This document summarizes meteorological data from Port Harcourt, Nigeria from 2001-2010. Some key findings:
- Port Harcourt has a rainy season from 9-10 months per year and average annual rainfall of over 185mm.
- Maximum annual evaporation was 148mm and average annual evaporation was 102mm.
- The area has shallow aquifers from 15-30m depth that are highly rechargeable by rainfall.
- Despite available water resources, there is currently insufficient potable water supply to meet demand.
Cambodia Groundwater Irrigation - Exec SummaryMichael Roberts
This document summarizes a thesis on the physical and socioeconomic impacts of groundwater irrigation in Cambodia's Mekong Delta region. Physical investigations found that increased pumping is lowering the water table and could lead to saltwater contamination if not managed properly. Socioeconomic studies show groundwater irrigation benefits wealthy farmers most and may harm poorer communities as water tables decline. The author recommends controlling groundwater use, preparing for lower water tables, and further monitoring and research.
This document discusses key factors for watershed planning and management. It identifies important watershed characteristics that should be considered, including: climate, geology/physiography, soils, land use/cover, hydrology, and socioeconomic conditions. Specifically, it outlines how the watershed's size, shape, slope, drainage patterns, soil types, vegetation cover, and climatic factors like rainfall amounts can impact hydrologic processes and management approaches. The document also notes that understanding the local social conditions, land use practices, and water resources is crucial for effective watershed planning.
This document discusses floods, including their characteristics, causes, impacts, and mitigation measures. It defines a flood as an overflow of water onto dry land. Flooding can be triggered by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or dam/levee breaks. Impacts include property damage, loss of life, and environmental contamination. Mitigation approaches include both structural methods like levees and non-structural methods like floodplain zoning and education. Overall, the document provides a broad overview of floods and strategies for reducing their harmful effects.
The International Journal of Engineering and Sciencetheijes
This document summarizes a paper that assesses groundwater potential through water balance techniques. It describes methodologies for understanding groundwater balance components like recharge and discharge. The key steps are:
1) Define the study area, typically a watershed or "doab" bounded by streams.
2) Quantify the inputs and outputs in the groundwater balance equation over time. The equation accounts for recharge from rainfall, irrigation, canals and more, and discharge from evapotranspiration, pumping, and flows to surface water.
3) Estimate individual components like recharge and storage change to assess the groundwater potential and how it may change with human and climatic factors. Understanding the aquifer
This document discusses flooding, its causes and types, flood management measures, and methods for estimating design floods. It provides definitions and examples of different types of flooding such as river flooding, flash floods, urban flooding, and flooding from dam failures. Both structural and non-structural flood management measures are described, including embankments, reservoirs, forecasting, and zoning. Methods for estimating design floods include analyzing historical flood data, rainfall-runoff modeling, and storm studies using unit hydrographs. Accurately estimating design floods is important for safely designing hydraulic structures.
Assessment of groundwater potentials of the crystalline aquifers using hydra...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the groundwater potentials of crystalline aquifers in Gidanwaya Town and its environs in southern Kaduna State, Nigeria. Pumping test data from 25 boreholes was used to evaluate the hydraulic properties of the aquifers derived from crystalline basement rocks in the area. Transmissivity values ranged from 1.16x10-1 to 9.76x10-3 m2/s, indicating high to very high groundwater potentials. Hydraulic conductivity values ranged from 1.12x10-2 to 9.24x10-3 m/s. Specific capacity values ranged from 1.00x10-1 to 9.95x10-
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Floods occur when heavy rainfall or melting snow causes river channels and basins to exceed their carrying capacity. They can be exacerbated by human activities like urbanization and deforestation. Around 12% of India's land is flood-prone, particularly areas in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and peninsular river basins. Flash floods occur in mountainous areas from intense rainfall, while riverine floods result from precipitation over large areas. Floods cause damage to property and infrastructure, loss of life, and waterborne diseases. They also negatively impact agriculture and long-term economic development.
Cambodia Groundwater Irrigation - Exec SummaryMichael Roberts
This document summarizes a thesis on the physical and socioeconomic impacts of groundwater irrigation in Cambodia's Mekong Delta region. Physical investigations found that increased pumping is lowering the water table and could lead to saltwater contamination if not managed properly. Socioeconomic studies show groundwater irrigation benefits wealthy farmers most and may harm poorer communities as water tables decline. The author recommends controlling groundwater use, preparing for lower water tables, and further monitoring and research.
This document discusses key factors for watershed planning and management. It identifies important watershed characteristics that should be considered, including: climate, geology/physiography, soils, land use/cover, hydrology, and socioeconomic conditions. Specifically, it outlines how the watershed's size, shape, slope, drainage patterns, soil types, vegetation cover, and climatic factors like rainfall amounts can impact hydrologic processes and management approaches. The document also notes that understanding the local social conditions, land use practices, and water resources is crucial for effective watershed planning.
This document discusses floods, including their characteristics, causes, impacts, and mitigation measures. It defines a flood as an overflow of water onto dry land. Flooding can be triggered by heavy rainfall, snowmelt, or dam/levee breaks. Impacts include property damage, loss of life, and environmental contamination. Mitigation approaches include both structural methods like levees and non-structural methods like floodplain zoning and education. Overall, the document provides a broad overview of floods and strategies for reducing their harmful effects.
The International Journal of Engineering and Sciencetheijes
This document summarizes a paper that assesses groundwater potential through water balance techniques. It describes methodologies for understanding groundwater balance components like recharge and discharge. The key steps are:
1) Define the study area, typically a watershed or "doab" bounded by streams.
2) Quantify the inputs and outputs in the groundwater balance equation over time. The equation accounts for recharge from rainfall, irrigation, canals and more, and discharge from evapotranspiration, pumping, and flows to surface water.
3) Estimate individual components like recharge and storage change to assess the groundwater potential and how it may change with human and climatic factors. Understanding the aquifer
This document discusses flooding, its causes and types, flood management measures, and methods for estimating design floods. It provides definitions and examples of different types of flooding such as river flooding, flash floods, urban flooding, and flooding from dam failures. Both structural and non-structural flood management measures are described, including embankments, reservoirs, forecasting, and zoning. Methods for estimating design floods include analyzing historical flood data, rainfall-runoff modeling, and storm studies using unit hydrographs. Accurately estimating design floods is important for safely designing hydraulic structures.
