This study examined the effects of psychological contract breach on job satisfaction, intention to remain, perceived organizational support, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Psychological contracts refer to unwritten beliefs employees hold regarding reciprocal obligations between themselves and their employer. The study investigated whether the impact of psychological contract breach differed depending on whether employees held transactional or relational psychological contracts. 89 part-time and full-time employees completed surveys measuring psychological contract breach and its effects on various job outcomes. Results showed psychological contract breach negatively impacted job satisfaction, intention to remain, and perceived organizational support. Additionally, the type of psychological contract moderated the effects of breach on perceived organizational support and organizational citizenship behaviors.
The Affect Of Psychologıcal Contract To The Level Of Burnout Amongst The Admı...inventionjournals
The aim of this research is to measure the psychological contract of the administrative unit workers and to define the level of burnout of this contract. To know the psychological contract perception of the workers is really crucial to increase the quality and productivity. If one can know the aim of their existence at work and define the distribution of roles according to that aim, this will improve the conditions and will help to decrease the level of burnout. Face to face quastionneres are used for descriptive research. The area of this research is consists of the %95 of the administrative unit workers of a private hospital. 90 people joined the questionnaires but 80 of them were analyzed. In this work 2 scales were used; Cronbachalpha ratio of the perception of the psychological contract was 0,662; and is 0.852 for the level of burnout. At the end of the research, the level of the perception of the pyschological contract was approximately 3,05. The level of burnout of the participants was not high and the affect of the perception of the psychological contract to the level of burnout was found to be 0.394.
Tomprou, M., Nikolaou, I. & Bourantas, D. (2007). The Potential Dynamics Of Psychological Contracting During Selection And Socialization. Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Philadelphia, USA.
Psychological Contract and Organization: A Review ArticleRHIMRJ Journal
The Psychological Contract emerged as a concept in the psychological literature almost fifty years ago, as a footnote
in Understanding Organizational Behavior. The Psychological Contract refers to implicit ideas about the employeeorganization
relationship. The perceived violation of Psychological Contract of employees reflects unfulfilled promises from
employer side. This perception of violation might lead to adverse effect on the organization. Psychological Contract in Indian
perspective is relatively neglected research area. The literature reflects potential opportunity for future research on
Psychological Contract in Indian perspective.
Organizational Behavior and Psychological Contracts PresentationAakriti Sharma
This document discusses organizational behavior and psychological contracts. It begins with definitions of organizational behavior and psychological contracts. It then explores the correlation between organizational behavior and psychological contracts, noting that psychological contracts guide how organizations structure behavior and relationships with employees. The document outlines different types of psychological contracts and challenges associated with changing psychological contracts, particularly for middle managers. It concludes with recommendations for organizations to be more proactive in managing psychological contracts through open communication and establishing trust to reduce the negative effects of unfulfilled obligations.
This document discusses the dynamics of psychological contract creation between employees and organizations. It focuses on how psychological contracts are formed rather than breached. The researchers propose that personal factors, social influence, and organizational influence shape how newcomers interpret promises, form expectations, and experience emotions during psychological contract creation. They plan to study these dynamics through interviews and a longitudinal diary study to gain insights into balanced psychological contract formation over time.
Role of Psychological Contract in Organizational DevelopmentDr. Amarjeet Singh
This study deals with Psychological Contract
between employers and employees. Employers are always
interested organizational in growth, whereas employees are
interested in their own welfare and job satisfaction. Satisfied
and motivated employees always contribute more to the
organization. This study highlighted some areas, which gives
satisfaction to the employees, like; fair payment, welfare
facilities, recognition, promotion and attention. Work
environment in the organization is also very important to
create positive attitude of the employees. Equal treatment to
all employee present humanities of employers. In such
positive environment employees feel proud to work for the
organization.
This document is an MBA HR project report on employee attitudes towards their organization at Kenana Sugar Company in UP, India. It contains an abstract, introduction, literature review, research methodology, and analysis sections. The introduction defines attitudes and their key features. It discusses the difference between attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. It also examines factors that influence attitude formation and methods of changing attitudes. The research methodology section outlines the sampling method, data collection tools, and limitations of the study. The analysis section presents and discusses the results of the employee opinion survey conducted with 180 respondents at Kenana Sugar Company.
Abstract This is a summary of about 250 words (no more than one side of double-spaced A4) that describes the topic; explain the aims and methods of the study and it should give a brief resume of the main conclusions and recommendations. Data Analysis and Findings The main results of your work should be presented, together with critical discussion. The chapter should: • Present and analyze all the results generated during the project. • Describe the extent to which the findings support the original objectives laid out for the project. The goals may be partially or fully achieved, or exceeded. Recommendations Your Recommendations should be feasible, practical and must place your conclusions within a concrete and practical framework. You need to consider your recommendations in the context of their possible human, financial, political, managerial, etc, implications. Your recommendations should be justified. Conclusion Your Conclusion should include a summary of your main arguments, drawing together the various themes and issues so that they can be brought to bear on the defined objectives of the study. As with all reports, there should be no new information introduced in this section. Appendices You should locate in the appendices all that information which gives an additional, quasi-relevant support to the arguments you are constructing. It is important that you put all the information you require the reader to attend to, in the main body of the text. Appendices should be consistently signified by letter (APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B) or by number (Roman or Arabic) and given titles that indicate their contents. Do remember to source information in appendices appropriately. List of Tables and Figures
The Affect Of Psychologıcal Contract To The Level Of Burnout Amongst The Admı...inventionjournals
The aim of this research is to measure the psychological contract of the administrative unit workers and to define the level of burnout of this contract. To know the psychological contract perception of the workers is really crucial to increase the quality and productivity. If one can know the aim of their existence at work and define the distribution of roles according to that aim, this will improve the conditions and will help to decrease the level of burnout. Face to face quastionneres are used for descriptive research. The area of this research is consists of the %95 of the administrative unit workers of a private hospital. 90 people joined the questionnaires but 80 of them were analyzed. In this work 2 scales were used; Cronbachalpha ratio of the perception of the psychological contract was 0,662; and is 0.852 for the level of burnout. At the end of the research, the level of the perception of the pyschological contract was approximately 3,05. The level of burnout of the participants was not high and the affect of the perception of the psychological contract to the level of burnout was found to be 0.394.
Tomprou, M., Nikolaou, I. & Bourantas, D. (2007). The Potential Dynamics Of Psychological Contracting During Selection And Socialization. Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Philadelphia, USA.
Psychological Contract and Organization: A Review ArticleRHIMRJ Journal
The Psychological Contract emerged as a concept in the psychological literature almost fifty years ago, as a footnote
in Understanding Organizational Behavior. The Psychological Contract refers to implicit ideas about the employeeorganization
relationship. The perceived violation of Psychological Contract of employees reflects unfulfilled promises from
employer side. This perception of violation might lead to adverse effect on the organization. Psychological Contract in Indian
perspective is relatively neglected research area. The literature reflects potential opportunity for future research on
Psychological Contract in Indian perspective.
Organizational Behavior and Psychological Contracts PresentationAakriti Sharma
This document discusses organizational behavior and psychological contracts. It begins with definitions of organizational behavior and psychological contracts. It then explores the correlation between organizational behavior and psychological contracts, noting that psychological contracts guide how organizations structure behavior and relationships with employees. The document outlines different types of psychological contracts and challenges associated with changing psychological contracts, particularly for middle managers. It concludes with recommendations for organizations to be more proactive in managing psychological contracts through open communication and establishing trust to reduce the negative effects of unfulfilled obligations.
This document discusses the dynamics of psychological contract creation between employees and organizations. It focuses on how psychological contracts are formed rather than breached. The researchers propose that personal factors, social influence, and organizational influence shape how newcomers interpret promises, form expectations, and experience emotions during psychological contract creation. They plan to study these dynamics through interviews and a longitudinal diary study to gain insights into balanced psychological contract formation over time.
Role of Psychological Contract in Organizational DevelopmentDr. Amarjeet Singh
This study deals with Psychological Contract
between employers and employees. Employers are always
interested organizational in growth, whereas employees are
interested in their own welfare and job satisfaction. Satisfied
and motivated employees always contribute more to the
organization. This study highlighted some areas, which gives
satisfaction to the employees, like; fair payment, welfare
facilities, recognition, promotion and attention. Work
environment in the organization is also very important to
create positive attitude of the employees. Equal treatment to
all employee present humanities of employers. In such
positive environment employees feel proud to work for the
organization.
This document is an MBA HR project report on employee attitudes towards their organization at Kenana Sugar Company in UP, India. It contains an abstract, introduction, literature review, research methodology, and analysis sections. The introduction defines attitudes and their key features. It discusses the difference between attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. It also examines factors that influence attitude formation and methods of changing attitudes. The research methodology section outlines the sampling method, data collection tools, and limitations of the study. The analysis section presents and discusses the results of the employee opinion survey conducted with 180 respondents at Kenana Sugar Company.
Abstract This is a summary of about 250 words (no more than one side of double-spaced A4) that describes the topic; explain the aims and methods of the study and it should give a brief resume of the main conclusions and recommendations. Data Analysis and Findings The main results of your work should be presented, together with critical discussion. The chapter should: • Present and analyze all the results generated during the project. • Describe the extent to which the findings support the original objectives laid out for the project. The goals may be partially or fully achieved, or exceeded. Recommendations Your Recommendations should be feasible, practical and must place your conclusions within a concrete and practical framework. You need to consider your recommendations in the context of their possible human, financial, political, managerial, etc, implications. Your recommendations should be justified. Conclusion Your Conclusion should include a summary of your main arguments, drawing together the various themes and issues so that they can be brought to bear on the defined objectives of the study. As with all reports, there should be no new information introduced in this section. Appendices You should locate in the appendices all that information which gives an additional, quasi-relevant support to the arguments you are constructing. It is important that you put all the information you require the reader to attend to, in the main body of the text. Appendices should be consistently signified by letter (APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B) or by number (Roman or Arabic) and given titles that indicate their contents. Do remember to source information in appendices appropriately. List of Tables and Figures
The document proposes a model for corporate chaplaincy to improve employee engagement. It summarizes research showing that psychological assets like meaning, autonomy, growth, impact, and connection positively impact engagement. Brief interventions by chaplains and counselors can effectively target these assets. The model involves gaining employee trust, implementing interventions to work on psychological assets, and measuring results to evaluate the program. The goal is to use evidence-based chaplaincy and counseling to enhance employee well-being and engagement in a confidential and ethical manner.
