In this Q&A discussion, our Chief Executive Officer, Cecilia Polizzi, addressed crucial issues of concern. The topics explored included the growing online radicalization among children, an evaluation of the UK's Prevent program, and the challenges facing children within the Sahel region.

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Counter Terrorism, Radicalisation & Extremism
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CT Insight interviews Cecilia Polizzi, Founder & CEO of CRTG
Working Group, Human Rights Lawyer and Subject Matter Expert
in the recruitment and radicalisation of children by terrorist and
violent extremist groups.
Our conversation starts with the increasing reality of online radicalisation of children, the
recent review of Prevent, and then on to the global issue of exploitation of children by
terrorist and violent extremist groups.
CT Insight (CTI): In a recent interview with BBC Radio 4, Matt Jukes, the head of UK Counter
Terrorism Policing (CTP), said increasing numbers of teenagers were turning their online extremism
into active terror plots that could translate into violence on Britain’s streets. Figures released by
CTP showed that under-18s now accounted for one in five arrests by counter-terror police, a five-
fold increase since 2019.
What do you think has caused such a dramatic increase, not only in the number of juvenile arrests,
but also the number of referrals to the Prevent programme?
Cecilia Polizzi (CP): The surge in arrests and terrorism-related charges is reflective of the escalating
rate of child recruitment and use, radicalisation, mobilisation, or otherwise exploitation by terrorist
and violent extremist groups. Although the involvement of children with terrorism and violent
The Radicalisation and Recruitment game: How Terrorist and Violent Extremist
Groups Target Children
Sep 11, 2023 | Insight

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extremism appears most apparent in the context of jihadist insurgent movements, this is a key
manifestation across the ideological spectrum, including Islamist and right-wing extremist groups
alike. Children and young people present enhanced vulnerabilities compared to adults and become
targets of violent parties in view of the same. In addition, technological innovation provided
terrorist and violent extremist organisations heightened opportunities to operate in anonymity and
in a truly transnational way across the Internet, social media, gaming platforms, and the dark web,
among others, magnifying their reach in unprecedented ways. Children and youth also constitute a
significant demographic within the user base of the Internet and social media platforms. In fact,
recent statistics reveal that an estimated 71% of the global population in this age cohort may face
regular exposure to propaganda campaigns, radicalisation and/or recruitment risks.
A sole examination of referral data, however, fails to yield accurate insights into youth radicalisation
issues within the UK or other countries adopting the same mechanism. This limitation arises from
the fact that referrals and instances of radicalisation to violent extremism do not maintain a 1:1
ratio. Behaviours that may be symptomatic of radicalisation or structural and individual factors
commonly understood as precursors to radicalisation may also manifest in individuals who do not
present an ideological attachment, disposition, or readiness to undertake violent action. In addition,
there may exist a lack of consensus across different communities on what constitutes ‘extremist’ or
‘radical’ ideas or behaviour, resulting in a lack of coherence in reporting.
CTI: The Independent Reviewer of Prevent, William Shawcross, repeatedly referred to Islamist
Extremism as being the main threat to society, as “…the facts clearly demonstrate that the most
lethal threat (sic: to the UK) in the last 20 years has come from Islamism, and this threat continues”.
Do you think that this is an accurate reflection of the current situation in the UK, given that the
number of referrals to the Prevent programme related to concerns about extreme right-wing
radicalisation accounts for 20 per cent of all referrals – ahead of referrals for Islamist Extremism, for
the second year running.
Or is this an issue with the lack of an agreed understanding of what “Extreme Right Wing”
radicalisation actually is?
CP: Since the growth of terrorist movements and organisations in the Middle East during the 1980s
and 1990s, followed by the 9/11 attack and the Global War on Terror (GWOT), the term terrorism
has become synonymous with Islamic radicalism. At the same time, other forms of violent
extremism have been relatively neglected. In recent years, right-wing extremists have carried out
multiple large-scale terrorist attacks in various locations, including Christchurch, El Paso, Halle,
Hanau, Charlottesville, Buffalo, and the United States Capitol, among others. In the United States,
right-wing extremists have been responsible for more fatalities in violent attacks than any other
type of extremism. Across Europe, there has been a resurgence of militant right-wing extremist
groups, networks, and incidents, marked by a surge in anti-immigration and Islamophobic violence,
as well as anti-government attacks and assaults on political opponents, ethnic minorities, and the
LGBTQ community.
While jihadi extremism has represented a major threat to national security in the UK for the past 20
years and continues to remain prominent, this does not imply that other forms of violent extremism
are any less concerning or that threats are not diversifying and evolving. In 2019, the Joint
Terrorism Analysis Centre (JTAC) expanded its threat level assessment to include right-wing
extremism, and the threat to the UK has reported a gradual upward trajectory with several high-
profile incidents and convictions. Right-wing extremism is recognised under Prevent, including