Assessment of groundwater potentials of the crystalline aquifers using hydra...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that assessed the groundwater potentials of crystalline aquifers in Gidanwaya Town and its environs in southern Kaduna State, Nigeria. Pumping test data from 25 boreholes was used to evaluate the hydraulic properties of the aquifers derived from crystalline basement rocks in the area. Transmissivity values ranged from 1.16x10-1 to 9.76x10-3 m2/s, indicating high to very high groundwater potentials. Hydraulic conductivity values ranged from 1.12x10-2 to 9.24x10-3 m/s. Specific capacity values ranged from 1.00x10-1 to 9.95x10-
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
Floods occur when heavy rainfall or melting snow causes river channels and basins to exceed their carrying capacity. They can be exacerbated by human activities like urbanization and deforestation. Around 12% of India's land is flood-prone, particularly areas in the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and peninsular river basins. Flash floods occur in mountainous areas from intense rainfall, while riverine floods result from precipitation over large areas. Floods cause damage to property and infrastructure, loss of life, and waterborne diseases. They also negatively impact agriculture and long-term economic development.
Flood management strategies aim to protect people and property from flood impacts, reduce flood risk, and monitor floods through various methods. Hard engineering methods use structural approaches like dams and levees. Soft engineering employs river basin management techniques such as floodplain zoning and restoration. The document outlines key flood management strategies used worldwide and their purposes.
Floods are a major problem in India, affecting over 40 million hectares or 12% of the country's land area. This seminar discusses the causes of floods, their impacts, flood-prone areas in India, methods for selecting a design flood, and techniques for flood control including reservoirs, levees, flood walls, river channel improvements, floodways, watershed management, cutoff channels, and flood plain zoning. The key methods for flood control are reservoirs to store floodwater, levees and flood walls to contain floods, and improving river channels to increase conveyance of flood flows.
This document provides an overview of flood causes, types, effects, and management in India. It discusses various structural and non-structural flood control measures used in the country. The key causes of flooding include heavy rainfall, snowmelt, wind, tidal effects, and infrastructure failures. Floods are classified based on duration as flash floods, slow-onset floods, and rapid-onset floods. They are also classified based on location as coastal, riverine, urban and other types of floods. Flood management involves both structural measures like dams, reservoirs, flood walls and non-structural measures like flood plain zoning, flood proofing and disaster relief. India is highly vulnerable to flooding due to the monsoon climate and flooding has increased
Scientific water resources allocation is key to maintaining a healthy Yellow River. GWP China plans to:
1) Influence the rational water resources allocation mechanism and coordinate water rights trading.
2) Set up platforms for dialogue and capacity building between stakeholders and invite research institutions to establish assessment systems.
3) Facilitate agreement on water allocation quotas between the 9 provinces in the Yellow River basin.
The ultimate goal is to contribute to the health of the Yellow River through scientifically set water allocation quotas.
Water Supply Issues in Tennessee TACIR June 2008Ken Belliveau
This document summarizes water supply issues in Tennessee, including the 2007 drought, growing water needs due to population growth, and challenges in water management. It describes how water allocation is divided among state and federal agencies, including the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, Tennessee Valley Authority, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, as well as local utilities. The document examines options to address water needs, such as linking more communities to the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.
This document provides an overview of a regional meeting on water issues in the Mediterranean basin that was held in Nicosia, North Cyprus from October 9-11, 2008. Over 150 scientists from 44 countries participated in the meeting and discussed water-related problems in the region across four main topics and various subtopics. The meeting included paper presentations, roundtable discussions, and a final plenary session to summarize findings. The goal of the meeting was to contribute to worldwide efforts to address water challenges in the Mediterranean region through cooperation and knowledge sharing.
The hydrological rate of flow of the watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam depends on its morphometric and geological features as well as its precipitation.The watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam is part of the coastal watersheds in the central-east of Tunisia. It is the only watershed which is not affected by hydraulic constructions such as dams. Besides, it features a surface area that extends to 204 km2 and a high recorded rainfall. To determine the hydrological rate of flow of the watershed, we had to identify its geological and morphometric characteristics, and gauge the flow of Lake Laya El Hammam. The final results have allowed us to identify: the general aspect of the flow of water in the watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam, the relationship lake/ sheet and the importance of gauging in Eastimating the rate of flow of water during periods marked by lack of rain.
1. A river regime shows the annual variation in a river's flow and is largely determined by climate. A flood hydrograph depicts short-term changes in discharge during storms, showing how quickly water levels rise and fall.
2. Key factors that influence hydrographs include rainfall intensity, soil moisture levels, slope, land use, and drainage infrastructure. High intensity rain on saturated ground produces rapid runoff and higher peak flows. Urban development generally increases peak flows and decreases response times.
3. Vegetation and permeable surfaces help absorb rainfall and reduce overland flow, while impermeable surfaces and lack of vegetation have the opposite effect. Drainage infrastructure can increase peak flows and decrease response times by quickly channeling water
Water Resource Engineering - reportingVillyLagpao1
This document discusses water resource engineering. It covers topics like hydraulics for rivers, hydrology for rivers, and maritime hydraulics. Water resource engineering involves supplying water for human use and developing techniques to prevent flooding and remove excess water. Example projects discussed include farm irrigation systems, water treatment plants, wastewater treatment plants, and drainage systems. The document emphasizes that water resource engineering ensures a continuous supply of clean water for drinking and living through the design, construction, and maintenance of water management systems.
In Hong Kong, studying Geography is categorized as useless because the culture of British Meritocracy here stresses the achievements of business studies. However, if going back to Mainland China or having a travel to either the US or Australia, you will find that your knowledge on Geography is very useful because the ruling regimes there greatly acknowledge the elites who graduated from the field of Agricultural Research.
Cynical people without a longsighted vision use to criticize that my Master Degree of China Studies is something too abstract because they use to be British-Hong Kong colonial debrises. However, they never know that, during my two-year research life in this academic department, I did render some challenging topics including the river-management and dam-construction issues of Mainland China. Just like what Mr. Tung Chee-hwa said in 2014 during a press conference: "Our country is rapidly growing up as a strong economic power. To my greatest disappointment, Hong Kong people still lack a long-sighted vision, and they are unwilling to change their perceptions." So, such group of people will never understand the scholastic efforts I have input in this holistic social-science learning experience.
Discovery of Perched Aquifer When Assessing Aquifer Potential along the flood...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
The document discusses the Indus River watershed and the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan. It provides background on the watershed and then summarizes the key points of the treaty, including:
1) The treaty divided control of the Indus river system between the two countries, giving the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan.
2) It was brokered by the World Bank in 1960 to resolve disputes over sharing the river's waters.
3) The treaty allowed India to build projects on western rivers subject to constraints to ensure Pakistan's interests, but disputes have arisen such as over the Baglihar and Kishanganga projects.
4) Critics argue the
Climate change will have significant negative impacts on Bangladesh through increased flooding, droughts, and salinity intrusion. Flooding will increase in extent and frequency due to rising sea levels and heavier monsoon rains, damaging crops, aquaculture, and settlements. Droughts will also become more severe and affect a larger area due to increased evapotranspiration and reduced winter rainfall. Low flows during the dry season will allow salinity to penetrate further inland, affecting crops and the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Other impacts include threats to human health from the increased spread of diseases like malaria and dengue.
