Final Dissertation word

How do Job Stress and Emotional Labour impact
Work-Life Balance in the Hospitality Industry?
Fergal O’ Flaherty
MSc in Strategy, Innovation and People Management
Department of Management
National University of Ireland, Galway
2014

How do Job Stress and EmotionalLabour impact
Work-LifeBalancein the HospitalityIndustry?
Fergal O’ Flaherty (Student Number: 13230516)
MSc in Strategy, Innovation and People Management.
Supervisor: Rachel Hilliard
Discipline of Management, Head of Discipline: Tony Dundon
National University of Ireland, Galway
July 2014
This dissertation is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of Strategy, Innovation and People Management.

Student Declaration and Word Count
I hereby certify that that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the
programme of study leading to the award of M.Sc. Strategy, Innovation and People
Management is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others
save to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my
work.
Signature:
X
Fergal O' Flaherty
Date: 31 July 201

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Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful for the organisations that were willing to help me with whatever
I needed to know in facilitating this research.
A word of thanks to all in the MSc Strategy, Innovation and People Management class
in keeping each other balanced throughout the year.
My thanks also extend to Dr. Rachel Hilliard, my dissertation supervisor at the National
University of Ireland, Galway. Her guidance and remarkable knowledge kept me
focused and motivated during this research.
And finally, a special thanks to my parents who have supported my journey throughout
this year and the three years previous emotionally and financially which has been
fantastic.

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Abstract
This dissertation is a comparative study comprising of one public house, one hotel and
one restaurant investigating similarities and differences between these sectors of the
hospitality industry in terms of how job stress and emotional labour interact to affect
work-life balance.
Drawing on original qualitative research undertaken by means of semi-structured
interviews, underpinned by the most relevant international literature, this study aims to
demonstrate the similarities and differences in the sectors examined and identify the
sector in which work-life imbalance is more extensive resulting from the individual’s
separate or interlinked job stress and emotional labour.
The research also sets out to investigate differences in responses between employees
and employers and how they vary accordingly in each sector. In accordance with
previous literature, it was found that the majority of individuals interviewed had
experienced work-life imbalance resulting from job stress and emotional labour. In
contrast to previous studies stating that hotel staff and management experience the
greatest impact of job stress affecting one’s work-life balance, the present findings
suggest that the restaurant sector is most affected.
The willingness and belief in finding out novel and divergent results from existing
research stimulated this project in the first instance as hospitality is an under researched
industry.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................i
Abstract.......................................................................................................ii
Chapter 1: Introduction ...........................................................................1
1.1 Rationale for conducting the study..............................................1
1.2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................2
1.3 Organisational Context ....................................................................3
1.4 Research Question and Objective ..................................................3
Chapter 2: Literature Review .................................................................4
2.1 Job Stress ............................................................................................4
2.2 Emotional Labour.............................................................................7
2.3 Work- life balance...........................................................................11
2.4 Work- Life Balance Practices .......................................................13
Chapter 3: Research Methodology .......................................................15
3.1 Research Objective..........................................................................15
3.2 Research Approach.........................................................................15
3.3 Quantitative Approach...................................................................16
3.4 Qualitative Approach .....................................................................16
3.4.1 Primary Data Collection: Semi- Structured Interviews.......17
3.5 Limitations........................................................................................17
3.6 Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research.................................18
3.6.1 Credibility......................................................................................18
3.6.2 Transferability..............................................................................18
3.6.3 Dependability ................................................................................19

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3.6.4 Confirmability...............................................................................19
Chapter 4: Findings................................................................................20
4.1 Introduction......................................................................................20
4.2 The Hotel Sector:.............................................................................22
4.3 The Restaurant Sector: ................................................................26
4.4 The Public House Sector..............................................................29
Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings.......................................................35
5.1 Introduction......................................................................................35
5.2 Job Stress ..........................................................................................35
5.3 Emotional Labour...........................................................................37
5.4 Work-Life Balance..........................................................................39
5.5 Work-Life Balance Practices ........................................................40
Chapter 6: Conclusion ...........................................................................43
6.1 Recommendation for practice: Mindfulness..............................44
References................................................................................................46
Appendices: Semi Structured Interview Questions............................51

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List of Tables Page
Table 1: Summary of Findings 32

