
can be further refined by other hypotheses and experimentation. An example of this is how we further refine
our knowledge of germ theory by learning about specific pathogens. A scientific law is a summary of obser-
vations in which there are no current exceptions using the most recent technology. It can be a.
SCI 110Course
http://create.mcgraw-hill.com
Copyright by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as
permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part
of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without prior written permission of the publisher.
This McGraw-Hill Create text may include materials submitted to
McGraw-Hill for publication by the instructor of this course.
The instructor is solely responsible for the editorial content of such
materials. Instructors retain copyright of these additional materials.
ISBN-10: ISBN-13:
2013
1121838936 9781121838932
Contents
1. The Scientific Method 1
2. Section for Chapter 1 27
3. Motion 29
4. Section for Chapter 2 65
5. Energy 68
6. Section for Chapter 3 97
iii
Credits
1. The Scientific Method: Chapter 1 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 1
2. Section for Chapter 1: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 27
3. Motion: Chapter 2 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 29
4. Section for Chapter 2: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 65
5. Energy: Chapter 3 from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 68
6. Section for Chapter 3: Chapter from The Physical Universe, 15th Edition by Krauskopf, Beiser, 2014 97
iv
Hell
I Sphe
re of the Moon
II Sphe
re of Mercury
III Sph
ere of Venus
IV Sph
ere of the Sun
V Spher
e of Mars
VI Spher
e of Jupiter
of SaturnVI
II Sph
ere of the fixed stars. The Zodiac
IX Cry
stalline sphere. Primum Mobile
VII Sphe
re
Purgatory
He
mis
pher
e
of
wa
ter
The D
ark
W
oo
d
Ai
r
Jerusalem
Earthly
Paradise
H
em
isphere
of Earth
Fire
Confirming Pages
1
1
How Scientists Study Nature
1.1 The Scientific Method
Four Steps
• What the scientific method is.
• The difference between a law and a
theory.
• The role of models in science.
1.2 Why Science Is Successful
Science Is a Living Body of Knowledge,
Not a Set of Frozen Ideas
• Why the scientific method is so success-
ful in understanding the natural world.
The Solar System
1.3 A Survey of the Sky
Everything Seems to Circle the North
Star
• Why Polaris seems almost stationary in
the sky.
• How to distinguish planets from stars
without a telescope.
1.4 The Ptolemaic System
The Earth as the Center of the Universe
• How the ptolemaic system explains the
astronomical universe.
1.5 The Copernican System
A Spinning Earth That Circles the Sun
• How the copernican system explains
the astronomical system.
1.6 Kepler’s Laws
How the Planets Actually Move
• The significance of Kepler’s laws.
1.7 Why Copernicus Was Right
Evidence Was Needed That Supported
His Model Wh.
Introduc on to Science
12
The Scientific Method
Observations
Variables
Controls
Data Analysis
Calculations
Data Collection
Percent Error
Scientific Reasoning
Writing a Lab Report
Socrates (469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384
B.C. - 322 B.C.) are among the most famous of the Greek philosophers
(Figure 1). Plato was a student of Socrates, and Aristotle was a student of Pla-
to. These three philosophers are considered to be the greatest thinkers of
their time.
Aristotle’s views on science profoundly shaped medieval academics, and his
influence extended into the Renaissance (14th - 16th century). His opinions
were the authority on science well into the 1300s. Unfortunately, the philoso-
pher’s method was logical thinking and did not involve making direct observa-
tions on the natural world. As a result, many of Aristotle’s opinions were incor-
rect. Although he was extremely intelligent, he used a method for determining
the nature of science that was insufficient for the task. For example, in Aris-
totle’s opinion, men were bigger than women. Therefore, he made the de-
duction that men would have more teeth than women. It is assumed that he
never actually looked into the mouths of both men and women and counted
their teeth. If he had, he would have found that males and females have ex-
actly the same number of teeth (Figure 2).
In the 16th and 17th centuries, innovative thinkers began developing a new
way to investigate the world around them. They were developing a method
that relied upon making observations of phenomena and trying to explain
why that phenomena occurred. From these techniques, the scientific method
was born. The scientific method is a process of investigation that involves
Figure 1: Neoclassical statue
of ancient Greek philosopher,
Plato, in front of the Academy
of Athens in Greece.