The document discusses urban flooding in the Chandbarh and Shakti Nagar areas of Bhopal, India. It analyzes the causes of flooding in Chandbarh, which has narrow streets and drainage canals, dense population, and little green space. In contrast, Shakti Nagar has wider streets, planned development, trees along roads, and parks, resulting in less flooding. The document then provides seven potential solutions to reduce urban flooding, including preserving forests and wetlands, installing green and blue roofs, building tree trenches and bioswales, using permeable pavement, and collecting rainwater in barrels or cisterns. All solutions require regular maintenance to function properly over the long term.
Water Resources Survey, Resources in India and TamilNadu, WaterResources Planning, Estimation of Water for Irrigation and Drinking, Reservoirs, Strategies for reservoir operation, Design Flood and Levees and Flood walls
Seawater Intrusion Vulnerability Assessment of a Coastal Aquifer: North Coast...IJERA Editor
This document assesses the vulnerability of the coastal aquifer in the north coast of Mombasa, Kenya to seawater intrusion. It uses the GALDIT index overlay method with GIS to analyze six factors that influence seawater intrusion: groundwater occurrence, aquifer hydraulic conductivity, groundwater depth above sea level, distance from shore, existing status of seawater intrusion, and aquifer thickness. Vulnerability maps were created for the pre-rainy and peak rainy seasons. The results showed an increase in low vulnerability areas and slight increase in high vulnerability areas between seasons. The study provides insights to effectively manage groundwater resources in the area.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes an operating strategy for a grid-connected hybrid power system consisting of a photovoltaic array and proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The strategy determines the control mode (unit power control or feeder flow control) and reference power values. In unit power control mode, the reference power is set such that the PV array operates at maximum power and the fuel cell operates within its high efficiency band. The reference power is increased incrementally as PV output increases beyond certain thresholds to maintain these constraints. The strategy aims to improve system performance and stability while minimizing the number of control mode changes.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Flood management strategies aim to protect people and property from flood impacts, reduce flood risk, and monitor floods through various methods. Hard engineering methods use structural approaches like dams and levees. Soft engineering employs river basin management techniques such as floodplain zoning and restoration. The document outlines key flood management strategies used worldwide and their purposes.
Floods are a major problem in India, affecting over 40 million hectares or 12% of the country's land area. This seminar discusses the causes of floods, their impacts, flood-prone areas in India, methods for selecting a design flood, and techniques for flood control including reservoirs, levees, flood walls, river channel improvements, floodways, watershed management, cutoff channels, and flood plain zoning. The key methods for flood control are reservoirs to store floodwater, levees and flood walls to contain floods, and improving river channels to increase conveyance of flood flows.
This document provides an overview of flood causes, types, effects, and management in India. It discusses various structural and non-structural flood control measures used in the country. The key causes of flooding include heavy rainfall, snowmelt, wind, tidal effects, and infrastructure failures. Floods are classified based on duration as flash floods, slow-onset floods, and rapid-onset floods. They are also classified based on location as coastal, riverine, urban and other types of floods. Flood management involves both structural measures like dams, reservoirs, flood walls and non-structural measures like flood plain zoning, flood proofing and disaster relief. India is highly vulnerable to flooding due to the monsoon climate and flooding has increased
Scientific water resources allocation is key to maintaining a healthy Yellow River. GWP China plans to:
1) Influence the rational water resources allocation mechanism and coordinate water rights trading.
2) Set up platforms for dialogue and capacity building between stakeholders and invite research institutions to establish assessment systems.
3) Facilitate agreement on water allocation quotas between the 9 provinces in the Yellow River basin.
The ultimate goal is to contribute to the health of the Yellow River through scientifically set water allocation quotas.
Water Supply Issues in Tennessee TACIR June 2008Ken Belliveau
This document summarizes water supply issues in Tennessee, including the 2007 drought, growing water needs due to population growth, and challenges in water management. It describes how water allocation is divided among state and federal agencies, including the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation, Tennessee Valley Authority, and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, as well as local utilities. The document examines options to address water needs, such as linking more communities to the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers.
This document provides an overview of a regional meeting on water issues in the Mediterranean basin that was held in Nicosia, North Cyprus from October 9-11, 2008. Over 150 scientists from 44 countries participated in the meeting and discussed water-related problems in the region across four main topics and various subtopics. The meeting included paper presentations, roundtable discussions, and a final plenary session to summarize findings. The goal of the meeting was to contribute to worldwide efforts to address water challenges in the Mediterranean region through cooperation and knowledge sharing.
The hydrological rate of flow of the watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam depends on its morphometric and geological features as well as its precipitation.The watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam is part of the coastal watersheds in the central-east of Tunisia. It is the only watershed which is not affected by hydraulic constructions such as dams. Besides, it features a surface area that extends to 204 km2 and a high recorded rainfall. To determine the hydrological rate of flow of the watershed, we had to identify its geological and morphometric characteristics, and gauge the flow of Lake Laya El Hammam. The final results have allowed us to identify: the general aspect of the flow of water in the watershed of Lake Laya El Hammam, the relationship lake/ sheet and the importance of gauging in Eastimating the rate of flow of water during periods marked by lack of rain.
1. A river regime shows the annual variation in a river's flow and is largely determined by climate. A flood hydrograph depicts short-term changes in discharge during storms, showing how quickly water levels rise and fall.
2. Key factors that influence hydrographs include rainfall intensity, soil moisture levels, slope, land use, and drainage infrastructure. High intensity rain on saturated ground produces rapid runoff and higher peak flows. Urban development generally increases peak flows and decreases response times.
3. Vegetation and permeable surfaces help absorb rainfall and reduce overland flow, while impermeable surfaces and lack of vegetation have the opposite effect. Drainage infrastructure can increase peak flows and decrease response times by quickly channeling water
Water Resource Engineering - reportingVillyLagpao1
This document discusses water resource engineering. It covers topics like hydraulics for rivers, hydrology for rivers, and maritime hydraulics. Water resource engineering involves supplying water for human use and developing techniques to prevent flooding and remove excess water. Example projects discussed include farm irrigation systems, water treatment plants, wastewater treatment plants, and drainage systems. The document emphasizes that water resource engineering ensures a continuous supply of clean water for drinking and living through the design, construction, and maintenance of water management systems.
In Hong Kong, studying Geography is categorized as useless because the culture of British Meritocracy here stresses the achievements of business studies. However, if going back to Mainland China or having a travel to either the US or Australia, you will find that your knowledge on Geography is very useful because the ruling regimes there greatly acknowledge the elites who graduated from the field of Agricultural Research.