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Rationale for conducting the study
This study is designed to explore the issues of job stress and emotional labour and how
these constructs affect work-life balance in various sectors of the hospitality industry
which includes the hotel, restaurant and public house sector.
The rationale behind this research is that limited empirical work has studied the
hospitality industry in comparison to other industries, especially from disciplines such
as organizational psychology (Ross, 1997), although in recent years, there has been a
shift in focusing more towards this industry due to the increasing demands from
customers and long working hours (Wong and Ko, 2009) and the stress stimuli which
can be imposed by this industry on a given individual (Ross, 1995a). Moreover, the
subject of work-life balance has been growing in significance in the hospitality industry
with the implications that it can bring to family-life, which can alter one’s work-life
balance (Tromp and Blomme, 2012).
There has been considerable attention towards job stress and emotional labour in the
hospitality industry literature as separate concepts but little in terms of how these two
concepts interact in influencing work-life balance. Moreover, these concepts have
mainly been studied in the hotel sector with little attention devoted to the restaurant and
public house sectors which provides a gap in the literature.
The public house sector is an area in the hospitality industry that I grew up around and
have always worked in. Therefore it interests me as a sector. I have a sense of
connectivity attached to the industry and a willingness to gain new insights into the
industry and the challenges that face it.
Moreover, the differences between the public house, restaurant and hotel sectors appear
appealing in research with regard to job stress, emotional labour and work-life balance
due to the psychological consequences it can bring to an individual’s life.
The issue of job stress and emotional labour and how this affects work-life balance is an
extremely relevant topic in the hospitality industry in today’s world and I hope that this
dissertation will provide a meaningful contribution to the literature and for the people
employed in this industry.

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1.2 Theoretical Framework
A number of theories and concepts inform the theoretical framework for this study.
Earlier findings derived from various quantitative studies may be limited in terms of
understanding the relationship between key variables. For example, Ross (1995a) study
on work stress and personality characteristics in the hospitality industry doesn’t include
qualitative reasons why the people surveyed have job stress and how it affects work-life
balance. He uses descriptive statistics to demonstrate how an individual’s mood
determines how stressed one may be. Similarly Zapf et al.’s, (1999) work on emotional
labour uses questionnaires in the hotel sector to assess emotional dissonance. There is
little discussion of how emotional dissonance relates to job stress; psychological strain
is discussed but not in terms of how it alters work-life balance. Moreover, there is no
reference to emotional labour in the restaurant and public house sector.
Therefore, a more qualitative approach is adopted to obtain more precise findings
between the interrelation of job stress and emotional labour and how it affects work-life
balance in the hotel, restaurant and public house sectors.
The literature explored in this topic led to the formulation of the research question in an
effort to contribute important findings and solutions in limiting the problem of job stress
and the negative side of emotional labour in affecting work-life balance.
Sub- concepts of the variable job stress in the literature include burnout which can be
dependent on personality. Moreover, sub- concepts of the variable emotional labour
include emotional exhaustion, emotional dissonance and display rules, and likewise
with job stress, can be dependent on personality type.
All these concepts and sub- concepts are studied and used to determine how they affect
work -life balance and to attempt to determine appropriate work-life balance practices to
counteract the negative interrelation between job stress and emotional labour.
However, there has been helpful and important theory put forward regarding work-life
balance and job stress, which does provide significant support in carrying out my
qualitative semi-structured interviews in knowing what specific questions to ask to
interviewees from such studies such as Ross (1995a) and Beauregard and Henry (2009).
Therefore, adopting the theories used in this dissertation will lead to greater insights in
linking and incorporating these various concepts in finding solutions and understanding

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the relationship more thoroughly between job stress and emotional labour and how
these two components affect work-life balance.
1.3 Organisational Context
A comparative study approach is adopted in this research project. With regard to the
research setting, semi-structured interviews will take place in a public house and a
restaurant in Galway City, and a hotel in Co. Galway (Clifden).
Interviews are conducted with one manager and one staff member from each
organisation to achieve a more comprehensive analysis and to identify differences in
opinions and outlooks in what each worker and manager believe impedes their work-life
balance.
1.4 ResearchQuestion and Objective
The objective of this research is to investigate job stress and emotional labour and the
effects on work-life balance in the hospitality industry; moreover, to determine the main
reasons that lead to job stress and in what way emotional labour is related to this job
stress from employees and employers’ experiences. In addition, the study aims to
establish which specific organisational context, public house, restaurant or hotel is job
stress more prevalent in.
A further aim is to identify work-life balance practices that are used by the organisations
that can counteract the negative interrelation of job stress and emotional labour in an
effort to find a better work-life balance for individuals in the hospitality industry.
Finally, to recommend what is needed for one to achieve a better work-life balance and
what employers can do to help the issues that the employees may have to mediate the
interrelation of these concepts.
Therefore, the research question can be categorised as the following:
 How do job stress and emotional labour impact work-life balance in the hospitality
industry?