This document discusses how ethical values are playing an increasingly influential role in shaping employee attitudes and behaviors regarding the psychological contract between employees and organizations. It proposes expanding the interpretive framework for psychological contracts to include an "ideology-infused" perspective, where employees may seek contributions from their employer that align with societal values or principles beyond just individual or mutual benefits. Breach of the psychological contract could then occur if an organization fails to deliver on contributions involving benefits to broader society or ethical standards, even if there is no direct impact on the employee. The document examines how personal ethical values and shared understandings of organizational ethics form important frameworks for how employees interpret organizations' obligations and behaviors.
The document discusses a study on the effects of psychological contract violation on the employee-employer relationship at KETEPA Limited in Kericho, Kenya. The study aims to examine how psychological contract violation impacts trust and commitment between employees and management. It uses an organizational support theory framework to understand how employees form perceptions of whether the organization values their contributions and well-being. Key findings include that psychological contract violation negatively affects the relationship between employees and employers by reducing trust and commitment. The study concludes that organizations should aim to fulfill promises and meet employee expectations to have stronger employee-employer relationships.
This document summarizes an interview methodology for a research study on perceived injustices during organizational change. The study will interview 48 people from different organizations who experienced change as either recipients or leaders. Participants will be asked 10 questions about their perceptions of fairness in the change process and whether these perceptions caused any emotional responses. Responses will be analyzed to understand the relationship between perceived injustices like distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal injustices and the negative emotions they provoke. The goal is to learn how perceived injustices influence change recipients and leaders. Interviews will last 20-30 minutes and follow semi-structured protocols to collect detailed accounts of changes and their impacts.
“PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT:WHY SHOULD EMPLOYERS CARE ABOUT IT IN THE 21st CENTURY?”JIANGUANGLUNG DANGMEI
Abstract
Globalization and rapid technological development have led many organizations to change the management style following
mergers and acquisition, reshuffling and downsizing of the organizations. It has been suggested that these organizational
changes alter the nature of the psychological contract often leading to violation of psychological contract which are
associated with negative impacts on organizations and restricting to organizational growth. There is a crucial need for a
proper understanding of the psychological contract and intense exploration in the organizations following the rapid changes
in the business environment as the contents of the psychological contracts also changes over time from organization to
organization. This paper attempts to cast light on the need for constant renegotiation of the psychological contract in the 21st
century so that organizations should review the content of the psychological contract in organizations so as to harness its
benefits in the contemporary business.
Key Words: Psychological Contract, Organizational Changes, Violation of Psychological Contract, Organizational
Growth.
This document provides a summary of a thesis submitted for a Master's degree in Occupational Psychology. The thesis investigated whether work stressors (job demands and role ambiguity) and individual differences (psychological flexibility and locus of control) predict an individual's ability to psychologically detach from work during evenings (short respite periods). A literature review provided background on psychological detachment and the predictors being examined. The study used a survey to collect data from 202 working adults on psychological detachment, the predictor variables, and demographics. Regression analysis found that high job demands significantly predicted low psychological detachment, while the other predictors were non-significant. The thesis discussed the findings, limitations, recommendations for future research, and implications for organizations.
This document discusses positive organizational behavior (POB) from a cross-cultural perspective. It begins by noting that POB principles have become more prevalent in workplaces as a way to enhance employee morale and competitiveness during difficult economic times. The document then reviews literature showing links between POB concepts like hope, resilience, and strengths-based approaches, and improved employee performance, effectiveness, and satisfaction. It argues that focusing on amplifying positive attributes in organizations, rather than just reducing negatives, can lead to better financial and other performance. The document also examines cross-cultural studies finding universal values of work and its relationship to life fulfillment and priorities, while also noting differences in work goals and orientations across countries. Overall, it
This document summarizes key topics related to emotions, attitudes, and job satisfaction discussed in Chapter 4. It defines emotions and how they differ from attitudes. It describes how attitudes were traditionally viewed as rational but emotions also influence them. It discusses emotional labor, emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and psychological contracts.
Identify the main elements included in Affective Events Theory. Sele.pdfamitkhanna2070
Identify the main elements included in Affective Events Theory. Select any two of these
elements and provide an example of how the factor can influence an employee
Solution
Affective Events Theory
Affective events theory (AET) is a model developed by organizational psychologists Howard M.
Weiss (Purdue University) and Russell Cropanzano (University of Colorado) to explain how
emotions and moods influence job performance and job satisfaction.The model explains the
linkages between employees\' internal influences (e.g., cognitions,emotions, mental states) and
their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance,
organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The theory proposes that affective work
behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are
the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing (e.g., uplifts) as
well as negative-inducing (e.g., hassles) emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have
a significant psychological impact upon workers\' job satisfaction. This results in lasting internal
(e.g., cognition, emotions, mental states) and external affective reactions exhibited through job
performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Alternatively, some research suggests that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between
various antecedent variables such as dispositions, workplace events, job characteristics, job
opportunities, and employee behavior exhibited while on the job (e.g., organizational citizenship
behaviors, counter-productive work behaviors, and job withdrawal).
Factors affecting employee job performance and satisfaction
Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness and emotional stability predict low employee turnover and high job
performance, indicating that these personality traits are robust and should be assessed during
personnel selection in subsequent validation and utility analysis. Conscientiousness is considered
to account for possible moral, ethical, and contractual obligations that may lead to employee
turnover In this mental state, employees high in conscientiousness may decide to demonstrate
high organizational commitment due to transactional fairness in accordance with the norms of
reciprocity, as long as a perceived debt exists Highly religious and conscientious workers may
believe that quitting goes against their work-oriented beliefs (e.g., the Protestant work ethic),
with any volition to carry through with quitting, a sign of poor character.
Openness to experience
Openness to experience is exhibited through mental abstraction and flexibility in perception.on-
linear thinking is enabled through the use of imagination, intellectual curiosity, and an
appreciation for aesthetics, all of which are core facets of this personality factor.Employees
assessed as high in openness to experience generally score high on tests of general cognitive
ability and demonstrate high abili.
Understand about the attitudes
Contrast the three components of an attitude.
Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Compare and contrast the major job attitudes.
Define job satisfaction
Importance of employee behavior in an organization
A contribution on how to deal with psychological contract breach ensuring a higher level of wellbeing at work.
A collaboration between Yannick Griep and MindFwd
Nikolaou, Ι. & Tomprou, Μ. (2008). Dynamics of the psychological contract: Experiencing organizational change in a changing work environment. Institute of Work Psychology Conference, University of Sheffield, UK.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated the relationship between personality types and leisure activities of 1,502 casino employees. It found that positive personalities like extraversion and openness to experience correlated with greater leisure satisfaction and happiness. A positive relationship was also found between traits like agreeableness and cooperativeness and leisure/happiness. Considering mediation effects, leisure preference had the greatest impact in mediating the relationship between personality and happiness. The results indicate that human resource managers should consider employees' personality types to help determine the kinds of leisure activities that could increase worker happiness and productivity.
Whitepaper - Strong Professional Relationships Drive High PerformanceClara McCormack
Building strong professional relationships with colleagues can create high performing teams and improve productivity. To develop these relationships, employees should spend time understanding different perspectives, encourage open dialogue, and put the team's needs first. Organizations can foster relationship building by creating open workspaces that allow for casual interactions. Regular social activities alone may not strengthen relationships unless there is a clear goal, such as improving team performance, tied to the interactions. Developing a set of shared values and behaviors through a "trademark" can also help build relationships by promoting honest conversations around work. Strong relationships enable employees to challenge each other constructively and drive better performance.
This document discusses how developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can improve employee engagement and retention. It begins with an introduction explaining the importance of engagement and retention for organizations. It then defines emotional intelligence and discusses how skills like self-awareness, empathy, and relationship management can be developed through training. The document proposes a blended learning approach to teach emotional intelligence. Research findings showed that demonstrating emotional intelligence as a leader was linked to higher engagement and lower turnover. The conclusion recommends organizations assess gaps in emotional intelligence and develop a strategy to create an emotionally intelligent culture.
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Mana.docxtienmixon
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Examine how differentiating characteristics factor into organizational behavior.
6.1 Summarize motivation in organizations.
6.2 Assess work-related attitudes such as feelings about the job, organization, and people at work.
6.3 Examine emotions and their impact on the job.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
6.1
Unit Lesson
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4: Emotions and Moods, pp. 102–128
Unit Lesson
Introduction
As humans, we all deal with an influx of emotions and moods daily. How many times have you heard people
dreading that Monday was approaching? How many times have you overheard people celebrating that Friday
arrived? Life happens, and we all must deal with how we feel about that. We have all heard people identify
some as having a good attitude or a bad attitude, but what does that really mean? Many people think of
outlooks or perspectives about something when thinking about attitudes; however, it is much more complex
than that. In this unit, we will learn about emotions and moods and how they can influence our attitudes. We
will also explore how they impact the workplace and what this means for managers.
Emotions and Moods
As we begin to delve into a discussion on feelings, we need to have a solid understanding of some basic
terminology. Key words include affect, emotions, and moods. Everyone experiences each of these from time
to time; however, few fully understand the difference. Would you know how to distinguish an emotion from a
mood?
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Attitudes, Emotions, and Impacts
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Whenever we experience something, it tends to affect us in some way. The effect can encompass a broad
range of feelings from good to bad. Regardless of where the effect is on the scale, it is how we feel. An
emotion, in this instance, is a short-lived feeling based upon a specific event that occurred in our life (Robbins
& Judge, 2019). In contrast, a mood is more of a longer-term emotion that is less intense and not necessarily
specific to a life event.
When we consider the many events that occur in the workplace, any of these may trigger an emotion or lead
to a mood. What sets many of us apart from others is something known as emotional intelligence. This
emotional intelligence is an ability to not only be in tune with our emotions and that of others. We need to be
able to understand how we should handle and respond to t.
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Mana.docxmarilynnhoare
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Examine how differentiating characteristics factor into organizational behavior.
6.1 Summarize motivation in organizations.
6.2 Assess work-related attitudes such as feelings about the job, organization, and people at work.
6.3 Examine emotions and their impact on the job.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
6.1
Unit Lesson
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4: Emotions and Moods, pp. 102–128
Unit Lesson
Introduction
As humans, we all deal with an influx of emotions and moods daily. How many times have you heard people
dreading that Monday was approaching? How many times have you overheard people celebrating that Friday
arrived? Life happens, and we all must deal with how we feel about that. We have all heard people identify
some as having a good attitude or a bad attitude, but what does that really mean? Many people think of
outlooks or perspectives about something when thinking about attitudes; however, it is much more complex
than that. In this unit, we will learn about emotions and moods and how they can influence our attitudes. We
will also explore how they impact the workplace and what this means for managers.