Cynical people without a longsighted vision use to criticize that my Master Degree of China Studies is something too abstract because they use to be British-Hong Kong colonial debrises. However, they never know that, during my two-year research life in this academic department, I did render some challenging topics including the river-management and dam-construction issues of Mainland China. Just like what Mr. Tung Chee-hwa said in 2014 during a press conference: "Our country is rapidly growing up as a strong economic power. To my greatest disappointment, Hong Kong people still lack a long-sighted vision, and they are unwilling to change their perceptions." So, such group of people will never understand the scholastic efforts I have input in this holistic social-science learning experience.
Discovery of Perched Aquifer When Assessing Aquifer Potential along the flood...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The document provides an overview of water resources management and hydrology. It discusses the goals of understanding hydrologic processes and solving water-related problems. Key topics covered include the water cycle, what hydrologists study and do, examples of ancient hydrologic history like the Nile River, major global water usage, water scarcity issues, and the shrinking of the Aral Sea as an example of poor water management.
The document discusses the Indus River watershed and the Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan. It provides background on the watershed and then summarizes the key points of the treaty, including:
1) The treaty divided control of the Indus river system between the two countries, giving the eastern rivers to India and the western rivers to Pakistan.
2) It was brokered by the World Bank in 1960 to resolve disputes over sharing the river's waters.
3) The treaty allowed India to build projects on western rivers subject to constraints to ensure Pakistan's interests, but disputes have arisen such as over the Baglihar and Kishanganga projects.
4) Critics argue the
Climate change will have significant negative impacts on Bangladesh through increased flooding, droughts, and salinity intrusion. Flooding will increase in extent and frequency due to rising sea levels and heavier monsoon rains, damaging crops, aquaculture, and settlements. Droughts will also become more severe and affect a larger area due to increased evapotranspiration and reduced winter rainfall. Low flows during the dry season will allow salinity to penetrate further inland, affecting crops and the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Other impacts include threats to human health from the increased spread of diseases like malaria and dengue.
The document discusses urban flooding in the Chandbarh and Shakti Nagar areas of Bhopal, India. It analyzes the causes of flooding in Chandbarh, which has narrow streets and drainage canals, dense population, and little green space. In contrast, Shakti Nagar has wider streets, planned development, trees along roads, and parks, resulting in less flooding. The document then provides seven potential solutions to reduce urban flooding, including preserving forests and wetlands, installing green and blue roofs, building tree trenches and bioswales, using permeable pavement, and collecting rainwater in barrels or cisterns. All solutions require regular maintenance to function properly over the long term.
Water Resources Survey, Resources in India and TamilNadu, WaterResources Planning, Estimation of Water for Irrigation and Drinking, Reservoirs, Strategies for reservoir operation, Design Flood and Levees and Flood walls
Seawater Intrusion Vulnerability Assessment of a Coastal Aquifer: North Coast...IJERA Editor
This document assesses the vulnerability of the coastal aquifer in the north coast of Mombasa, Kenya to seawater intrusion. It uses the GALDIT index overlay method with GIS to analyze six factors that influence seawater intrusion: groundwater occurrence, aquifer hydraulic conductivity, groundwater depth above sea level, distance from shore, existing status of seawater intrusion, and aquifer thickness. Vulnerability maps were created for the pre-rainy and peak rainy seasons. The results showed an increase in low vulnerability areas and slight increase in high vulnerability areas between seasons. The study provides insights to effectively manage groundwater resources in the area.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes an operating strategy for a grid-connected hybrid power system consisting of a photovoltaic array and proton exchange membrane fuel cell. The strategy determines the control mode (unit power control or feeder flow control) and reference power values. In unit power control mode, the reference power is set such that the PV array operates at maximum power and the fuel cell operates within its high efficiency band. The reference power is increased incrementally as PV output increases beyond certain thresholds to maintain these constraints. The strategy aims to improve system performance and stability while minimizing the number of control mode changes.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes a research paper that reviews techniques for optimal design and placement of pilot symbols for channel estimation in OFDM systems operating under rapidly time-varying channels. It discusses how particle swarm optimization, the Cramér–Rao Bound, and Bayesian Cramér–Rao Bound techniques are commonly used to optimize pilot sequence design to improve channel estimation performance and reduce intercarrier interference. Grouping pilot tones into clusters rather than evenly spacing each pilot tone can provide better channel estimation against doubly selective channels. The optimal clustered pilot sequence is derived using maximum likelihood estimation and is independent of signal-to-noise ratio or Doppler rate.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document discusses the influence of welding conditions on the mechanical properties of welded joints of 9% nickel steel used for liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanks. Specifically, it examines the effect of heat input between 1.4-2 Kj/mm and controlling interpass temperature below 80°C on the tensile strength and toughness of the welded joints. The study found that these welding parameters improved the strength and reduced the probability of brittle fracture in the welded joints of thin 9% nickel steel specimens. Controlling heat input and temperature during welding is important for maintaining the desired microstructure and mechanical properties of the welded joints.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes a research study on the effects of blanching water temperature and soaking time on the quality attributes of yam flour. Fresh yam tubers were blanched at temperatures of 40, 50, and 60°C and soaked for 12, 24, and 48 hours. The yam flour was then analyzed for physical and proximate qualities. Results showed that blanching temperature and soaking time significantly affected moisture content, protein, carbohydrates, bulk density, swelling capacity, foaming capacity, and water absorption capacity. The best combination for quality was 40°C blanching temperature and 12 hours soaking time.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes a study that used leaf epidermal analysis to identify 10 sterile species of the genus Strychnos collected from the Oban Forest in Nigeria. The researchers examined 36 morphological and anatomical characters of the leaf epidermis. Principal component analysis revealed that epidermal cell number, length, width, trichome number, stomata number and indices were the major distinguishing features. Cluster analysis grouped the species into 3 clusters corresponding to sections within the Strychnos genus. Leaf epidermal analysis proved useful for identifying these sterile species and delimiting populations, which has implications for their use in herbal medicine and conservation efforts.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
This document summarizes a research paper on the impacts of information technology in a cashless economy in Nigeria. It presents findings from a study that examined people's use of different direct debit devices like ATMs, POS, mobile banking, and online banking. The study found that ATMs were used the most while POS was used the least. Usage varied by gender, occupation, and age group, but overall people were embracing cashless payment options. The document recommends continued awareness campaigns, adequate infrastructure, affordable fees, economic growth, and fair competition to sustain Nigeria's cashless banking policy.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Characterization and quantitative indicators of ground water quality in okrik...IJSIT Editor
This document summarizes a study that characterized groundwater quality in Okrika, Rivers State, Nigeria. Water samples were collected from boreholes and analyzed for various physicochemical parameters. The results found that groundwater pH ranged from weakly acidic to alkaline. Total dissolved solids and chloride levels exceeded standards at some locations, indicating potential saltwater intrusion issues. Overall, the study concluded that while some locations had elevated parameters, the groundwater in the area was generally suitable for domestic and agricultural use when compared to international standards. Continued monitoring was recommended to protect the aquifers from pollution and identify any future water quality degradation.