Figure 2: Humans—male and
female—have 20 baby teeth
and 32 permanent teeth.
13
experimentation and observation to acquire new knowledge, solve problems, and answer questions. Scien-
tists eventually perfected the methods and reduced it to a series of steps (Figure 3).
Today, the scientific method is used as a systematic approach to solving problems. Science begins with ob-
servations. Once enough observations or results from preliminary library or experimental research have been
collected, a hypothesis can be constructed. Experiments then either verify or disprove the hypothesis. If
enough evidence can support a hypothesis, the hypothesis can become a theory, or proven fact. Theories
can be further refined by other hypotheses and experimentation. An example of this is how we further refine
our knowledge of germ theory by learning about specific pathogens. A scientific law is a summary of observa-
tions in which there are no current exceptions using the most recent technology. It can be a general state-
ment, like the Law of Gravity (what goes up m.
2. Although scientists do not always follow a
rigid set of steps, investigations often follow
a general pattern. An organized set of
investigation procedures is called a scientific
method. Six common steps are found in
scientific methods shown in the next slides.
A scientist might add new steps, repeat
some steps many times, or skip steps all
together when doing an investigation.
3. Many scientific investigations begin when someone observes an
event in nature and wonders why or how it occurs. Then the
question of “why” or “how” is the problem. Sometimes a
statement of a problem arises from an activity that is not
working. Some early work on guided missiles showed that the
instruments in the nose of the missiles did not always work. The
problem statement involved finding a material to protect the
instruments from the harsh conditions of flight.
Later, NASA scientists made a similar problem statement. They
wanted to build a new vehicle—the space shuttle—that could
carry people to space and back again. Guided missiles did not
have this capability. NASA needed to find a material for the
outer skin of the space shuttle that could withstand the heat and
forces of reentry back into Earth’s atmosphere.
4. Before testing a hypothesis, it is useful to learn
as much as possible about the background of
the problem. Have others found information
that will help determine what tests to do and
what tests will not be helpful? The NASA
scientists gathered information about melting
points and other properties of the various
materials that might be used. In many cases,
tests had to be performed to learn the
properties of new, recently created materials.
5. A hypothesis is a possible explanation for a
problem using what you know and what you
observe . NASA scientists knew that a
ceramic coating had been found to solve the
guided missile problem. They hypothesized
that a ceramic material also might work on
the space shuttle.
6. Some hypotheses can be tested by
making observations. Others can be
tested by building a model and relating
it to real-life situations. One common
way to test a hypothesis is to perform an
experiment. An experiment tests the
effect of one thing on another using
controlled conditions.
7. Open another window and go to the
following website.
http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/help/user_guide/
graph/variables.asp
Use this website to define the following
terms.
› Independent variable
› Dependent variable
8. Visit the websites below and read about
constants and the control group.
› http://www.monarchlab.org/mitc/Resources/StudentR
esearch/ScientificMethod.aspx
› http://www.ehow.com/info_8003575_constants-
controls-science-project-experiment.html
After reading from both sites, write a definition
for the terms below.
› Constant
› Control (or control group)
9. We will work on independent and dependent
variables, constants, and controls more
together in class!
10. An important part of every experiment includes
recording observations and organizing the data into
easy-to-read tables and graphs. In the next couple
of days, you will learn about ways to display data.
Interpreting the data and analyzing the
observations is an important step. If the data are
not organized in a logical manner, wrong
conclusions can be drawn. No matter how well a
scientist communicates and shares data, someone
else might not agree with the data. Scientists share
their data through reports, journals, and
conferences.
11. Based on the analysis of your data, you decided
whether or not your hypothesis is supported.
When lives are at stake, such as with the space
shuttle, you must be very sure of your results.
For the hypothesis to be considered valid and
widely accepted, the experiment must result in
the same data every time it is repeated. If your
experiment does not support your hypothesis,
you must reconsider the hypothesis. Perhaps it
needs to be revised or your experiment needs
to be conducted differently.