Emotions and Moods
As we begin to delve into a discussion on feelings, we need to have a solid understanding of some basic
terminology. Key words include affect, emotions, and moods. Everyone experiences each of these from time
to time; however, few fully understand the difference. Would you know how to distinguish an emotion from a
mood?
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Attitudes, Emotions, and Impacts
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Whenever we experience something, it tends to affect us in some way. The effect can encompass a broad
range of feelings from good to bad. Regardless of where the effect is on the scale, it is how we feel. An
emotion, in this instance, is a short-lived feeling based upon a specific event that occurred in our life (Robbins
& Judge, 2019). In contrast, a mood is more of a longer-term emotion that is less intense and not necessarily
specific to a life event.
When we consider the many events that occur in the workplace, any of these may trigger an emotion or lead
to a mood. What sets many of us apart from others is something known as emotional intelligence. This
emotional intelligence is an ability to not only be in tune with our emotions and that of others. We need to be
able to understand how we should handle and respond to t.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Fergal O' Flaherty for the degree of Master of Science in Strategy, Innovation and People Management at the National University of Ireland, Galway in 2014. The dissertation investigates how job stress and emotional labour impact work-life balance in the hospitality industry. It includes an acknowledgements section, abstract, table of contents, literature review on the key concepts of job stress, emotional labour, work-life balance, and work-life balance practices. The study aims to demonstrate similarities and differences between the hotel, restaurant and public house sectors and identify which sector experiences the most extensive work-life imbalance due to job stress and emotional labour through qualitative interviews.
Organizational Stress, Job Satisfaction and Employee Mental Health: A Compara...inventionjournals
Employees are increasingly recognising that work is infringing on their personal lives and they are not happy about it. Evidence indicates that balancing work and life demands now surpasses job security as an employee priority. They want a life as well as a job. The purpose of the study is to assess the occupational stress, job satisfaction and mental health of employees belonging to two professions namely bank and IT firms comprising of both private as well as private sector. The need was felt so as to aid the personnel to combat with various dimensions of occupation stress and job dissatisfaction and to inculcate feelings of organisational citizenship behaviour and commitment and reduce employee turnover costs and attrition which is on the rise these days. Design and Methodology – An attempt was made to study 60 bank employees each from private sector and public sector. Similarly, from the IT firms 60 each employees were taken from private as well as public sector of Kolkata following simple random sampling.The total sample size was 240. For this purpose the following scales were used- 1.Job Satisfaction Questionnaire by Dr. B.C. Muthayya 2.The Occupational Stress Index by Dr. A. K. Shrivastava and Dr. A.P. Singh - It purports to measure the extent of stress which employees perceive in terms of 12 domains. 3.Employee's Mental Health Inventory (EMHI) by Dr.Jagdish Results – The occupational stress has been found out to be maximum in terms of role overload ,powerlessness, underparticipation ,low status and unprofitability for banks in private sector. Least occupational stress has been reported by employees working in IT private sector. Considering job satisfaction bank private sector face maximum job dissatisfaction. Whereas, IT govt sector encounters least job dissatisfaction. Lastly, taking into account employee mental health ,good mental health prevails among employees from IT govt sector and worst among bank private sector. Conclusion - Experiencing high levels of organisational stress has negative effects on task performance. It also adversely affects ones’ physical and mental health in a wide variety of ways. Stress and job dissatisfaction is a major cause to disrupt worklife balance , desk rage and burnout.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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The document proposes a model for corporate chaplaincy to improve employee engagement. It summarizes research showing that psychological assets like meaning, autonomy, growth, impact, and connection positively impact engagement. Brief interventions by chaplains and counselors can effectively target these assets. The model involves gaining employee trust, implementing interventions to work on psychological assets, and measuring results to evaluate the program. The goal is to use evidence-based chaplaincy and counseling to enhance employee well-being and engagement in a confidential and ethical manner.
This document discusses how ethical values are playing an increasingly influential role in shaping employee attitudes and behaviors regarding the psychological contract between employees and organizations. It proposes expanding the interpretive framework for psychological contracts to include an "ideology-infused" perspective, where employees may seek contributions from their employer that align with societal values or principles beyond just individual or mutual benefits. Breach of the psychological contract could then occur if an organization fails to deliver on contributions involving benefits to broader society or ethical standards, even if there is no direct impact on the employee. The document examines how personal ethical values and shared understandings of organizational ethics form important frameworks for how employees interpret organizations' obligations and behaviors.
The document discusses a study on the effects of psychological contract violation on the employee-employer relationship at KETEPA Limited in Kericho, Kenya. The study aims to examine how psychological contract violation impacts trust and commitment between employees and management. It uses an organizational support theory framework to understand how employees form perceptions of whether the organization values their contributions and well-being. Key findings include that psychological contract violation negatively affects the relationship between employees and employers by reducing trust and commitment. The study concludes that organizations should aim to fulfill promises and meet employee expectations to have stronger employee-employer relationships.
This document summarizes an interview methodology for a research study on perceived injustices during organizational change. The study will interview 48 people from different organizations who experienced change as either recipients or leaders. Participants will be asked 10 questions about their perceptions of fairness in the change process and whether these perceptions caused any emotional responses. Responses will be analyzed to understand the relationship between perceived injustices like distributive, procedural, informational, and interpersonal injustices and the negative emotions they provoke. The goal is to learn how perceived injustices influence change recipients and leaders. Interviews will last 20-30 minutes and follow semi-structured protocols to collect detailed accounts of changes and their impacts.
“PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT:WHY SHOULD EMPLOYERS CARE ABOUT IT IN THE 21st CENTURY?”JIANGUANGLUNG DANGMEI
Abstract
Globalization and rapid technological development have led many organizations to change the management style following
mergers and acquisition, reshuffling and downsizing of the organizations. It has been suggested that these organizational
changes alter the nature of the psychological contract often leading to violation of psychological contract which are
associated with negative impacts on organizations and restricting to organizational growth. There is a crucial need for a
proper understanding of the psychological contract and intense exploration in the organizations following the rapid changes
in the business environment as the contents of the psychological contracts also changes over time from organization to
organization. This paper attempts to cast light on the need for constant renegotiation of the psychological contract in the 21st
century so that organizations should review the content of the psychological contract in organizations so as to harness its
benefits in the contemporary business.
Key Words: Psychological Contract, Organizational Changes, Violation of Psychological Contract, Organizational
Growth.
This document provides a summary of a thesis submitted for a Master's degree in Occupational Psychology. The thesis investigated whether work stressors (job demands and role ambiguity) and individual differences (psychological flexibility and locus of control) predict an individual's ability to psychologically detach from work during evenings (short respite periods). A literature review provided background on psychological detachment and the predictors being examined. The study used a survey to collect data from 202 working adults on psychological detachment, the predictor variables, and demographics. Regression analysis found that high job demands significantly predicted low psychological detachment, while the other predictors were non-significant. The thesis discussed the findings, limitations, recommendations for future research, and implications for organizations.
This document discusses positive organizational behavior (POB) from a cross-cultural perspective. It begins by noting that POB principles have become more prevalent in workplaces as a way to enhance employee morale and competitiveness during difficult economic times. The document then reviews literature showing links between POB concepts like hope, resilience, and strengths-based approaches, and improved employee performance, effectiveness, and satisfaction. It argues that focusing on amplifying positive attributes in organizations, rather than just reducing negatives, can lead to better financial and other performance. The document also examines cross-cultural studies finding universal values of work and its relationship to life fulfillment and priorities, while also noting differences in work goals and orientations across countries. Overall, it
This document summarizes key topics related to emotions, attitudes, and job satisfaction discussed in Chapter 4. It defines emotions and how they differ from attitudes. It describes how attitudes were traditionally viewed as rational but emotions also influence them. It discusses emotional labor, emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and psychological contracts.
Identify the main elements included in Affective Events Theory. Sele.pdfamitkhanna2070
Identify the main elements included in Affective Events Theory. Select any two of these
elements and provide an example of how the factor can influence an employee
Solution
Affective Events Theory
Affective events theory (AET) is a model developed by organizational psychologists Howard M.
Weiss (Purdue University) and Russell Cropanzano (University of Colorado) to explain how
emotions and moods influence job performance and job satisfaction.The model explains the
linkages between employees\' internal influences (e.g., cognitions,emotions, mental states) and
their reactions to incidents that occur in their work environment that affect their performance,
organizational commitment, and job satisfaction. The theory proposes that affective work
behaviors are explained by employee mood and emotions, while cognitive-based behaviors are
the best predictors of job satisfaction. The theory proposes that positive-inducing (e.g., uplifts) as
well as negative-inducing (e.g., hassles) emotional incidents at work are distinguishable and have
a significant psychological impact upon workers\' job satisfaction. This results in lasting internal
(e.g., cognition, emotions, mental states) and external affective reactions exhibited through job
performance, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.
Alternatively, some research suggests that job satisfaction mediates the relationship between
various antecedent variables such as dispositions, workplace events, job characteristics, job
opportunities, and employee behavior exhibited while on the job (e.g., organizational citizenship
behaviors, counter-productive work behaviors, and job withdrawal).
Factors affecting employee job performance and satisfaction
Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness and emotional stability predict low employee turnover and high job
performance, indicating that these personality traits are robust and should be assessed during
personnel selection in subsequent validation and utility analysis. Conscientiousness is considered
to account for possible moral, ethical, and contractual obligations that may lead to employee
turnover In this mental state, employees high in conscientiousness may decide to demonstrate
high organizational commitment due to transactional fairness in accordance with the norms of
reciprocity, as long as a perceived debt exists Highly religious and conscientious workers may
believe that quitting goes against their work-oriented beliefs (e.g., the Protestant work ethic),
with any volition to carry through with quitting, a sign of poor character.
Openness to experience
Openness to experience is exhibited through mental abstraction and flexibility in perception.on-
linear thinking is enabled through the use of imagination, intellectual curiosity, and an
appreciation for aesthetics, all of which are core facets of this personality factor.Employees
assessed as high in openness to experience generally score high on tests of general cognitive
ability and demonstrate high abili.
Understand about the attitudes
Contrast the three components of an attitude.
Summarize the relationship between attitudes and behavior.
Compare and contrast the major job attitudes.
Define job satisfaction
Importance of employee behavior in an organization
A contribution on how to deal with psychological contract breach ensuring a higher level of wellbeing at work.