IRJET- Water Resources Planning and the Hydrologic CycleIRJET Journal
1) Water is essential for life but only a small percentage of Earth's total water is available freshwater. Sustainable management of water resources is important for development.
2) The hydrologic cycle describes how water circulates between the atmosphere and Earth's surface in different states as it evaporates, condenses, precipitates, and collects or infiltrates into the ground.
3) At the regional scale, river basins are a key unit for studying hydrology as they represent areas where all precipitation and runoff drains to a common point such as a river mouth. Understanding the hydrologic cycle and its processes within river basins is important for water planning.
An Overview of Eritrea’s Water ResourcesIJERDJOURNAL
Abstract: Water is central to national development that includes many challenges in the vital sectors such as food, energy, health and economic development. Cognizant of this fact, the government and people of Eritrea have been diligently working towards developing the water resources sector. Policies pertaining to water resources, food security, environment, and water and drought calamities mitigation were formulated and being put into effect. Remarkable achievements made on water conservation and safe and adequate water supply coverage by Eritrea can be considered as an important milestone. However, frequent assessment of water resources potentials at different levels of the country is an aspect that is fundamental to effective water resources development and management. Past literature on this subject showed that large scale studies have not been carried out and small scale studies were limited in scope towards the national perspective. Therefore, the above lacuna calls for investigating if the present water management practices are adequate to meet the challenges and the institutional framework is comprehensive to support the system. This paper attempts to review the country’s water resources status and education system. The review is primarily directed towards a feasibility study entitled “Establishment of National Water Technology Institute (NWTI)” conducted in 2013. The report included a summary of relevant documents from different sectors. Major contributions of this include reports of the Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE), the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), consultation of experts and visits to selected sites by the study team. Findings from this review emphasised on the need for some fundamental and pre-emptive changes to be introduced in the management of the national water systems as well as establishment of a well organized National Water Technology Institute to carry out training, research, outreach and consultancy works.
IRJET- Water Quality Analysis of Aghanashini Estuary,Karnataka –A Case StudyIRJET Journal
The document analyzes water quality parameters of the Aghanashini Estuary in Karnataka, India over two sampling periods. Water samples were collected from four stations in the estuary and analyzed for 10 physicochemical parameters including pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, chlorides, nitrates, and hardness. The results show higher concentrations of chlorides, EC, TDS, nitrates and hardness in the pre-monsoon season compared to standards, likely due to increased intrusion of seawater during low river flow. The water quality indicates potential for irrigation use with treatment. Further analysis of conveying estuary water to nearby Bengaluru city for water supply is discussed.
A PROJECT REPORT ON RAINWATER HARVESTING ATKayla Smith
The document is a project report on rainwater harvesting at Lingaya's University in Faridabad, India. It discusses setting up a rainwater harvesting system to collect rainwater from the rooftops of nine buildings on the university campus and store it in an underground recharge well for future use, as groundwater levels are declining in the area. It provides background on the need for rainwater harvesting in India given increasing water demand and declining supplies, and discusses the components and design of the proposed system at the university.
Malaysia; Global Warming and Rain Water HarvestingV9X
1) Climate change and global warming have led to rising temperatures, sea levels, and extreme weather events like floods and droughts around the world according to the IPCC.
2) An estimated 700 million people currently live in water-stressed areas, and that number is projected to rise to over 3 billion by 2025 as populations grow and weather patterns change.
3) Rainwater harvesting techniques can help balance the water cycle, provide local water sources, and mitigate problems from extreme weather by retaining more rainfall on land through watershed management and rooftop collection systems.
The three main ways to store water discussed in the document are groundwater storage, small reservoir storage, and large reservoir storage behind dams. Each has comparative advantages and limitations. Groundwater storage has low evaporation loss and is available on demand but recharge is slow and contamination can be an issue. Small reservoirs are responsive to rainfall with low unit costs but have high evaporation losses and lack carryover storage. Large reservoirs provide large, reliable yields with flood control and hydropower benefits but require complex operations and management and have high upfront costs and potential environmental and social impacts. An integrated approach combining all three storage methods can achieve substantial gains.
46 S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N A u g u s t 2 0 0 8.docxgilbertkpeters11344
46 S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N A u g u s t 2 0 0 8
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A friend of mine lives in a middle-class neighborhood of New Delhi, one of the richest cities in India. Although the area
gets a fair amount of rain every year, he wakes
in the morning to the blare of a megaphone an-
nouncing that freshwater will be available only
for the next hour. He rushes to fill the bathtub
and other receptacles to last the day. New Del-
hi’s endemic shortfalls occur largely because wa-
ter managers decided some years back to divert
large amounts from upstream rivers and reser-
voirs to irrigate crops.
My son, who lives in arid Phoenix, arises to
the low, schussing sounds of sprinklers watering
verdant suburban lawns and golf courses.
Although Phoenix sits amid the Sonoran Desert,
he enjoys a virtually unlimited water supply. Pol-
iticians there have allowed irrigation water to be
shifted away from farming operations to cities
and suburbs, while permitting recycled waste-
water to be employed for landscaping and other
nonpotable applications.
As in New Delhi and Phoenix, policymakers
worldwide wield great power over how water
resources are managed. Wise use of such power
will become increasingly important as the years
go by because the world’s demand for freshwa-
ter is currently overtaking its ready supply in
many places, and this situation shows no sign of
abating. That the problem is well-known makes
it no less disturbing: today one out of six people,
more than a billion, suffer inadequate access to
safe freshwater. By 2025, according to data
released by the United Nations, the freshwater
resources of more than half the countries across
the globe will undergo either stress—for exam-
ple, when people increasingly demand more
water than is available or safe for use— or out-
right shortages. By midcentury as much as three
quarters of the earth’s population could face
scarcities of freshwater.
Scientists expect water scarcity to become
more common in large part because the world’s
population is rising and many people are getting
richer (thus expanding demand) and because
global climate change is exacerbating aridity
and reducing supply in many regions. What is
more, many water sources are threatened by
faulty waste disposal, releases of industrial pol-
lutants, fertilizer runoff and coastal influxes of
saltwater into aquifers as groundwater is deplet-
ed. Because lack of access to water can lead to
starvation, disease, political instability and
even armed conflict, failure to take action can
have broad and grave consequences.
Fortunately, to a great extent, the technolo-
gies and policy tools required to conserve exist-
KEY CONCEPTS
n Global freshwater resourc-
es are threatened by rising
demands from many quar-
ters. Growing populations
need ever more water for
drinking, hygiene, sanita-
tion, food production and
industry. Climate change,
meanwhile, is expected to
contribute to.