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Chapter 2: LiteratureReview
The literature review aims to provide a comprehensive review of specific concepts of
job stress, emotional labour, work- life balance and work- life balance practices and
how these concepts interrelate in the hospitality industry. The critical analysis of
concepts and theories in this literature will contribute to my research question and
objectives.
2.1 Job Stress
Work stress has become a major barrier for management and employee well- being, job
performance and organisational performance. Although, job stress experienced by
service workers in general has received more empirical attention over recent years in
organizational behaviour literatures (Wong and Lin, 2007), limited attention has been
directed towards the stress that affects the people in the hospitality industry in
comparison to other industries.
Job stress can be defined as ‘’ an individual’s reaction to work environment
characteristics that appear threatening to an individual’’ (Gill et al., 2010).
Due to the detrimental effects it can bring to both the individual and the organisation in
terms of cognitive and emotional deficiencies and decreased job performance and
productivity (Ross, 1995a), further research needs to be conducted to understand and try
to eliminate the negative components of job stress in the hospitality industry.
As the hospitality industry involves staff interacting with customers on a day- to- day
basis, this leads to increased psychological demands for employees and management
exacerbated by the repetitive tasks and unsociable working hours which can cause job
stress if appropriate mechanisms are not in place (Wong and Lin, 2007).
Management in firms in the hospitality industry tends not to assess qualitative
components of the organisation and leans toward more quantifiable measures to
evaluate the organisation (Ross, 1995a). This rationale can be understood by the fact
that management may not want to engage with employees on topics such as their level
of job satisfaction, although, according to Ledgerwood et al., (1997) it is far easier for
managers to change the way they treat their staff (e.g., in improving the social support)

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rather than structural aspects of the organisation. However, qualitative data is necessary
for measuring all the intangible attributes of service if management wish to receive high
customer satisfaction (Ross, 1995a). This is related to the relevance of the interrelation
of job stress and emotional labour which can influence an employee’s job performance
which will in turn hinder customer satisfaction.
Hospitality employees and managers have a different relationship from employees and
managers in other industries due to the people-orientated nature of the industry and this
often leads to increased stress (Ross, 1997). This stress can lead to customer
dissatisfaction as in if the employee is not satisfied at a moment of time; the customer
tends not to be satisfied either. In other words, there is a spill-over effect between the
attitudes of employees to the customers (Lin et al., 2013). Similarly, Faulkner and Patiar
(1997) report that customers perceive staff levels of stress to be associated with quality
of service, highlighting another mechanism by which job-related stress can negatively
impact on the organisation. Kim et al., (2007) consider working in the hotel sector to be
a major source of job stress which can eventually cause burnout. According to Zapf
(2002), emotional labour and excessive task requirements are key constructs which can
lead to burnout, although, the burnout experienced by individuals can be initiated if
their personality is not socially and cognitively equipped to working in the industry
(Kim et al., 2007). Shani and Pizam (2009), develop this point by stating that burnout
and depression can be interrelated especially in the hospitality industry and it is all
underpinned by work-related stress. Furthermore, they say that the depression is likely
to damage the business more in the future if managers do not attempt to comprehend
and repair it at an early stage. (Shani and Pizam, 2009, pp.456)
As the founder of the Marriot Corporation, J. Willard Marriot said ‘’In the service
business you can't make happy guests with unhappy employees’’ (Ledgerwood et al.,
1997)
Hospitality organisations that cater for food service, such as restaurants can be
particularly stressful environments. Food service can be complex, as customers tend to
direct their dissatisfaction to employees serving the food rather than the staff
responsible for food preparation. Therefore, these types of employees may have higher
levels of stress than other people in the organisation due to the high interaction with
customers with most transactions and the repetitive tasks involving those transactions