A collaboration between Yannick Griep and MindFwd
Nikolaou, Ι. & Tomprou, Μ. (2008). Dynamics of the psychological contract: Experiencing organizational change in a changing work environment. Institute of Work Psychology Conference, University of Sheffield, UK.
This document summarizes a research study that investigated the relationship between personality types and leisure activities of 1,502 casino employees. It found that positive personalities like extraversion and openness to experience correlated with greater leisure satisfaction and happiness. A positive relationship was also found between traits like agreeableness and cooperativeness and leisure/happiness. Considering mediation effects, leisure preference had the greatest impact in mediating the relationship between personality and happiness. The results indicate that human resource managers should consider employees' personality types to help determine the kinds of leisure activities that could increase worker happiness and productivity.
Whitepaper - Strong Professional Relationships Drive High PerformanceClara McCormack
Building strong professional relationships with colleagues can create high performing teams and improve productivity. To develop these relationships, employees should spend time understanding different perspectives, encourage open dialogue, and put the team's needs first. Organizations can foster relationship building by creating open workspaces that allow for casual interactions. Regular social activities alone may not strengthen relationships unless there is a clear goal, such as improving team performance, tied to the interactions. Developing a set of shared values and behaviors through a "trademark" can also help build relationships by promoting honest conversations around work. Strong relationships enable employees to challenge each other constructively and drive better performance.
This document discusses how developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can improve employee engagement and retention. It begins with an introduction explaining the importance of engagement and retention for organizations. It then defines emotional intelligence and discusses how skills like self-awareness, empathy, and relationship management can be developed through training. The document proposes a blended learning approach to teach emotional intelligence. Research findings showed that demonstrating emotional intelligence as a leader was linked to higher engagement and lower turnover. The conclusion recommends organizations assess gaps in emotional intelligence and develop a strategy to create an emotionally intelligent culture.
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Mana.docxtienmixon
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Examine how differentiating characteristics factor into organizational behavior.
6.1 Summarize motivation in organizations.
6.2 Assess work-related attitudes such as feelings about the job, organization, and people at work.
6.3 Examine emotions and their impact on the job.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
6.1
Unit Lesson
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4: Emotions and Moods, pp. 102–128
Unit Lesson
Introduction
As humans, we all deal with an influx of emotions and moods daily. How many times have you heard people
dreading that Monday was approaching? How many times have you overheard people celebrating that Friday
arrived? Life happens, and we all must deal with how we feel about that. We have all heard people identify
some as having a good attitude or a bad attitude, but what does that really mean? Many people think of
outlooks or perspectives about something when thinking about attitudes; however, it is much more complex
than that. In this unit, we will learn about emotions and moods and how they can influence our attitudes. We
will also explore how they impact the workplace and what this means for managers.
Emotions and Moods
As we begin to delve into a discussion on feelings, we need to have a solid understanding of some basic
terminology. Key words include affect, emotions, and moods. Everyone experiences each of these from time
to time; however, few fully understand the difference. Would you know how to distinguish an emotion from a
mood?
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Attitudes, Emotions, and Impacts
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Whenever we experience something, it tends to affect us in some way. The effect can encompass a broad
range of feelings from good to bad. Regardless of where the effect is on the scale, it is how we feel. An
emotion, in this instance, is a short-lived feeling based upon a specific event that occurred in our life (Robbins
& Judge, 2019). In contrast, a mood is more of a longer-term emotion that is less intense and not necessarily
specific to a life event.
When we consider the many events that occur in the workplace, any of these may trigger an emotion or lead
to a mood. What sets many of us apart from others is something known as emotional intelligence. This
emotional intelligence is an ability to not only be in tune with our emotions and that of others. We need to be
able to understand how we should handle and respond to t.
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Mana.docxmarilynnhoare
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
6. Examine how differentiating characteristics factor into organizational behavior.
6.1 Summarize motivation in organizations.
6.2 Assess work-related attitudes such as feelings about the job, organization, and people at work.
6.3 Examine emotions and their impact on the job.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
6.1
Unit Lesson
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.2
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
6.3
Unit Lesson
Chapter 3, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4, pp. 102–128
Unit VII Annotated Bibliography
Reading Assignment
Chapter 3: Attitudes and Job Satisfaction, pp. 74–94
Chapter 4: Emotions and Moods, pp. 102–128
Unit Lesson
Introduction
As humans, we all deal with an influx of emotions and moods daily. How many times have you heard people
dreading that Monday was approaching? How many times have you overheard people celebrating that Friday
arrived? Life happens, and we all must deal with how we feel about that. We have all heard people identify
some as having a good attitude or a bad attitude, but what does that really mean? Many people think of
outlooks or perspectives about something when thinking about attitudes; however, it is much more complex
than that. In this unit, we will learn about emotions and moods and how they can influence our attitudes. We
will also explore how they impact the workplace and what this means for managers.
Emotions and Moods
As we begin to delve into a discussion on feelings, we need to have a solid understanding of some basic
terminology. Key words include affect, emotions, and moods. Everyone experiences each of these from time
to time; however, few fully understand the difference. Would you know how to distinguish an emotion from a
mood?
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
Attitudes, Emotions, and Impacts
DBA 7420, Organizational Behavior and Comparative Management 2
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Whenever we experience something, it tends to affect us in some way. The effect can encompass a broad
range of feelings from good to bad. Regardless of where the effect is on the scale, it is how we feel. An
emotion, in this instance, is a short-lived feeling based upon a specific event that occurred in our life (Robbins
& Judge, 2019). In contrast, a mood is more of a longer-term emotion that is less intense and not necessarily
specific to a life event.
When we consider the many events that occur in the workplace, any of these may trigger an emotion or lead
to a mood. What sets many of us apart from others is something known as emotional intelligence. This
emotional intelligence is an ability to not only be in tune with our emotions and that of others. We need to be
able to understand how we should handle and respond to t.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Fergal O' Flaherty for the degree of Master of Science in Strategy, Innovation and People Management at the National University of Ireland, Galway in 2014. The dissertation investigates how job stress and emotional labour impact work-life balance in the hospitality industry. It includes an acknowledgements section, abstract, table of contents, literature review on the key concepts of job stress, emotional labour, work-life balance, and work-life balance practices. The study aims to demonstrate similarities and differences between the hotel, restaurant and public house sectors and identify which sector experiences the most extensive work-life imbalance due to job stress and emotional labour through qualitative interviews.
Organizational Stress, Job Satisfaction and Employee Mental Health: A Compara...inventionjournals
Employees are increasingly recognising that work is infringing on their personal lives and they are not happy about it. Evidence indicates that balancing work and life demands now surpasses job security as an employee priority. They want a life as well as a job. The purpose of the study is to assess the occupational stress, job satisfaction and mental health of employees belonging to two professions namely bank and IT firms comprising of both private as well as private sector. The need was felt so as to aid the personnel to combat with various dimensions of occupation stress and job dissatisfaction and to inculcate feelings of organisational citizenship behaviour and commitment and reduce employee turnover costs and attrition which is on the rise these days. Design and Methodology – An attempt was made to study 60 bank employees each from private sector and public sector. Similarly, from the IT firms 60 each employees were taken from private as well as public sector of Kolkata following simple random sampling.The total sample size was 240. For this purpose the following scales were used- 1.Job Satisfaction Questionnaire by Dr. B.C. Muthayya 2.The Occupational Stress Index by Dr. A. K. Shrivastava and Dr. A.P. Singh - It purports to measure the extent of stress which employees perceive in terms of 12 domains. 3.Employee's Mental Health Inventory (EMHI) by Dr.Jagdish Results – The occupational stress has been found out to be maximum in terms of role overload ,powerlessness, underparticipation ,low status and unprofitability for banks in private sector. Least occupational stress has been reported by employees working in IT private sector. Considering job satisfaction bank private sector face maximum job dissatisfaction. Whereas, IT govt sector encounters least job dissatisfaction. Lastly, taking into account employee mental health ,good mental health prevails among employees from IT govt sector and worst among bank private sector. Conclusion - Experiencing high levels of organisational stress has negative effects on task performance. It also adversely affects ones’ physical and mental health in a wide variety of ways. Stress and job dissatisfaction is a major cause to disrupt worklife balance , desk rage and burnout.
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The Effects of Psychological Contract Breach on Job Outcomes.pdf
1. San Jose State University
San Jose State University
SJSU ScholarWorks
SJSU ScholarWorks
Master's Theses Master's Theses and Graduate Research
Summer 2013
The Effects of Psychological Contract Breach on Job Outcomes
The Effects of Psychological Contract Breach on Job Outcomes
Nichole Simone Ballou
San Jose State University
Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd_theses
Recommended Citation
Recommended Citation
Ballou, Nichole Simone, "The Effects of Psychological Contract Breach on Job Outcomes" (2013).
Master's Theses. 4327.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.31979/etd.sqy9-u9df
https://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/etd_theses/4327
This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Master's Theses and Graduate Research at SJSU
ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Master's Theses by an authorized administrator of SJSU
ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact scholarworks@sjsu.edu.
2. THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BREACH ON JOB OUTCOMES
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of the Department of Psychology
San José State University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science
by
Nichole S. Ballou
August 2013
4. The Designated Thesis Committee Approves the Thesis Titled
THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BREACH ON JOB OUTCOMES
by
Nichole S. Ballou
APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
SAN JOSÉ STATE UNIVERSITY
August 2013
Dr. Howard Tokunaga Department of Psychology
Dr. Megumi Hosoda Department of Psychology
Arnnon Geshuri Tesla Motors, Inc.
5. ABSTRACT
THE EFFECTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BREACH ON JOB OUTCOMES
by Nichole S. Ballou
The present study examined the effects of psychological contract breach on
attitudinal and behavioral job outcomes including job satisfaction, intention to remain
with one’s organization, perceived organizational support, and organizational citizenship
behaviors. Additionally, the present study also examined whether the effect of the
psychological contract breach on these job outcomes varied based on the type of
psychological contract an employee had (i.e., transactional or relational). A total of 89
part- and full-time employees participated in this study. Results showed that the breach
of one’s psychological contract had a significant effect on one’s job satisfaction, intention
to remain, and perceived organizational support. Additionally, there was a significant
interaction between psychological contract breach and psychological contract type such
that when employees experienced a breach of their psychological contract, the effect of
the psychological contract breach on perceived organizational support and organizational
citizenship behaviors varied depending on psychological contract type.
6. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my thesis chair, Dr. Howard Tokunaga for his invaluable
perspective and support throughout the thesis process. His patience, guidance, and
insight allowed me to reach my goals within the tight timeline I had. I would also like to
thank Dr. Megumi Hosoda for her insight and contribution to my success. Her attention
to detail and expertise in the field of I/O Psychology are highly commended. I would like
to extend my appreciation and gratitude to Arnnon Geshuri for lending his insightful
expertise and time. A very special thank you goes to my family and friends for all of
their unconditional love and support. Their positivity and faith in me is what got me to
the end of this journey and to the start of the next chapter in my life.
Prost!
7. vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................ix
INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1
Definition of a Psychological Contract ........................................................2
Transactional vs. Relational Psychological Contracts .................................4
Psychological Contract Breach ....................................................................6
Outcomes of Psychological Contract Breach ...............................................7
The Current Study ........................................................................................10
METHOD ................................................................................................................12
Participants .................................................................................................12
Measures .....................................................................................................13
Psychological contract breach ...........................................................13
Job satisfaction .................................................................................14
Intention to remain with the organization ........................................14
Perceived organizational support .....................................................14
Psychological contract type .............................................................15
Organizational citizenship behavior ................................................16
Background information ..................................................................16
Procedures ....................................................................................................16
RESULTS ..................................................................................................................18
8. vii
Descriptive Statistics ………………………………………………......… 18
Pearson Correlations ....................................................................................19
Test of Research Question ..........................................................................21
Moderating effect of psychological contract type .............................21
DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................................27
Theoretical Implications .............................................................................28
Practical Implications .................................................................................30
Strengths and Limitations ...........................................................................32
Future Research ..........................................................................................34
Conclusion ..................................................................................................35
REFERENCES .........................................................................................................37
9. viii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Variables .........................................................19
Table 2. Pearson Correlations Among Variables .................................................20
Table 3. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for the Moderating
Effect of Psychological Contract Type ..................................................22
10. ix
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Interaction Effect of Psychological Contract Breach and Psychological
Contract Type on Perceived Organizational Support......................................25
Figure 2. Interaction Effect of Psychological Contract Breach and Psychological
Contract Type on Organizational Citizenship Behaviors................................26
11. 1
Introduction
When an individual becomes employed at an organization, many paper contracts
are signed where both the employee and the organization develop expectations of each
other. What many employees do not realize is that they are also forming another contract
that is not written on paper nor articulated. This contract is called a psychological
contract. A psychological contract plays a vital role in how employees perceive their
organizations as well as how they will perform. Thus far, research has predominately
focused on the impact of psychological contract fulfillment on employee and
organizational outcomes. However, research has not thoroughly examined the effects
that the breach of a psychological contract may have on employees and their view of the
organization.
Being able to better understand how psychological contract breach affects
employees would help organizations prepare themselves for when a psychological
contract breach does occur. Reactions to a psychological contract breach can range from
attitudinal to behavioral. These reactions then translate into different job outcomes that
affect the overall wellness of the organization. The purpose of this study was to examine
the effect of psychological contract breach on attitudinal and behavioral job outcomes
including job satisfaction, intention to remain, perceived organizational support, and
organizational citizenship behaviors.
12. 2
Definition of a Psychological Contract
Many researchers have sought to define a psychological contract and most of
these definitions have echoed similar themes, which include expectations, beliefs,
reciprocity, and obligations. For the purpose of this research, the definition that will be
utilized states that a psychological contract is an employee’s belief in a reciprocal
obligation between the employee and the organization (Rousseau, 1989). Researchers
have agreed that a psychological contract is subjective in nature in that it depends on the
employee’s point of view regarding what obligations the organization must fulfill
(Bellou, 2009; Rousseau, 1989; Rousseau, 1995). As Rousseau (1989) contends, this
contract becomes an essential element to the relationship between the employee and the
organization because it affects employee job outcomes.
The development of a psychological contract begins with subjective points of
view that the job applicant holds and can be predicated by the belief that there will be
reciprocity once the job applicant is hired (Hess & Jepsen, 2009). Rousseau (1989) first
defined the nature of a psychological contract, how a contract develops and evolves, what
is needed to maintain a contract, and how a psychological contract can be violated.
Rousseau noted that during the initial development of a psychological contract, the
organization has either paid for or has offered some sort of consideration in exchange for
the promise that the employee will reciprocate. An example of this initial exchange
would be the early interaction between the job applicant and the organization in which
there is an offer of a job and the job applicant’s acceptance of employment. The
promises and consideration are both subjective, and the employee normally assumes that
13. 3
the contract is made in good faith, fair dealing, and trust. As part of this interaction, the
organization is remunerating an employee to fulfill a set of responsibilities and the hiring
manager assumes the employee has been truthful in his or her representation of skills and
abilities in order to fulfill a particular role in the company. This initial exchange of
promise and consideration sets the stage for the relationship between the employee and
the organization.
After the employee begins working at the organization, reciprocal expectations
are formed and may contain a range of assumptions, including a mutual understanding
that hard work will result in continued employment. Consistent patterns of inducements
and contributions over time reinforce the mutual understanding and then lead to the
building of trust between the employee and the organization. This leads to the
employee’s belief that the organization is obligated to continue employment into the
future as long as the employee performs well and contributes to the organization’s well-
being (Rousseau, 1989).
Within a psychological contract, it is possible that the employee and the
organization may perceive the obligations or expectations differently. For example, the
employee may believe that hard work is defined as diligently completing all assigned
tasks during the normal 40-hour work week; however, the organization may only reward
those who work in the evenings or weekends as well as the normal 40-hour work week.
Although an organization may have expressed expectations or standards for work
performance, it is important to emphasize that organizations themselves cannot perceive a
psychological contract. Managers may perceive a psychological contract with an
14. 4
employee; however, only employees have psychological contracts, not organizations
(Rousseau, 1989).
Transactional vs. Relational Psychological Contracts
Extensive research has established that psychological contracts can be portrayed
in two different ways: transactional and relational. A transactional contract is based on
economic or extrinsic factors, tends to be specifically defined, and its time frame is finite
and short-term (Alcover, Martínez-Iñigo, & Chambel, 2012; De Cuyper & De Witte,
2006). Employees with a transactional psychological contract may expect financial and
material exchanges for their work and have a short-term commitment to their obligations.
For example, sales employees may expect to receive a spot bonus if they reach their sales
goals for the week. This financial incentive motivates employees to perform well in a
short period of time but generally does not result in high performance in the long term. A
transactional psychological contract does not vary over time, has a narrow scope, is
public and observable by others, and tends to be associated with careerist motivations on
the part of the employee (Rousseau, 1990).
In general, employees whose psychological contracts are portrayed as
transactional base their contracts on financial rewards, money, and being paid on time
(Bellou, 2009; De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006; De Hauw & De Vos, 2010). Because
transactional psychological contracts are close-ended, specific, and are based on extrinsic
and economic factors, employees with this type of contract generally do not envision
themselves working for their current organization in the long-term. The short-term
15. 5
perspective is due to the fact that employees with a transactional psychological contract
are not driven by factors that facilitate loyalty to the organization.
Compared to a transactional psychological contract, employees with a relational
psychological contract may believe that there is more to their relationships with their
organizations than economic exchange. A relational psychological contract is developed
through non-economic, socio-emotional, and intrinsic factors founded on trust and
organizational commitment. A relational psychological contract is open-ended,
indefinite, dynamic, and has a broad scope (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006; Rousseau,
1990).
Employees whose psychological contracts are portrayed as relational may base
their contracts on status, recognition, the chance to be creative (Bellou, 2009), job
security, work/ lifestyle balance, training (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), career
development (Bellou, 2009; De Hauw & De Vos, 2010), and promotions (Alcover et al.,
2012; Kickul & Lester, 2001; Rousseau, 1995). Some employees base their
psychological contracts on status or recognition, which may simply mean that the
employee expects a “good job” or a congratulatory email from his or her boss when a
major project has been successfully completed. Other employees, which may include
engineers or research and development teams, may base their psychological contracts on
whether they get opportunities to be creative with their work. For example, Google,
Inc.® provides all employees with the opportunity to devote up to 20% of their
workweek to a project of their choice (Crowley, 2013).
16. 6
Psychological Contract Breach
As discussed, a psychological contract is an employee’s expectation that there is a
reciprocal obligation between the employee and the organization. What happens when
these expectations are not fulfilled? Based on several studies exploring the job outcomes
of a psychological contract breach (Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Hess & Jepsen, 2009;
Suazo, 2009; Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski, & Bravo, 2007), there is a high likelihood that
when the workplace does not meet the expectations of employees, they are more likely to
feel less satisfied with their jobs. Because a psychological contract breach can have such
negative effects on employees, it is important to further understand how the breach of a
psychological contract can affect employees.
A psychological contract breach is defined as an employee’s perception that his or
her organization has failed to fulfill one or more obligations associated with perceived
mutual promises (Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003). Any action that is inconsistent with the
employee’s belief in a reciprocal obligation has the potential to create a perception of
contract breach in the eyes of the employee (Rousseau, 1989). One fictional example of
a psychological contract breach occurred in the classic holiday comedy “National
Lampoon’s Christmas Vacation” (Hughes, Simmons, & Chechik, 1989). In this movie,
Clark Griswold, the protagonist father, expected to receive a Christmas bonus from his
organization in which he was employed. His belief was that if he worked hard all year
and stayed loyal to the organization, he would receive a Christmas cash bonus allowing
him to install a pool for his home. To his surprise, on Christmas Eve his “bonus” was a
membership to the jelly of the month club rather than the anticipated cash bonus. Clark
17. 7
lost his composure, became upset, and his anger manifested into anti-social behaviors as
a result of his breached psychological contract.
Outcomes of Psychological Contract Breach
When employees experience a breach of their psychological contract, they can
experience different reactions, ranging from attitudinal to behavioral reactions toward the
organization (Kickul & Lester, 2001). A psychological contract breach can have an
attitudinal effect on employees due to the fact that a trusting relationship between the
employee and the organization has become broken. Because psychological contracts are
employees’ subjective perceptions of reciprocal obligations between the employee and
the organization, if employees perceive that they have upheld their own end of the
contract but the organization has not, they are likely to feel let down and betrayed
(Rousseau, 1989). One of the most widely studied attitudinal job outcomes of
psychological contract breach is job satisfaction (Hess & Jepsen, 2009). Research
findings have consistently shown that psychological contract breach is related to lowered
job satisfaction (Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Suazo, 2009; Zhao et al., 2007).