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forms below the terrorism threshold. However, along with other reported data, an increase in
referrals for cases of right-wing extremism must also be accounted for. The pervasive focus on
violent jihadism has, in some instances over the past twenty years, obscured terror plots initiated or
carried out by right-wing extremists, diverted P/CVE program funding to address jihadi extremism
almost exclusively, and overall led to an underestimation of right-wing extremist threats. Tendencies
to conflate terrorism and violent extremism with jihadism alone may prove detrimental to security
and shall be recognised to adequately understand and address all forms and manifestations of
terrorism and violent extremism.
CTI: The global issue of exploitation of children by terrorist and extremist groups seems to be a
poorly understood crisis, which is affecting vulnerable children from all continents, and all walks of
life. Your organisation, The CRTG Working Group, is dedicated to addressing the involvement of
children with terrorism and violent extremism, globally, and seeks to improve understanding and
promote prevention and mitigation efforts.
Are there differences in the methods that terrorist and violent extremist groups use to go about
recruiting, and radicalising children, geographically? Say, for example, between the methods used in
Europe, and those used in the Middle East – in countries such as Syria, Iran and Lebanon?
Are there defining features that you can highlight between the continents of Europe, Africa and the
Middle East, and the USA, in terms of juvenile radicalisation?
CP: Terrorism and violent extremism emerge, among others, in relation to broader exogenous
factors, including armed conflict and political and social dynamics that are peculiar to a particular
country-level or regional setting. In addition, insurgent violent groups exploit existing conditions,
frailties, and vacuums to establish safe havens, operate, and advance their agenda, and these,
coupled with the fact that terrorism evolves with the countermeasures applied against it, lead to
various degrees of diversification regarding their modus operandi. As a result, while it may appear
reasonable that there is heterogeneity in the temperaments and behaviours punctuating the
recruitment and use of children, no standard operating procedure or overarching modality is found.
This is observable not only through an analysis of groups within the neo-jihadist movement per se
but also between jihadist and right-wing extremist actors. For instance, ISIL originally emerged from
the remnants of al-Qaeda in Iraq and as a local offshoot of the group, pledging allegiance and
officialising, at least at its inception, its intent to promote a mirroring ideology and strategy.
However, notable differences between these groups traditionally existed and extended beyond the
phenomenology of child recruitment and use. This is particularly evident regarding gender roles,
gender considerations, and child portrayal in the respective (IS/AQ) propaganda campaigns.
Profound and numerous degrees of diversification apply, therefore, within and across groups. It is
important to observe the context, socio-economic and political conditions, armed conflict dynamics
(if any), the doctrine, and countermeasures, among other factors.
A multitude of overlapping structural and individual factors, including but not limited to a lack of
socio-economic opportunities, marginalisation and discrimination, poor governance, violations of
human rights, individual motivations, and political ideologies, constitute pathways to radicalisation.
However, radicalisation, including youth radicalisation, is a personal, non-linear process that must
also be contextualized. In armed conflict and near-armed conflict scenarios or fragile states, a child
oftentimes becomes radicalised due to violent and forcible recruitment and indoctrination
processes. In instances in which the child may voluntarily decide to join a violent terrorist insurgent
group, this is in most cases to satisfy primary needs or the result of deceptive strategies rather than

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Image: Pierre Holtz UNICEF CAR
due to an ideological attachment. Non-armed conflict settings, and particularly instances of self-
radicalisation, lone-wolf terrorism, present a different outlook.
CTI: With the rapidly expanding number of armed, violent
conflicts in Africa – specifically the Sahel region – what
are your overriding concerns for the vulnerable, displaced
children, both in the short and long terms?
Is there a realistic threat that the likes of ISIS, ISWAP and
Al-Shabab will use these conflicts to further exploit, and
radicalise children in the region?
CP: The Sahel region faces many converging and complex
social, economic, political and security challenges. These
have further deteriorated due to recent events and are
likely to persist. Jihadist implantation in the Sahel can be
traced back to the end of the Algerian civil war, which
pitted security forces against Islamist armed groups. For
years, al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb used the Sahel as
a rear base to gather wealth, arms and local recruits and
this led jihadist actors to develop on a more Sahelian
basis. Subsequently, other insurgent groups emerged,
deepening, and expanding the threat landscape. For
years, several Sahelian governments as well as foreign
military forces sought to prevent and address rising levels
of terrorism. However, jihadists in the region have proven to be adaptable, and international and
regional responses failed to provide security. This in turn has hampered the efficacy of
interventions, the credibility of intervening parties, and emboldened terrorist groups, making the
Sahel increasingly violent. The region also presents some of the highest population growth,
significant increases in food insecurity, and widespread displacement. Children and young people
are confronted with a complex, changing, and dangerous environment, which affects not only the
way they define threats and challenges but also their exposure to violent extremism. The weakened
capacity of central authorities to deliver essential public services and security in vast areas has
historically created vacuums and new opportunities for criminal, predatory, and violent actors. The
existing risks for children and young people with respect to both child protection and security are
likely to worsen in the current scenario.
CTI: What more can international governments, aid agencies and NGOs do to improve
understanding of this crisis, and to mitigate against further escalation of it?
CP: It depends on the specific country within the Sahel region under observation. Nevertheless,
these scenarios are rapidly evolving, characterised by high levels of instability and insecurity across
various dimensions, including political, social, and economic. In some instances, the capacity to
operate, and provide assistance is at its minimum.
Cecilia Polizzi is a human rights lawyer, C-suite executive, SME, and scholar with more than fourteen
years of experience in human rights, criminal and juvenile justice, and other spheres of law, including
specific issues connected to matters of international security, counterterrorism, and P/CVE. Polizzi is

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an international expert in the modus operandi of violent extremist
organizations, with a high degree of
specialization in Salafi-jihadist actors, and widely recognized as the foremost
industry leader on the
recruitment, use, and radicalization of children by terrorist organizations. For
over a decade, she has
been at the forefront of international efforts to reshape paradigms and
understanding regarding the
involvement of children in terrorism.
You can contact Cecilia at: polizzi@crtgroup.org
← Home Office publishes renewed guidance for Prevent Duty

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