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(Chiang et al., 2010). Furthermore, many managers in the restaurant sector leave their
job due to the difficulties of working hours and job dissatisfaction (Law et al., (1995).
Moreover, it is not just front line employees and management who experience high
levels of stress in the restaurant sector; chefs experience significant stress due to
difficulties with fellow staff members, the pressure of a demanding fast paced
environment and in sustaining a standard threshold of quality on a continuous basis
(Meloury and Signal, 2014).
In contrast, Gill et al., (2006) consider the public house sector relatively more stressful
than the hotel and restaurant sectors due to the increased level of alcohol consumed by
customers of public houses relative to those of hotels and restaurants. Moreover, staff in
hotels is viewed as having less job stress than those in restaurants as restaurants are
more likely to have unpredictable bursts of demands, for example, when a customer
arrives without a reservation. This relative lack of control or unpredictability can then
lead to emotional exhaustion and burnout when the rushes of customers come in as
management may not have enough staff working. Job design that decreases ambiguity
in the role the individual is performing can be adopted to decrease work tension
(Beauregard and Henry, 2009)
According to O’Neill and Davis (2008), the biggest stressor in the hotel sector is
interpersonal conflict as people in the organisation such as managers and employees
have different goal alignments from one another. This contradicts previous literature in
this area suggesting that unsociable working hours and emotional demand was the
dominant reason why people experience job stress in this industry which then affected
their work- life balance (Chiang et al., 2010). However, if there is a greater degree of
autonomy for a given individual in an organisation with increased job support, this will
stimulate greater self-determination (Wong and Lin, 2007) which may decrease job
stress.
With regard to individuals’ circumstances and setting, the stress experienced in the
hospitality industry usually stems from the workplace environment due to the great deal
of time spent there. In relation to this, Law et al., (1995) state that a lack of recognition
from management for the important work they do is a key stressor for front-line
employees and this contributes to the type of work environment in the organisation. In

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addition, Meloury and Signal, (2014) state that feeling under appreciated by their
manager is a frequent source of job stress.
However, non- work events and relationships can also have a spill over effect on one’s
work -life and work environment can affect one’s personal or home life (Faulkner and
Patiar, 1997).
Therefore, when the three sectors are analysed from a collective perspective, the public
house sector appears to be the most stressful sector to work in due to the increased level
of alcohol consumption by customers. However, the literature indicates that each sector
has specific job stressors.
2.2 Emotional Labour
Most of the literature regarding emotional labour and the hospitality industry is directed
towards the hotel sector with limited attention paid to the restaurant and public house
sector.
Emotional labour can be defined as ‘’the management of emotional display by staff to
satisfy organisational expectations during voice- to- voice or face-to-face interpersonal
interactions’’ (Van Dijk et al., 2011).
Emotional labour requires hospitality employees and managers to incorporate their own
emotional state to the objectives of the organisation with the outcome that they will
provide for that particular service (Ross, 1995a). According to Van Dijk et al., (2011)
the emotional labour used will set an example to other staff in the organisation as it
produces a somewhat spill-over effect on how to behave and engage with customers to
the level required by management.
However, according to Gardner et al., (2009) depending on factors such as emotional
exhaustion and emotional dissonance, employees will find it hard to portray the correct
‘image’ the management wants them to portray if these issues are not understood by
their employer. This is imperative as the higher the emotional exhaustion, the higher the
turnover rate of employees (Babakus et al., 2014).
Emotional dissonance can be defined as the tension among the honest emotions felt by
the individual and emotions that are required to be portrayed by the organisation

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(Gardner et al. 2009). Additionally, emotional exhaustion can be defined as the feeling
of a lack of drive and willingness by an individual due to the inability to use their
emotional resources anymore (Gardner et al., 2009).
Kim (2008) expands on Gardner’s explanation of emotional dissonance by stating that
the emotional dissonance an individual experiences is a result of surface acting resulting
in a negative outcome, with deep acting resulting in a more positive outcome for the
organization, although, according to Grandey, (2003) both these types of acting can be
expected to lead to job stress for a given individual which shows the interrelation
between job stress and emotional labour.
Corresponding with Chau et al., (2009) surface acting involves changing the emotion
which one is showing in absence of changing the emotion which one is actually feeling
inside. This can have a significant effect on an individual from a psychological
perspective as it requires an individual to portray emotion in a false manner or ‘’acting
in bad faith’’. Deep acting refers to consciously altering one’s inner feelings to
correspond to the emotion one is presenting or ‘’acting in good faith’’. Chau et al.,
(2009) state that deep acting can only be used for the benefit of the organisation. In
addition, Grandey (2003), states that it is’’ faking in good faith’’ as one attempts to put
oneself in the customer’s position in attempting to change internal emotions to show the
desired external emotion.
In contrast, Zapf et al., (1999) state that in certain situations, the emotional
demonstration which is required from the organisation may be a natural display from
the individual which doesn’t require psychological strain. The emotional labour
displayed to customers can be related to opportunistic and positive outcomes such as
promotion and recognition as they can obtain positive feedback by displaying this
emotion .In addition, Zapf and Holz (2006), state that it can lead to personal
achievement as the employees realise they have the ability to convey their emotions in
alignment with customers’ expectations in a satisfactory manner.
Moreover, according to Corsun and Enz, (1999) the emotional labour and positive
customer-to-employee relationship will develop empowerment for the employee which
in turn benefits the organization as a whole due to increased job satisfaction as they feel
they are valued by customers and management and not viewed as ‘misfits’ which staff
in the hospitality industry are often recognised as (Sandiford and Divers, 2014). This is