The breach of an employee’s psychological contract is also positively related to
the employee’s intention to leave the organization, which is another widely researched
attitudinal job outcome (Hess & Jepsen, 2009). After a psychological contract breach,
employees may be less willing to exert extra effort on behalf of the organization and have
a lower desire to remain employees of their organization (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010).
Research has found that psychological contract breach was significantly and positively
related to intention to turnover (Suazo, 2009; Zhao et al., 2007). Employees with a
18. 8
psychological contract that was transactionally oriented reported that they were more
likely to quit their job than those with relational psychological contracts. In addition,
research has also found that employees with a relational psychological contract had a
significant and positive relationship with intention to quit (Alcover et al., 2012). In
summary, based on these findings, the type of psychological contract employees have
may determine whether employees will leave their current organization following a
breach of their psychological contract.
An attitudinal job outcome of psychological contract breach that has not been
widely researched in the literature is perceived organizational support. Perceived
organizational support is defined as the extent to which employees believe their
organization values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger,
Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). Perceptions of the organization can be
influenced by how the organization treats employees, which ultimately affects the
employees’ perception of whether the organization is supportive and values them.
Examining perceived organizational support from an organizational standpoint is
important because research has shown that when employees perceive that their
organization supports them, they are more likely to expect that their extra efforts toward
meeting organizational goals will be rewarded (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Specifically,
Eisenberger et al. (1986) found that rewards including pay, rank, training and
development, and opportunities to participate in decision making affected employees’
perceived organizational support such that employees felt that these rewards represented
the organization’s positive evaluations of them. In addition, research has found that
19. 9
employees with higher perceived organizational support have increased job satisfaction
(Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Suazo (2009) was one of the first researchers to find
that psychological contract breach was negatively related to perceived organizational
support.
Organizational citizenship behavior is one of the top researched behavioral job
outcomes of psychological contract breach (Hess & Jepsen, 2009). Organizational
citizenship behavior is defined as behaviors that are beneficial to the organization,
discretionary, and not included in employees’ formal job descriptions (Zhao et al., 2007).
It is important to examine the effects of psychological contract breach on organizational
citizenship behaviors because these behaviors can have a positive impact on the
organization. If employees experience a psychological contract breach, they are less
likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors (Zhao et al., 2007). This is due to
the fact that organizational citizenship behaviors are not required by employees’ job
descriptions; as such, failure to perform them should not be negatively reflected in the
evaluation of their performance (Suazo, 2009).
In summary, once employees feel that a psychological contract has not been
fulfilled, they may become less satisfied with their jobs, may experience cognitive
manipulation of the perceived inequities, and may change their behaviors by decreasing
the amount of extra-role behaviors they perform (Jensen, Opland, & Ryan, 2009). In
addition, employees may even consider leaving the organization (Alcover et al., 2012;
Kickul, Lester, & Belgio, 2004). These reactions can harm the productivity of the
20. 10
organization and even lead to increased absenteeism (Eisenberger et al., 1986) and
turnover (Hess & Jepsen, 2009).
The Current Study
It is important to examine the effects of psychological contract breach because
this breach can happen at any time with any employee whether it be a top performer or a
potential employee. Because employees can have different types of psychological
contracts with their organization, employees may react differently to a breach of their
psychological contract depending on whether it is transactional or relational.
There is a limited body of existing research that has examined the possibility that
changes in employees’ attitudes and behaviors when a psychological contract breach has
occurred may vary as a function of whether they have a transactional or relational
psychological contract (Zhao et al., 2007). Transactional psychological contracts are
based on financial factors, whereas relational psychological contracts are based on socio-
emotional factors. Because transactional and relational psychological contracts vary in
what they can be based on, employees’ reactions to a perceived contract breach may vary
based on the type of contract the employee has.
According to Robinson and Morrison (1995), employees generally expect
transactional rewards (e.g., competitive compensation) as a bottom-line obligation of
their organization. In contrast, relational rewards tend to be viewed as extra, non-
required inducements by employees. This would lead one to predict that the breach of a
transactional psychological contract would elicit more intense negative attitudes than the
breach of a relational psychological contract. However, Zhao et al. (2007) found that
21. 11
employees who reported that their relational psychological contracts were breached had a
stronger relationship with job outcomes such that breach of a relational psychological
contract was negatively related to job satisfaction and organizational citizenship
behaviors and positively related to turnover intentions.
It is necessary to further examine job outcomes including job satisfaction,
intention to remain with the organization, perceived organizational support, and
organizational citizenship behaviors because these are the reactions organizations want
their employees to positively experience. By understanding the outcomes of a
psychological contract breach, organizations may be able to better understand how to
avoid breaching employees’ psychological contracts and improve job outcomes. With
that being said, the purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between
psychological contract breach and job outcomes including job satisfaction, intention to
remain with the organization, perceived organizational support, and organizational
citizenship behaviors. This research will also examine whether the aforementioned job
outcomes vary depending on the type of psychological contract an employee may have.
Research Question: Does the effect of a psychological contract breach on job
outcomes (i.e., job satisfaction, intention to remain with the organization,
perceived organizational support, and organizational citizenship behaviors) vary
as a function of the type of psychological contract employees have?
22. 12
Method
Participants
For inclusion in this study, participants were required to be part- or full-time
employees. After discarding responses that were not fully completed (n = 3), the total
sample consisted of 89 participants. The average age of the sample was 35 years old (SD
= 12.64) ranging from 19 to 65 years old and consisted of 62.5% males and 37.5%
females. Although a majority of the sample was Caucasian (61.8%), the rest of the
sample was ethnically diverse (17% Asian/Pacific Islander, 9% Hispanic, 1%
Black/African American, and 9% Other/Multi-Racial). A majority of the sample had at
least a bachelor’s degree or higher (82%).
A large percentage of the sample was employed full-time (84%) with only 16% in
part-time positions. A small percentage of the sample reported being in a management
position (28%). The average length of tenure within one’s current organization was 52
months (equivalent to roughly 4.33 years, SD = 81.92), and ranged from one month to
420 months (35 years). In terms of industry of employment, the largest proportion of
participants worked in the professional/ business services industry (27%), with the rest of
the sample dispersed in manufacturing (25%), retail (8%), educational services (7%),
leisure and hospitality (5%), health care (2%), government (2%), and other (24%). The
level of annual household gross income was evenly distributed from less than $25,000 to
$150,000 or more.
23. 13
Measures
Psychological contract breach. Psychological contract breach was measured
using a 26-item self-report scale from Kickul et al. (2004). These items consisted of
obligations employees may have had explicitly or implicitly communicated to them when
they were hired by their current organization. Examples of these obligations included
competitive salary, health care benefits, adequate equipment to perform one’s job,
challenging and interesting work, job training, opportunities for promotion and
advancement, and increasing responsibilities.
Measuring psychological contract breach required participants to evaluate each
obligation along two aspects. The first was whether they felt the obligation had been
promised to them (yes or no); participants were instructed to check each of the
obligations that had been promised to them by their organizations. Second, participants
indicated to what degree they felt their organization fulfilled each of the obligations that
were promised to them. Participants rated these obligations using a 5-point Likert scale
(1 = not at all fulfilled to 5 = very fulfilled). All rated items were then reverse coded in
order to represent psychological contract breach rather than fulfillment. The extent of
psychological contract breach was calculated by dividing the sum of the reverse-scored
fulfillment ratings by the number of obligations marked. For example, if a participant
selected 10 obligation items and the sum of the reverse-scored fulfillment ratings on these
obligations totaled 43, then this participant’s extent of psychological contract breach
score was 4.30 (43/10 = 4.30). Scores on psychological contract breach could range from
1 to 5.
24. 14
Job satisfaction. The three-item Michigan Organizational Assessment
Questionnaire Job Satisfaction subscale (Camman, Fichman, Jenkins, & Klesh, 1975)
was used to measure job satisfaction. An example item from the scale included “All in
all I am satisfied with my job.” Participants indicated the degree to which they agreed
with each statement on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7
(strongly agree). The mean of the three items was then calculated to determine each
participant’s level of job satisfaction. The Job Satisfaction subscale appeared to be
internally consistent at α = .90.
Intention to remain with the organization. Intention to remain with one’s
organization was measured using three items created by the researcher to identify
whether participants intended to remain with their current organization in the future. An
example item included “I expect to remain with my current organization for at least five
years.” This was assessed by asking participants to indicate their responses on a 7-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mean of the
three items was then calculated to determine participants’ intention to remain with their
current organization. The Intention to Remain Scale appeared to be internally consistent
at α = .91.
Perceived organizational support. Perceived organizational support was
measured using a shortened 10-item scale from Eisenberger et al. (1986) that assessed
whether the participants believed their organization valued their contributions and cared
about their well-being. An example item from the scale included “My organization is
25. 15
willing to extend itself in order to help me perform my job to the best of my ability.”
Participants indicated the degree to which they agreed with each statement on a 7-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mean of the 10
items was then calculated to determine each participant’s level of perceived
organizational support. The internal consistency reliability of the Perceived
Organizational Support Scale was .90.
Psychological contract type. A shortened 26-item scale by Millward and
Hopkins (1998) was used in order to determine whether participants had a transactional
or relational psychological contract. An example of an item measuring a transactional
psychological contract included “My loyalty to the organization is contract specific.” An
example of an item measuring a relational psychological contract included “My job
means more to me than just a means of paying the bills.” Responses were recorded on a
7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
In order to determine the type of psychological contract for each participant, the
mean of the 13 transactional psychological contract items and the 13 relational
psychological contract items were calculated and compared with each other. According
to Millward and Hopkins (1998), transactional and relational psychological contracts
represent opposite ends of a bipolar continuum. Based on that fact, whichever of the two
psychological contracts had the greater mean represented the psychological contract type
that participant had. For example, if a participant scored a mean of 2.30 on the
transactional psychological contract scale and a mean of 4.50 on the relational
psychological contract scale, that participant would be categorized as having a relational
26. 16
psychological contract. In addition, if the difference between a participant’s
psychological contract type scores was less than 1.00, that person was included in the
transactional psychological contract type group.
Organizational citizenship behavior. Organizational citizenship behavior was
measured using a shortened five-item scale from Smith, Organ, and Near (1983) to
measure whether participants performed extra-role behaviors at their organization. An
example item included “I attend functions I am not required to attend that help my
organization’s image.” This was measured using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The mean of the five items was then calculated
to determine whether participants engaged in organizational citizenship behaviors. The
Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale had a relatively low internal consistency
reliability of .45.
Background information. In addition to the psychological variables,
background information was asked of the participants. This included gender, age,
ethnicity, education level, employment status, tenure with current organization, current
work industry, annual income, and whether the participant held a supervisory position.