This document summarizes a seminar presentation about abstracted groundwater use and the effects of overdrafting. The presentation covered:
- Nigeria's hydrogeology and why groundwater is preferred over surface water.
- Common groundwater uses including agriculture, municipal, and industry.
- Effects of overdrafting like declining well yields, ecological impacts, flooding hazards, and land subsidence.
- The need for groundwater mapping, sustainable management policies, and alternative sources like desalination to prevent overdrafting issues.
Chapter 1.pptx:INTRODUCTION TO HYDROLOGYmulugeta48
For knowing the sources of water in an area.
For knowing quality and quantity of water in an area.
For distribution of river water for full filling of different
area`s forming needs.
Tremendous importance is given to the hydrology all over
the world in the development and management of water
resources for irrigation, water supply, flood control, waterlogging
and salinity control, Hydro power and navigation.
The maximum probable flood that may occur at a given site
and its frequency; this is required for the safe design of
drains and culverts, dams and reservoirs, channels and other
flood control structures.
is fundamental to the functioning of the Earth as it recycles water, and has a role in modifying and regulating the Earth's climate.
The document summarizes a study on variations in groundwater flow potential in parts of Imo State, Nigeria. Ten boreholes across the study area underlain by the Benin Formation were investigated. Transmissivity values, which indicate groundwater flow potential, ranged from 311.04 to 388,800 m2/day. The highest potential was at Futo borehole, while the lowest was at Uratta. The study area was segmented into areas of moderate and high potential. Areas with lower hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity values generally had moderate potential, while others with higher values had high potential. The groundwater flow potential model shows potential increases from north to south. The transmissivity values obtained can support sustainable groundwater
IRJET- Hydrogeochemistry and Environmental Implication of Periyar River S...IRJET Journal
This document summarizes a study on the hydrogeochemistry and environmental implications of the Periyar River in southern Western Ghats, India after severe flooding in 2018. The study analyzed water and soil samples from different areas in the Periyar River basin to understand changes caused by the flood. Water samples were tested for various chemical parameters and compared to WHO and BIS standards. Soil samples were analyzed to determine Loss on Ignition (LOI) and composition through X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). The results provide insight into the current water quality and soil composition/properties in the river basin following major flooding.
1. Water harvesting techniques are essential for improving crop production in the semi-arid zone of North Darfur State, Sudan due to low and erratic rainfall.
2. Common techniques used include flood diversion canals, hafirs (earth dams) for collecting floodwater, microcatchments, and introduced water spreading. These improve soil water retention and groundwater recharge.
3. Studies have shown improved yields with higher biomass and nutrients from expanded water availability, though native species may be replaced and conflicts could arise from landscape changes. Early maturing, drought-resistant varieties are preferred.
Rainwater Harvesting Technologies in Makueni County, Kenyainventy
Rainwater harvesting has been in existence for many years and has positively impacted life, agriculture and economy. Despite these known benefits of rainwater harvesting, Makueni County's population is slowly adopting rainwater harvesting technologies. Water scarcity still remains a major constraint to life and economic development in the County. The aim of this paper is to evaluate rainwater harvesting technologies and the factors contributing to adoption of the technologies in the ASAL areas with Makueni County being the case study. The study was conducted in Wanzauni and Itetani locations in Tulimani division, Mbooni West district, Makueni County within Kenya's Eastern Region which lies within the arid and semi arid ecological zones of Kenya. A total of 160 household questionnaires were administered, focus group discussions and key informants interviews done during data collection exercise. The data was analyzed using Statistical package for social scientists (SPSS). Various rainwater harvesting technologies (RWHTs) are used within Makueni County including macro-catchment (earth dams, sand/sub-surface dams), micro-catchment (Zai pits, strip catchment, tillage, contour and semi-circular bunds) and rooftop rainwater harvesting technologies with rooftop catchment being the most commonly used technique. However, adoption of these RWHTs in Makueni County is slow irrespective of their potential to improve livelihoods. A logistic regression analysis was conducted to predict factors affecting adoption of RWHTs within 160 households in Makueni County. Some of the factors found to have statistically-significant positive effect on the adoption of RWHT are gender, literacy levels, social and economic status and technological know-how on RWHT. Ways of promoting the adoption of RWHTs such as capacity building and training, poverty alleviation through enhancement of income generation activities, enhanced formation of community groups aimed at water development activities, and improved designs incorporating mechanized technologies in favour of women and children, are recommended.
Discovery of Perched Aquifer When Assessing Aquifer Potential along the flood...theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Scienceresearchinventy
Research Inventy : International Journal of Engineering and Science is published by the group of young academic and industrial researchers with 12 Issues per year. It is an online as well as print version open access journal that provides rapid publication (monthly) of articles in all areas of the subject such as: civil, mechanical, chemical, electronic and computer engineering as well as production and information technology. The Journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence. Papers will be published by rapid process within 20 days after acceptance and peer review process takes only 7 days. All articles published in Research Inventy will be peer-reviewed.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
The International Journal of Engineering & Science is aimed at providing a platform for researchers, engineers, scientists, or educators to publish their original research results, to exchange new ideas, to disseminate information in innovative designs, engineering experiences and technological skills. It is also the Journal's objective to promote engineering and technology education. All papers submitted to the Journal will be blind peer-reviewed. Only original articles will be published.
The papers for publication in The International Journal of Engineering& Science are selected through rigorous peer reviews to ensure originality, timeliness, relevance, and readability.
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
1) The document analyzes Nigeria's hydropower resources and assesses their vulnerability to attacks from Boko Haram insurgents, focusing on four major river basins that contain over 90% of hydropower potential in northern Nigeria.
2) It evaluates the risks to dams and infrastructure on the Hadeja-Jama'are and Kamadugu Yobe river basins, finding them highly vulnerable due to their locations, local socioeconomics, and porous borders that enable weapon smuggling.
3) The study recommends both physical and social measures to safeguard hydropower assets from terrorist threats in northern Nigeria.
Flood Monitoring and Flood Risk Assessment in Agenebode, Edo State, NigeriaIJERA Editor
This document summarizes a study that assessed flood risk in Agenebode, Nigeria located along the River Niger. The researchers conducted a flood frequency analysis using discharge data from 1960-2006 to determine projected flows for different return periods. They analyzed rainfall data from 1983-2010 and created a flood hazard map using GIS and elevation data. The map indicated that approximately 1.8 km2 of the built-up area is at risk of flooding, putting 481 people directly at risk. By identifying flood-prone areas, the study provides information to help protect inhabitants from future flooding.