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core to this area of research as according to Babakus et al., (2014) frontline employees
directly interact with customers on an on-going basis and are the most equipped in
retrieving customer satisfaction after a service failure occurs. For example, according to
Karatepe and Sokmen (2006) when an employee rectifies a customer complaint, they
feel they are maximising their learning outcomes and hence feel a sense of
accomplishment and therefore are more equipped to handle these complaints in the
future.
According to Karatepe and Baddar, (2005) these front line employees put in extra work
and extra time in rectifying these service failures and resolving customer complaints.
Therefore, it aligns with Corsun and Enz’s (1999) statement that it is all about the
people employed to determine customer satisfaction and how they operate in their work
environment.
Mintzberg’s (1998) statement that a firm’s strategy should be based on a personal touch
provided by the firm that distinguishes themselves from competitors relates to the
concept of emotional labour as they are trying to provide a superior service. This
contrasts with Ross (1995a) concept who declares that employees are provided with a
‘’well-honed script’ to communicate with customers so that employees have
standardisation in place. This will eventually convert to customer dissatisfaction as they
are not getting increased quality of service or customization from the employees which
will distinguish them from competitors. With a similar outlook to that of Ross (1995a),
these well-honed scripts can be related to what Zapf (2002) claims as ‘display rules’ in
that they are the basic standards of behaviour required by management for employees to
convey.
Moreover, due to the homogenous nature of the hospitality industry, providing a
personal touch and conveying positive emotion above the functional small talk (Gardner
et al., 2009) can be a key differentiating factor in providing customer satisfaction which
could eventually prove to make an organisation more competitive.
If a certain emotion has to be portrayed for that personal touch or that distinctive service
that the employer wants employees to convey is not a real emotion felt by the
individual, it can lead to difficulties. However, in relation to Ross’ (1995a) description
of the well-honed scripts used in standardized situations; it may be simple for
employees to exert false emotions or ‘’fake it’’ (Zapf et al., 1999).

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In addition, the ties between emotional labour and how it can lead to job stress can be
pinpointed to differences in individuals’ personality (Kim et al., 2007) or as Zapf and
Holz (2006) state, having neuroticism as a personality trait which is connected to
burnout and emotional labour. In addition, Kim (2008) believes that the neuroticism in
an individual is more inclined to surface act rather than deep act with customers as one
is considered to be temperamental.
Building on the types of personality traits, Babakus et al., (2008) state the level of
emotional exhaustion connected to an individual is in association with how their
personality allows them to be ‘intrinsically motivated’ in their job. Moreover, these
intrinsically motivated individuals have a better ability to deal with emotional
exhaustion which can in turn lead to job stress as they have sufficient coping
mechanisms to deal with it. This can be linked to Karatepe and Sokmen’s (2006)
declaration that 43% of customer complaints and service failures are from the
employee’s inability to provide an acceptable level of service quality in the hotel sector.
This can be related back to the study conducted with Ross, (1995b) as he found that
there was a high level of hospitality employees who were deemed apprehensive and
stressed.
In relation to the public house sector, it is more difficult for managers to provide scripts
for their employees to follow due to the increased demands from customers and the
increased emotional exhaustion that follows from that due to the inevitable increased
alcohol consumption (Sandiford and Seymour, 2002).
Food service employees have to deal with a multitude of different customers which
leads to diverse interactions (Chiang et al., 2010) hence the increased need for
emotional labour and ‘acting’. Although, Gardner et al., (2009) claim that it is required
for employees and managers to display emotional intelligence when it is demanded.
Emotional Intelligence refers to the individual’s ability to comprehend and use their
emotions in a way that maximises their cognitive development (Gardner et al., 2009)
For example, when a customer is dissatisfied and being unreasonable or difficult,
emotional intelligence is used to adapt to the customer’s situation in a way that doesn’t
aggravate or make the situation worse. David Marshing, a head manager at Intel