Procedures
Employees from a variety of organizations in California were emailed and asked
to participate in the present study through filling out an anonymous online survey. The
survey link was also made accessible to individuals online via the researcher’s social
networking tools. Participants were informed in the survey prompt that the survey would
take approximately 10 minutes of their time and that the research was concerned with
27. 17
their beliefs and feelings toward their current organization for which they work.
Participants were also informed that their answers would remain anonymous and
confidential and to contact the researcher should they have any questions. Upon
completion of the survey, participants were reminded to contact the researcher with any
questions about the survey.
28. 18
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Out of the 92 responses that were returned, 89 participants had valid data for all of
the variables examined and were thus included in the analyses (Table 1). Participants
rated psychological contract breach in the middle of the possible range of scores (M =
4.28, SD = .70) meaning participants did not have strong feelings of whether they felt that
their psychological contract was breached. Psychological contract type was distributed as
29% (n = 26) of participants with transactional psychological contracts and 71% (n = 73)
of participants with relational psychological contracts. Participants reported a moderately
high level of job satisfaction (M = 5.68, SD = 1.33) and a moderately high level of
perceived organizational support (M = 4.83, SD = 1.25). Participants also reported a high
level of organizational citizenship behaviors (M = 5.70, SD = .66). However, participants
did not display a strong or weak intention to remain with their current organization (M =
4.35, SD = 2.06).
29. 19
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics of Variables (n = 89)
Variable Range M SD
Psychological contract breach 1-5 4.28 .70
Psychological contract type
Transactional PC N = 26 29%
Relational PC N = 73 71%
Job satisfaction 1-7 5.68 1.33
Intention to remain with organization 1-7 4.35 2.06
Perceived organizational support 1-7 4.83 1.25
Organizational citizenship behaviors 1-7 5.70 .66
Pearson Correlations
As seen in Table 2, psychological contract breach was significantly and
negatively related to all variables except for organizational citizenship behaviors (r =
-.13, p = .11). The significant relationships between psychological contract breach and
the other variables included psychological contract type (r = -.18, p < .05), job
satisfaction (r = -.49, p < .01), intention to remain (r = -.30, p < .01), and perceived
organizational support (r = -.55, p < .01). This means that individuals who perceived a
higher degree of breach in their psychological contract tended to have a relational
psychological contract, lower job satisfaction, a lower likelihood to remain with their
organization, and a lower level of perceived organizational support.
Psychological contract type was significantly and positively related to job
satisfaction (r = .58, p < .01), intention to remain (r = .62, p < .01), perceived
organizational support (r = .47, p < .01), and organizational citizenship behaviors (r =
30. 20
.35, p < .01). This means that individuals with relational psychological contracts reported
higher levels of job satisfaction, a higher intention to remain with their current
organization, higher levels of perceived organizational support, and more organizational
citizenship behaviors than individuals with transactional psychological contracts.
Table 2
Pearson Correlations Among Variables
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01. Psychological contract type coded as 1 = Transactional
Psychological Contract, 2 = Relational Psychological Contract
The job outcome scales were all significantly and positively related to each other
except for job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors (r = .17, p = .12). Job
satisfaction was significantly related to intention to remain (r = .61, p < .01) and
perceived organizational support (r = .62, p < .01) meaning if participants were satisfied
with their jobs, they were more likely to intend to remain with their organization and
perceive that their organization supported them. Intention to remain was significantly
related to perceived organizational support (r = .40, p < .01) and organizational
citizenship behaviors (r = .40, p < .01) such that individuals who intended to remain with
their organization were more likely to perceive that their organization supported them and
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Psychological contract breach --
2. Psychological contract type -.18* --
3. Job satisfaction -.49** .58** --
4. Intention to remain -.30** .62** .61** --
5. Perceived organizational support -.55** .47** .62** .40** --
6. Organizational citizenship
behaviors -.13 .35** .17 .40** .27* --
31. 21
were more likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. Perceived
organizational support and organizational citizenship behaviors were significantly related
(r = .27, p < .05) such that individuals who perceived that their organization supported
them were more likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors.
Test of Research Question
Moderating effect of psychological contract type. Hierarchical multiple
regression analyses (MRC) were utilized in order to answer the research question of
whether the effect of psychological contract breach on job outcomes varied as a function
of type of psychological contract (Table 3). A significant interaction between
psychological contract breach and psychological contract type would mean that the type
of psychological contract one has affects job outcomes following a breach of one’s
psychological contract differently. Hierarchical MRC was utilized to test for this
interaction effect for each of the job outcomes (job satisfaction, intention to remain,
perceived organizational support, and organizational citizenship behaviors).
In the first step of the regression analyses, psychological contract breach was
entered. Psychological contract breach accounted for a significant amount of variance in
job satisfaction, R2= .24, F(1, 86) = 26.70, p < .01, intention to remain, R2= .09, F(1, 86)
= 8.22, p < .01, and perceived organizational support, R2= .30, F(1, 86) = 36.35, p < .01.
This means that employees who experienced a breach of their psychological contract
were more likely to experience lower job satisfaction, a lower intention to remain with
their current organization, and they were less likely to perceive that their organization
supported them. However, psychological contract breach did not account for a
32. 22
significant amount of variance in organizational citizenship behaviors, R2= .02, F(1, 86) =
1.58, p = .21.
Table 3
Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for the Moderating Effect of Psychological Contract
Type
Job Satisfaction Intention to Remain
β R2
∆R2
β R2
∆R2
Step 1: Psychological Contract
Breach
-.49** .24** .24** -.30** .09** .09**
Step 2: Psychological Contract
Type
.51** .49** .25** .59** .42** .34**
Step 3: PCB x Contract Type .32 .49** .00 -.24 .42** .00
Perceived Organizational
Support
Organizational Citizenship
Behaviors
β R2
∆R2
β R2
∆R2
Step 1: Psychological Contract
Breach
-.55** .30** .30** -.13 .02 .02
Step 2: Psychological Contract
Type
.39** .44** .14** .35** .13** .12**
Step 3: PCB x Contract Type -1.61** .50** .06** -1.37* .18** .04*
Note. * p < .05; ** p < .01
In the second step, psychological contract type was entered. The addition of
psychological contract type accounted for a significant amount of variance above and
beyond psychological contract breach in all four outcome variables: job satisfaction,
ΔR2= .25, F(1, 85) = 41.92, p < .01, intention to remain, ΔR2= .34, F(1, 85) = 49.46, p <
.01, perceived organizational support, ΔR2= .14, F(1, 85) = 21.90, p < .01, and
organizational citizenship behaviors, ΔR2= .12, F(1, 85) = 11.31, p < .01. This means that
having a relational psychological contract was more strongly related to job satisfaction,
33. 23
intention to remain, perceived organizational support, and organizational citizenship
behaviors compared to having a transactional psychological contract.
In the third step, the interaction of psychological contract breach and
psychological contract type was entered. The interaction effect did not account for a
significant amount of incremental variance in job satisfaction, ΔR2 = .00, F(1, 84) = .37, p
= .55 or intention to remain, ΔR2= .00, F(1, 84) = .18, p = .67. However, the interaction
between psychological contract breach and psychological contract type was significant in
perceived organizational support, ΔR2= .06, F(1, 84) = 9.63, p < .01 and organizational
citizenship behaviors, ΔR2= .04, F(1, 84) = 4.20, p < .05. The significant interaction
between psychological contract breach and psychological contract type indicated that the
relationship between psychological contract breach and one’s perception of
organizational support and one’s performance of organizational citizenship behaviors
varied depending on what type of psychological contract one had adopted.
Additional analyses were run to interpret the significant interaction between
psychological contract breach and psychological contract type for perceived
organizational support and organizational citizenship behaviors. For each of the two
outcome variables, separate regression equations were calculated for relational and
transactional psychological contract types. As seen in Figure 1, for individuals with a
relational psychological contract, greater degrees of psychological contract breach were
associated with decreased levels of perceived organizational support. However, for
individuals with a transactional psychological contract, psychological contract breach
was only slightly related to lower levels of perceived organizational support. As seen in
34. 24
Figure 2, if individuals had a relational psychological contract, those with a greater
degree of psychological contract breach decreased their organizational citizenship
behaviors. In contrast, if individuals had a transactional psychological contract, those
with a greater degree of psychological contract breach increased their organizational
citizenship behaviors.
In summary, the results of the multiple regression analyses provided evidence that
individuals who experienced a psychological contract breach were more likely to
experience lowered levels of job satisfaction, a lower intention to remain with their
current organization, and they were less likely to perceive that their organization
supported them. The addition of psychological contract type in the multiple regression
analyses provided support that there was a stronger relationship between relational
psychological contracts and job satisfaction, intention to remain, perceived organizational
support, and organizational citizenship behaviors compared to transactional
psychological contracts. The significant interaction between psychological contract
breach and psychological contract type indicated that the relationship between
psychological contract breach and one’s perception of support from the current
organization and one’s performance of organizational citizenship behaviors varied
depending on whether one had a transactional or a relational psychological contract.
When employees had a relational psychological contract that was breached, they
perceived significantly less support from their organization and decreased their
organizational citizenship behaviors. When employees had a transactional psychological
35. 25
contract that was breached, their perception of organizational support did not change;
however, they increased their organizational citizenship behaviors.
Figure 1. Interaction effect of psychological contract breach and psychological contract
type on perceived organizational support.
Perceived
Organizational
Support
Psychological Contract Breach
Transactional PC
Relational PC
36. 26
Figure 2. Interaction effect of psychological contract breach and psychological contract
type on organizational citizenship behaviors.
Organizational
Citizenship
Behavior
Psychological Contract Breach
Transactional PC
Relational PC
37. 27
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of psychological
contract breach on attitudinal and behavioral job outcomes including job satisfaction,
intention to remain with one’s organization, perceived organizational support, and
organizational citizenship behaviors. The present study also examined whether the effect
of psychological contract breach on these job outcomes varied based on the type of
psychological contract an employee had (i.e., transactional or relational). The findings of
this study indicated that employees who perceived a breach of their psychological
contract experienced lower job satisfaction, a lower intention to remain with their current
organization, and were less likely to perceive that their organization supported them. The
effect of a psychological contract breach was not directly related to organizational
citizenship behaviors; however, as will be discussed next, this effect was moderated by
psychological contract type.