Similar to The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES) (20)
Flood Monitoring and Flood Risk Assessment in Agenebode, Edo State, Nigeria
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
1. The International Journal of Engineering And Science (IJES)
||Volume||2 ||Issue|| 01 ||Pages|| 222-231 ||2013||
ISSN: 2319 – 1813 ISBN: 2319 – 1805
Prediction of Water Resource Potentials and Sustainable Supply
of Water in Portharcourt, Nigeria from Meteorological Data
1,
I. Tamunobereton-ari, 2, E. D. Uko, 3, D. H. Davies
1,2,3,
Department of Physics, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
--------------------------------------------------------Abstract------------------------------------------------------
This work x-rays and predicts the water resource potentials of Port Harcourt, Nigeria that can be harnessed to
satisfy the water needs of the area using the city’s meteorological data. Meteorological records covering a 10
year period (2001 – 2010) show that Port Harcourt has a rainy season of 9 to 10 months and minimum average
annual rainfall of over 185mm with a minimum annual rainfall peak of 354mm for the 10 year data. Within this
period, there are only 3 to 4 months of dry season. Rainy and dry seasons are transitional in February and
November. Maximum annual evaporation peak was 148mm and a maximum annual average evaporation of
102mm. The water resource potentials of Port Harcourt and its environs are enormous with a favourable
hydrogeology of 15m to 30m depth of water table distribution and an overwhelming recharge capacity of water
bodies (surface water and groundwater) by the amount of rain fall.
Keywords - Water resource, meteorology, groundwater, recharge capacity, aquifer, percolation.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Date of Submission: 8th December, 2012 Date of Publication: Date 20th January 2013
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
I. Introduction
Water is an essential liquid to human lives and continuous existence of the ecosystem; it is colourless,
without odour and without taste, which is used for drinking, washing, bathing, cooking, industrial processes,
recreational activities etc., that can be gotten from rain, snow, stream, lake, river, sea and aquifer(groundwater).
Water indeed circulates from the sea to the atmosphere, to the land and back to the sea and atmosphere in a
process known as hydrologic cycle. This cycle is actually driven by the weather (meteorological or atmospheric
conditions). When snow or rain falls on the land surface, some volume of the water returns rapidly to the
atmosphere by evaporation or by transpiration from plants. The remainder either flows over the land surface as
runoff into surface waters or percolates down into the ground to become ground water. The groundwater
migrates to streams, rivers and the sea through pore spaces, fractures and faults that eventually evaporates to the
atmosphere as water vapour. The water vapour in the atmosphere at an appropriate altitude and temperature
condenses to form the water bearing cloud, which at the right condition releases the water by precipitation as
rain, snow or hail to the ground surface thereby completing the cycle. This is illustrated by Fig. 1. The emphasis
of hydrologic cycle in this work is to establish the sustainability of water supply and the recharge mechanism of
the aquifers. Water-bearing formations (aquifers) of the earth’s crust act as conduits for transmission and as
reservoirs for storage of ground water ([1], [2]).
Fig. 1: The Hydrologic Cycle (Tamunobereton-ari, 2011)
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2. Prediction Of Water Resource Potentials ...
II. HYDROGEOLOGY OF PORT HARCOURT
Port Harcourt became the capital of Rivers State; when the State was created in 1967. Port Harcourt is a
coastal city located in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria; with coordinates: 4°45′N 7°00′E/4.75°N 7°E, which
covers an area well over 2600 km2. Port Harcourt is the chief trade centre of Nigeria and the business hub of the
country because of its strategic location. Apart from being the main trading centre, Port Harcourt in Nigeria is
also a great tourist destination. According to the 2006 Nigerian census Port Harcourt has a population of
1,382,592. This figure has been well exceeded as a result of its economic potentials. These economic and
recreational potentials resulted to the influx of investors and visitors that had also increased the need for potable
and sustainable water supply to meet the water needs for domestic, industrial and recreational uses ([3], [4], [5]).
Geologically, Port Harcourt has a shallow distribution of aquifer (groundwater body); about 15m to
30m depth, which is constantly recharged by percolating water from precipitation (rain). Aquifer is synonymous
with the term subsurface water bearing formation that yields economically important amount of water to wells,
boreholes etc. Aquifers differ widely in shape, area and thickness. The most productive aquifers of the study area
are the ones composed of sand and gravel formation materials of the Benin formation of the Niger Delta, which
are of high hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity characteristics. These characteristics are important in
determining the natural flow of water through an aquifer and its response to fluid extraction ([6], [7]). To
ascertain sustainable water supply to a populated area as is the case in Port Harcourt, it is important to know the
aquifer distribution of the area and the climatic conditions of the area; which is very essential in the recharge and
replenishment of an aquifer as water is abstracted. The aquifers of the area are basically unconfined as such; the
recharge and replenishment capacity is very high even with little precipitation.
Aside the huge water resource potentials of Port Harcourt based on the wide distribution of aquifers and
favourable weather for replenishment of depleted saturated zones, there is serious alarming levels of shortages in
potable water supply to the citizenry, which have made citizens or inhabitants of the area, in the face of poverty
and hardship to unavoidably buying water at high cost per gallon on daily basis to meeting the water needs,
thereby adding to the already high cost of living in the area. Therefore, it became a thing of worry that
governments and agencies cannot properly harness this abundant resource in the area and adequately supplied
same to the people of Port Harcourt and its environs. This indeed exemplifies the indifference of governments
and agencies in the developing countries to rendering social and other services to the betterment of the citizenry.
In addition, it is noteworthy that world over, adequate supply of potable water and general water
sanitation is the best prophylactic measure to combating communicable diseases. Therefore, it implies that the
inadequate supply of potable water in the area of study can create a multiplier effect in the spread of
communicable diseases that is dangerous to the wellbeing of the citizens. Diseases are rising at an alarming rate
among the human population especially in a country like India. Doctors’ clinics are hot spots right now with the
increasing number of people falling ill these days. The World Bank estimated that out of the growing spate of
diseases, 21% of communicable diseases are water related. According to a 2007 World Health Organization
report, more than 1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water. It comes as no surprise that 88% of the 4
billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and
hygiene.Water borne diseases like diarrhoea have been the cause for an estimated 700,000 deaths in India alone
in 1999. This disease mostly hits children under the age of five. Other serious water-borne diseases are typhoid,
jaundice and cholera that are rampant in India today ([8]).