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illustrates emotional intelligence in how he acts in tough situations and his ability in
finding solutions when he faces these issues.
‘‘I try, to the extent possible, to maintain a level of calmness in the face of frantic
issues. I try to be as objective as possible in discussions, and if I’m face-to-face meeting
with someone who has a short, I’ll sit right next to that person to make the fuse is never
lit’’ (Gardner et al., 2009).
Even though he is a manager at an organisation that produces semiconductors, the same
principle of emotional intelligence would still apply in the hospitality industry when
emotionally charged situations occur.
Therefore, emotional labour is something which is extremely relevant in the hospitality
industry in addition to providing that ‘personal touch’. From the literature studied, it
may be required less in the public house sector than the restaurant and hotel sector due
to the decreased need for service quality due to the possibility of customers being
intoxicated although more of a need for ‘emotional intelligence’ from staff when
dealing with such customers.
2.3 Work- life balance
Work- life balance can be described as ‘the extent to which people experience a
satisfactory balance between their performance at work and at home while experiencing
minimal conflict between those domains’’ (Lin et al., 2013).
Chiang et al., (2010) believe work- life balance impediments are extensive in the
hospitality industry due to the non-standard work schedules and emotional demands.
Furthermore, hospitality workers are faced with an increase in the demands for quality
service from customers and schedule hours which can be anti-social, inflexible and
unpredictable that can lead to overtime which can give rise to a strain in work-family
and work-leisure arrangements (Beauregard and Henry 2009).
Grzywacz et al., (2007) extend this by considering that work-family conflict can be
‘bidirectional’ in that family can disturb work dynamics and work can disturb family
dynamics. These strains can have a significant emotional and physical imbalance on the
individual including issues such as anxiety and exhaustion for work and family life

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which can give rise to the individual suffering from what Maslach’s theory calls
‘burnout’(Maslach et al., 2001).
According to Babakus et al., (2014) the emotional labour which can stimulate emotional
exhaustion in the hospitality industry can be detrimental in affecting an individual’s
personal family life. This is because the individual may leave the organisation due to
psychological difficulties attached to emotional exhaustion which can impede the
individual’s whole family life. Ledgerwood et al., (2007) extend this by saying that if
the stress an individual feels isn’t resolved in the organisation; it will be brought back
with the person to their home life.
Karatepe and Baddar (2005) state work-family conflict has a direct effect on job stress
and that individuals bring their stress home from their job which stems primarily from
job demands and working hours due to working in the hospitality industry. Likewise,
Karatepe and Sokmen’s (2006) questionnaire study, found that a massive 88% of hotel
staff say they are unable to perform their duties at home due to the fact that they are so
consumed by the demands of work.
With particular attention towards the public house sector, the staff interviewed in the
study by Sandiford and Seymour (2002), state that if they have a good night or a bad
night working, it corresponds to the manner in which the member of staff speaks to their
family or partner following their day at work. This can cause problems as one can
become too consumed with this particular type of work due to its emotional demands
This can be caused by emotional labour and the existence of the ‘jay-customer’ who
behaves in an inconsiderate and obnoxious manner which can stimulate an individual’s
job stress and work-life imbalance. Law et al., (1995) state that difficult customers were
the main job stressor for 40% of the front line employees they interviewed. Moreover,
employees may see their job as insignificant and degrading as they provide this service
to these types of customers. This can be a response to the depersonalization of how
certain employees may treat customers as they view them as numbers and perceive them
as homogeneous (Zapf and Holz, 2006).
In essence, the literature suggests that emotional labour can lead to job stress from the
‘acting’ and the emotional exhaustion that follows from that. This psychological strain
imposed by this emotional exhaustion can have spill-over effects outside of working

13
hours, and this, in conjunction with demanding working hours and repetitive tasks may
potentially lead to disruptions in work-life balance.
2.4 Work- Life Balance Practices
In relation to work -life balance practices that should be adopted by organisations in the
hospitality industry, Beauregard and Henry, (2009) declare that it is essential for firms
to adopt these practices to maintain employee satisfaction. This may then lead to
customer satisfaction from the level of quality service provided which may in turn give
the organisation a sustainable competitive advantage. According to Faulkner and Patiar
(1997), managers have an obligation to implement practices for their staff to decrease
the stress that can be incurred.
Lin et al., (2013) state that work-life and work-leisure tension causes an intersecting
spill-over effect on a person’s life satisfaction in all domains. Therefore, appropriate
practices to decrease or eliminate this conflict are essential in the hospitality industry.
Also the option for a member of staff of work flexibility is thought to have a significant
positive impact on work- life balance (Beauregard and Henry, 2009).
Moreover, social support whether from managers or fellow employees can be adopted
as a mechanism that can decrease stress for the individual which can preserve their
work- life balance (Wong and Lin, 2007). In contrast, MacInnes, (2005) states there is
an insignificant cause- and- effect relationship between the individual’s work-family
position and that of decreasing their working hours/work flexibility, but does not
suggest many valid reasons as to why.
However, MacInnes, (2005) does give one valid reason as to why people may not want
flexible working hours; because they will not receive as much remuneration. However,
both researchers agree that adopting ‘family friendly’ policies are needed due to the
unsociable and unpredictable working hours. This gives rise to the ability and stability
for the individual to pay more attention to work-family life when it is truly needed. This
aligns with Karatepe and Baddar’s (2005) belief that family friendly policies will have a
positive influence on work-family life which moves in the right direction in achieving a
work-life balance.