When the interaction of psychological contract breach and psychological contract
type was taken into account, perceived organizational support and organizational
citizenship behaviors yielded significant results. Specifically, individuals with a
relational psychological contract reported a decrease in their level of perceived
organizational support and a decrease in organizational citizenship behaviors following a
psychological contract breach. In contrast, individuals who perceived that their
transactional psychological contract was breached did not experience a change in their
level of perceived organization support and increased their organizational citizenship
behaviors.
38. 28
Theoretical Implications
The present study’s findings supported and expanded on the findings of previous
research. In terms of direct effects, psychological contract breach was associated with a
decrease in job satisfaction, a lower intention to remain with one’s organization, a
decrease in perceived organizational support, and lower levels of organizational
citizenship behaviors. These findings were consistent with prior research (Gakovic &
Tetrick, 2003; Suazo, 2009; Zhao et al., 2007).
Most research has examined the effect of psychological contract breach on job
outcomes (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010; Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Suazo, 2009; Zhao et
al., 2007). This study explored using psychological contract type as a moderator in the
relationship between psychological contract breach and job outcomes. The findings of
the present study indicated that the effect of a psychological contract breach on perceived
organizational support and organizational citizenship behaviors varied depending on
whether employees had a transactional or a relational psychological contract.
Whether an employee engaged in organizational citizenship behaviors following a
psychological contract breach depended on the type of psychological contract the
employee had. If an employee’s psychological contract was based on relational factors,
the employee was less likely to engage in organizational citizenship behaviors following
a psychological contract breach. However, if an employee’s psychological contract was
based on transactional factors, the employee was found to be more likely to engage in
organizational citizenship behaviors following a psychological contract breach. In
39. 29
general, one would predict that organizational citizenship behaviors would decrease
regardless of the type of psychological contract breached.
A possible explanation for this interesting finding may be that those employees
with a breached transactional psychological contract may have perceived that they had
not upheld their end of their contract and blamed themselves for the breach of their
psychological contract. In general, employees who have a transactional psychological
contract view their relationship with their organization as more of a transaction or
exchange. Specifically, if employees with a transactional psychological contract did not
receive the outputs (promised obligations) they expected, they may have believed that
they needed to increase their input (work and organizational citizenship behaviors).
Employees with a relational psychological contract generally tend to base their contracts
on loyalty and socio-emotional factors so the breach of their psychological contract may
have caused them to lose trust in their organization and feel a sense of betrayal, which
has also been found in prior research (Rousseau, 1989). That loss in trust and feeling of
betrayal may have, in turn, caused employees with relational psychological contracts to
decrease their organizational citizenship behaviors potentially out of spite.
The findings of the present study that employees with a relational psychological
contract experienced more significantly negative reactions than employees with a
transactional psychological contract contrasted the findings from Robinson and Morrison
(1995). Instead, the findings from the present study that employees who perceived a
breach of their relational psychological contracts experienced more significantly negative
reactions in the form of job satisfaction, turnover intention, and organizational citizenship
40. 30
behaviors compared to employees with transactional psychological contracts provided
support for the findings by Zhao et al. (2007).
Practical Implications
In the present study, many more employees reported having a relational
psychological contract with their current organization than a transactional psychological
contract. This may suggest that employees are finding positions that facilitate growth and
development rather than settling for a position that simply pays for the bills. Relational
psychological contracts are based on socio-emotional factors which means that
employees with this type of psychological contract tend to feel a sense of loyalty toward
their organization and want to work for the greater good of the organization (De Cuyper
& De Witte, 2006; Rousseau, 1990). Organizations should focus on continuing to hire
employees who demonstrate loyalty and dedication toward them because these are
characteristics of a relational psychological contract. This is beneficial to the
organization because employees who have relational psychological contracts are
generally willing to go above and beyond their contractual duties for the greater good of
their organization (De Cuyper & De Witte, 2006; Millward & Hopkins, 1998).
Employees with relational psychological contracts were more likely to experience
negative job outcomes when they believed that their psychological contract was breached
compared to employees with transactional psychological contracts. This may be because
relational psychological contracts are based on socio-emotional factors and trust so the
employees who experienced a breach of their relational psychological contracts felt a
sense of betrayal by the organization not fulfilling the obligations that were promised to
41. 31
them. Specifically, when employees with a relational psychological contract experienced
a breach, their perception of organizational support decreased significantly. Employees
with relational psychological contracts also decreased their organizational citizenship
behaviors following a breach of their psychological contract. These results suggest that it
is important for organizations to ensure that promises made to employees are fulfilled so
that employees do not perceive that their psychological contract has been breached. A
breach of a psychological contract can elicit strong reactions from employees; especially
from those employees with relational psychological contracts.
Interestingly, when employees with transactional psychological contracts
experienced a psychological contract breach, their engagement in organizational
citizenship behaviors increased. This may have been because employees with
transactional psychological contracts felt a need to increase their organizational
citizenship behaviors to obtain what they expected from the organization per their
psychological contract. In contrast, employees with relational psychological contracts
that were breached decreased their organizational citizenship behaviors. Organizations
should be wary of when a breach of an employee’s psychological contract is going to
occur. Although it seems that a breach of a transactional psychological contract may not
be detrimental to an organization, there could be long-term effects that ultimately harm
the organization. The breach of a relational psychological contract can be harmful to an
organization because those employees with a breached relational psychological contract
may do minimal amounts of work with no organizational citizenship behaviors and may
42. 32
experience low levels of perceived organizational support, which can ultimately harm the
organization.
Strengths and Limitations
Prior studies have examined psychological contract breach and its effect on job
outcomes (De Hauw & De Vos, 2010; Gakovic & Tetrick, 2003; Suazo, 2009; Zhao et
al., 2007). However, few studies have examined psychological contract type as a
moderator between psychological contract breach and job outcomes. One strength of the
present study is that it examined psychological contract type as a moderator. This
provides insight into whether the breach of a psychological contract affects job outcomes
depending on the type of psychological contract an employee has. Specifically, this
allows organizations to prepare for when a breach of employees’ psychological contracts
is unavoidable. For example, an organization may have promised 15 days of paid time
off to employees when they were hired but the organization may have had to stop giving
employees paid time off in order to save money, which is a breach of the employees’
psychological contracts. With the findings of this study, organizations will be able to
better predict how employees will react to such a breach of their psychological contract
and minimize the negative impact of a breach of employees’ psychological contracts.
Another strength of the present study is that perceived organizational support was
examined as an outcome variable following psychological contract breach rather than an
antecedent or a moderator variable. It is important for organizations to understand and
examine employees’ levels of perceived organizational support following a breach of
their psychological contract. According to the results of the present study, higher levels
43. 33
of perceived organizational support are positively correlated with employees’ intention to
remain and psychological contract breach is negatively related to employees’ intention to
remain. This suggests that organizations should ensure that they are making employees
feel supported even after a breach in order to prevent them from leaving the organization.
One limitation to this study was the large amount of participants who were
categorized into the relational psychological contract category. One reason for this
finding may be that employees are working in organizations that they have a positive
connection with and feel loyal to. Another explanation for this could be that participants
may have answered some questions in a socially desirable manner. Due to the skewness
of the distribution of psychological contract types, extra measures were used to make the
distribution more even. Specifically, instead of dividing the sample such that those
participants with higher scores on one psychological contract type scale were placed into
that group, participants also had to have a difference between the two scale scores greater
than 1.00. This may have caused the two psychological contract type groups to be very
similar. This limitation may have been avoided by collecting more responses allowing
for a larger pool of data to work with. Another way to avoid this limitation may be to
reword the psychological contract type items such that employees do not feel a need to
answer in a socially desirable manner.
Another limitation to this study was the low internal consistency reliability score
of the Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale (α = .45). This may have been caused
by removing items from the scale or from the original scale itself being unreliable. The
Organizational Citizenship Behavior Scale from Smith, Organ, and Near (1983)
44. 34
measured behaviors directly and unintentionally aimed at helping a specific person in
face-to-face situations and behaviors that indirectly were helpful to others involved in the
organization. Using a different organizational citizenship behavior scale may provide
more reliable results in future research. Despite the internal consistency reliability score
being low, the findings were still significant, however, results pertaining to organizational
citizenship behaviors should be interpreted with caution.
Future Research
Although the present study provided extensive support for many existing research
findings, there are still many outcomes of psychological contract breach to be examined.
Future research should examine additional job outcomes such as job performance,
counterproductive work behaviors, job security, and job involvement among others.
Prior research has examined these job outcomes after a psychological contract breach,
however, they have not been examined with psychological contract type as a moderator.
Another interesting moderator to examine would be procedural justice.
Procedural justice is defined as the implemented procedures at an organization
fundamental to the fair distribution of rewards that influences fairness perceptions of
employees (Niehoff & Moorman, 1993). Examining how procedural justice would
moderate the relationship between a breach of a transactional or relational psychological
contract and job outcomes would provide insight into how fair employees perceive their
organizations. The insight into whether they felt their organization had fair procedures
and their subsequent reactions to a breach of their psychological contract would provide
45. 35
an interesting view into the logic an employee goes through when their psychological
contract is breached.
Using importance of psychological contract obligations as a weight on
psychological contract breach would also provide interesting insight into how employees
react to a psychological contract breach. If a promised psychological contract obligation
was not important to employees, they may not react as strongly to a breach of their
psychological contract. Alternatively, if a promised psychological contract obligation
was very important to employees, then the breach of their psychological contract may
elicit stronger reactions. Additionally, examining the level of transparency of an
explanation an organization provides when a psychological contract breach occurs would
provide insight into how transparency affects job outcomes in the wake of a
psychological contract breach.
Lastly, future research should examine the effect of psychological contract breach
on job outcomes in a longitudinal study. For some employees, a psychological contract
breach may elicit immediate reactions, while for others, it may build up negative feelings
over time. Conversely, over time the initial negative attitudes employees experience
following a breach of their psychological contract may become weaker due to them
coping with the perceived breach or reestablishing trust with their organization.
Conclusion
The focus of previous research has mainly been on psychological contract
fulfillment. The present study examined whether the effects of psychological contract
breach on job outcomes was dependent on psychological contract type. Although the
46. 36
present study provided support for previous studies’ findings, new findings were made
highlighting the importance of organizations fulfilling the initial promises made to
employees. The consequences of a breached psychological contract can harm an
organization such that employees may become less satisfied with their jobs, may want to
leave their organization, may feel less supported by their organization, and may reduce
their organizational citizenship behaviors. It is especially important for organizations to
be aware of the differences in how employees react to a breach of their psychological
contract depending on the type of psychological contract employees have because the
reactions can vary dramatically and affect the organization significantly.
47. 37
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