III. Climate Of Port Harcourt And Its Environs
Climate is the average weather conditions of an area over a long period of time. Meteorology is the
scientific study of the earth’s atmosphere and its changes, used especially for forecasting weather. Weather
systems particularly rainfall in the Niger Delta, specifically in Port Harcourt are primarily as a result of the
interplay between two major pressure and wind systems. These are the two dynamically generated sub-tropical
high pressure cells centred over Azores Archipelago (off the west coast of North Africa) and St. Helena Islands
(off the coast of Namibia). These high pressure centres (or anticyclones), which are permanent generate and
drive respectively the North-East trade winds and the South-West winds which are the northward extension of
the re-curved South-East trade winds of the South Atlantic Ocean. The moist South-West wind transports its
moisture to Nigeria specially Port Harcourt along the coast line. This air stream blows over the area between
February and November. This is the period in which the region receives its rains ([9], [10]).
www.theijes.com The IJES Page 223
3. Prediction Of Water Resource Potentials ...
Conversely, the North-East trade winds bring dry conditions, having passed over the hot dry Sahara
desert to reach Nigeria from the North. This air blows over Port Harcourt between November and February
during which the area experiences its dry season. The boundary zone between these two air masses is devoid of
any frontal activity since the two air masses differ a little in temperature and low Coriolis force due to Nigeria’s
proximity to the Equator. The boundary zone is therefore a moisture discontinuity called Inter Tropical
Discontinuity (ITD). Over the ocean surface where there is evidence of convergence, the boundary zone is often
called the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The seasonal movements of the ITD and its position control
the climate of an area. The amount of seasonal distribution and type of rainfall as well as the length of the wet
season and general weather conditions in Port Harcourt largely depends on its location with respect to the
position of the migrating ITD and the associated weather ([11], [10]).
3.1 RAINFALL IN PORT HARCOURT
Port Harcourt falls in the transitional zones Af and Aw climate types in Koppen’s climate classification
scheme. The monthly rainfall in Port Harcourt is almost predictable and follows a temporal sequence of increase
from April to October before decreasing in the dry season months of November to February. Rainfall in Port
Harcourt exhibits double maxima regime with peaks in July and September. Port Harcourt do experience mostly
two weeks window of little or no rain within July and August otherwise described as “August break” though the
actual time of occurrence varies from season to season and from year to year. According to Ologunorisa and
Ogobonaye ([12]), the reasons for the occurrence of the two weeks window of little or no rain within July and
August are:
1) The existence of well marked anti-cyclonic flow coupled with marked inversion.
2) Coldness of the sea in mid-summer derived from eddies of cold water from the cold Benquela currents
Speed, direction and moisture divergence stemming from the high pressure belt in the southern hemisphere that
moves towards the Equator. These three phenomena act to reinforce one another in producing the August break.
3.2 TEMPERATURE OF PORT HARCOURT
Port Harcourt has a mean annual temperature of 28 oC. The area has a mean daily maximum temperature
o
of 36 C, which is mostly recorded between the months of February and March, while a mean daily minimum
temperature of 20oC was recorded in the area. Generally, temperature variation from the lows to the highs is
dependent on the location as temperature increases from the coast towards the mainland, and also on the time of
the day when the measurement was made. Temperature is low at night and high in the day as a result of the
external heat supply by the sun. The mean temperature (28oC) of the area is enough to cause substantial
evaporation of water to saturate the atmosphere with water vapour that in turn condenses and precipitates as rain
([12]).
IV. DATA ACQUISITION
The data used to actualize the aim of this work were obtained from both primary source (observation)
and secondary source (meteorological records from Port Harcourt International Airport over a year period 2001
to 2010). It was observed in the area of study over the years (2001 – 2010) of an increasing daily amount of
rainfall and the extension of the rainy season which is usually 8 months (i.e. March to October) to 10 months
(February to November). The dry season had been observed shorter and hotter as the year’s progresses. These
phenomena are in conformity with the consequences of global warming resulting from increased anthropogenic
activities. The data from the secondary source are shown by Tables 1 to 11 in the result section.
V. RESULTS
The results from the meteorological records for the 10 year period (2001 – 2010) are presented by
Tables 1 to 11, showing records of monthly average rainfall, monthly average temperatures, monthly average
humidity, monthly average evaporation rates, monthly average wind speed and the annual records of these
measured parameters for the 10 year period.
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5. Prediction Of Water Resource Potentials ...
VI. DISCUSSION
The water resource potentials of Port Harcourt and its environs are very clear as shown by the geology
of the area and the climatic conditions measured by the meteorological department of Port Harcourt international
Airport, Omagua, Rivers State, Nigeria. Figs. 2 to 11 show the graphical presentation of the annual rainfall and
evaporation trends of Port Harcourt from 2001 to 2010. Comparing both curves, the rainfall curves are always
above the evaporation curve from March to November implying that there was more precipitation than
evaporation hence, more percolation of water to recharge and replenish groundwater and more runoff to streams,
lakes, rivers etc, to also replenish surface water bodies. The evaporation curves almost only got above the
rainfall curves between December and February months where daily average temperatures soar as a result of the
dry season. The rainfall curves of the 10 years also show a minimum maximum rainfall peak of 354mm of 2010
and a very high rainfall peak of 820mm of 2003. The rainfall peaks are observed to fall between July and
September. While, evaporation has a maximum peak of less than 150mm. Again, the nearness of Port Harcourt
to the coast, coupled with the tropical weather (average daily temperature of 25 oC to 28oC, and minimal wind
speed) favours reasonable evaporation of water and subsequent high level of humidity due to enormous amount
of water vapour in the atmosphere. Fig. 12 is a representation of the annual parametric data for the 10 years (200
-2010), which shows that there are no significant annual average temperature, humidity or evaporation changes
for the 10 year period. However, there are observed significant annual average rainfall fluctuations within the 10
year period as shown by Fig. 12.
Fig. 2: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2001
Fig. 3: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2002
Fig. 4: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2003
Fig. 5: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2004
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6. Prediction Of Water Resource Potentials ...
Fig. 6: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2005
Fig. 7: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2006
Fig. 8: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2007
Fig. 9: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2008
Fig. 10: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2009
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7. Prediction Of Water Resource Potentials ...
Fig. 11: Rainfall/Evaporation relationship for 2010
Fig. 12: Annual Rainfall, temperature, Humidity and Evaporation relationship for 10 year period (2001-2010
1. CONCLUSION
From the findings of the study, the following conclusions are reached: The water resource potentials of
Port Harcourt and its environs are enormous with a favourable hydrogeology of the area (15m to 30m depth of
water table distribution), and the climatic conditions of the area (9 to 10 months of rains, high humidity, minimal
wind speed) that recharge and replenish the water bodies. For adequate and sustainable supply of potable water
to the citizens, government and relevant agencies should invest in areas of harnessing, pumping, treatment and
distribution; so that the associated dangers and health risks to man due to lack of potable water supply can be
minimized, so that people of the area can live in clean and healthy conditions.
VII. Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Mrs. Jane Iyeneomie and IYETAMS Ventures Nig. Ltd; for the
proofreading and typesetting of this work. Our thanks also go to the meteorological department of the Port
Harcourt International Airport Omagua, Nigeria for making available the needed records to actualize this work.
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