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Another practice includes increased autonomy for the employee to make their own
decisions in certain situations which can help decrease negative job support and job
demand. Negative job support can have a detrimental effect on employees especially if
that support negatively impacts on the employee if the employer is constantly
supervising or controlling the employee’s actions and decisions. Positive job support
would include empowering employees and giving them a sense of direction and
influence in the organisation (Wong and Lin, 2007).
However a conflicting view from Beauregard and Henry (2009), states that improving
or implementing these practices do not enhance an individual’s work-life balance but
mostly improve organisational productivity and outcomes such as increased quality
output and less conflict amongst staff and employers within a given hospitality
organisation.
This gives rise to the debate that work-life balance practices may not be a win-win
situation, more so that management may only be self-interested and not necessarily
considerate to their employees’ complications regarding their work-life balance in the
fact that they may just be protecting themselves.

15
Chapter 3: ResearchMethodology
3.1 ResearchObjective
The main research goal can be stated as:
 How do job stress and emotional labour affect the different types of organisations in the
hospitality industry including a hotel, a restaurant and a public house and how these
constructs alters one’s work-life balance?
3.2 ResearchApproach
The research process using an inductive reasoning approach has been adopted using a
comparative, cross-sectional method to understand the causal relationships between
variables such as job stress and work-life balance. Bryman and Bell, (2007) state that
induction is used to gather the researcher’s associations of his/her research which
encouraged the research project in the first place. This is relevant for this research
project as it aims to establish an understanding of relationships between various
variables from theoretical and empirical research in conjunction with the author’s own
findings.
A qualitative approach will be carried out throughout this project. Qualitative research
is adopted as it emphasizes words instead of the quantitative method’s collection and
analysis of numerical data (Bryman and Bell, 2007).
This is particularly relevant in this area of research, as previous research has been
conducted using mainly a quantitative approach which gives little empirical
contribution to the relationship between variables. For example, as stated in Chapter 1,
studies such as that by Ross’ (1995a) do not include qualitative reasons why the people
surveyed have job stress and how it affects work-life balance.
Semi-structured interviews will be conducted throughout this research project as the
main primary source of data to understand and build on these relationships.

16
3.3 Quantitative Approach
Quantitative research is the analysis and collection of primarily numerical data to
convey specific phenomena (Bryman and Bell, 2007). Existing research conducted in
this area mainly used this method of research; therefore qualitative research is adopted
in this research project to gain different insights. The research conducted in this area of
job stress and work-life balance in the hospitality industry uses the quantitative method
of surveying as its primary source of data collection. Using the Likert-type scale
ranging from 1(strong disagree) to 5(strongly agree) has been the main means of
gathering this type of data. Recognising that this data is useful in establishing
percentage rates from different variables, this type of research does not establish why
these percentages are the way they are or the relationships between the variables and
this project will aim to establish that using the qualitative research strategy. Moreover,
conveying the interrelation of these variables and how they are affected from each
other; not just from analysing the variables one by one which has been done throughout
the existing literature from mainly a quantitative approach.
3.4 Qualitative Approach
According to Bryman and Bell (2007) qualitative research represents a view of social
reality as a developing process of an individual’s conception. This is particularly fitting
with this research project, due to the nature of how job stress and emotional labour
affects work-life balance and how it comes into play with the changing environment of
the hospitality industry as the organisations by principle are homogeneous or
isomorphic as they can provide the same service, therefore a ‘personal touch’ is vital for
organisation in this industry nowadays. Therefore, it is more suitable and relevant to use
a qualitative approach in finding out similarities and differences between the
organisations from the various sectors in question that have been interviewed.
Qualitative research discarded the view of the natural scientific model and the
positivism theory of knowledge in how individuals understand the world. Nonetheless,
its epistemological orientation is interpretivism which contrasts with the quantitative
research strategy. Findings and conclusions are not readily generalised as they are
located within a particular context (Saunders et al, 2012) which is particularly relevant

17
in this project as it focuses on one distinct industry; therefore the results from this
research project may not apply to other industries.
Although, to understand individuals’ reasoning and understanding of different
relationships a qualitative method needs to be adopted to gain deeper insights into how
people interpret and view the environment around them.( Saunders et al., 2012).
3.4.1 Primary Data Collection: Semi- Structured Interviews
Semi-structured interviews will be conducted to understand management’s and staff’s
views of their work-life balance connected to concepts such as how emotional labour
and job stress affect it. Therefore, interviews will take place in different sectors of the
hospitality industry including a hotel, a public house and a restaurant from a
comparative perspective. The participants will consist of a manager and a member of
staff from each organisation.
Semi- structured interviews will be an effective and efficient way in finding out
individuals’ reasoning and perceptions about these issues, if they have these issues to
begin with. However, the literature suggests that individuals in the hospitality industry
will have a high probability that they will have alterations in their work-life balance
from issues such as job stress which highlights the causal nature of this research project.
Bryman and Bell, (2007) state that this interview type is flexible in the way that
questions are not strictly in sequence, as the interviewer may pick up on certain
concepts that may bring them on to some other question that may be of interest to them.
In other words, this type of interview is not as formal as standardized or quantitative
interviews as the interviewee has greater influence in how the interview process
unfolds. This can stimulate other areas of thought, as the interviewee may spark certain
issues which may be of relevance.
3.5 Limitations
Although, there can be always limitations in a given research project, the willingness to
continually and diligently decrease the limitations can work in one’s favour.
Due to the nature of the research topic, it may be more sensitive to certain individuals
than others who have been interviewed, for example, respondents may not want to

18
disclose certain information about their job satisfaction as they think it may alter their
relationship with a given manager. Therefore, it is assumed that all responses gathered
are from an honest source but it is also critical to make participants as comfortable as
possible throughout the interview process to gain more truthful responses.
Moreover, as stated earlier it is essential to recognise the threats to credibility,
transferability, dependability and confirmability in carrying out data collection
techniques such as the semi-structured interview to decrease such limitations. The
measures taken to enhance credibility to establish trustworthy responses cannot be
solely based on an objective analysis from respondents, therefore this must be taken into
consideration when analysing the findings chapter.
The interviews will be conducted in Galway city with the exception of one hotel in Co.
Galway (Clifden). Therefore, it is not assured that the findings gathered from the
interviews will be the same in other areas.
3.6 Criteria for Judging Qualitative Research
3.6.1 Credibility
According to Shenton (2004), credibility is the compatibility from the findings in a
given research project with the real world. From a qualitative perspective aligned with
the concept of credibility, it is to depict and comprehend the findings in question
(Trochim, 2006). Moreover, Shenton (2004) states that one’s research such be aimed at
gaining truthful responses from participants and those respondents have the opportunity
to refuse to participate if they wish. Therefore, in this project specific interviewees were
asked to participate as the author believes those interviewees can contribute most to this
project and that have an interest in this topic.
3.6.2 Transferability
Trochim (2006), states that transferability is the degree that the findings can be ‘’ can be
generalized or transferred to other contexts or settings’’ or as Shenton (2004) declares
as those findings gathered that can be used in other circumstances. As this dissertation is
examining a specific industry, it may not apply to other industries although still could
prove useful with the findings gathered in employees/employers experience of job

19
stress, emotional labour and work-life balance along with the future area of research
recommended (mindfulness) which can be applied to other organisational contexts and
industries.
3.6.3 Dependability
This encompasses the need for the researcher to understand the continuous changing
nature of the setting in which the specific research ensues (Trochim, 2006). This is
particularly relevant with regard to this dissertation as the author understands that the
industry is changing as service quality and emotional labour are becoming more
extensive in the hospitality industry, therefore the research on such concepts changes
along with it.
3.6.4 Confirmability
Conferring to Trochim (2006), confirm ability entails the degree to which the findings
can be validated and confirmed by others. One way of doing this is for the researcher to
find negative examples that dispute previous studies. With regard to this dissertation,
comparisons and distinctions were made regarding prior studies and results to contribute
the findings for existing theory.

20
Chapter 4: Findings
4.1 Introduction
The data collection method adopted in this dissertation is semi-structured interviews.
One manager of each location was selected for the interview process along with one
member of staff in the restaurant, public house and hotel sector in attempting to find
between variances between these sectors. The relevant appropriate questions asked can
be found in the Appendices. The semi-structured interviews lasted for approximately
30 minutes with 11-12 questions asked dependent on the interviewee’s time restrictions;
not every question could have been asked.
In this chapter, I will divide the findings from themes of job stress, emotional labour
and work-life balance and divide each sector accordingly with the manager and
employee in separate components in conjunction with these themes.
Regarding Job stress, the author is searching for:
 Main causes of stress
 Effects of stress
 Is the individual stressed often and is it a direct result from working in this
industry?
Regarding Emotional labour, the author is searching for:
 Positive and negative consequences of emotional
labour including signs of emotional dissonance,
surface and deep acting.
 How it interrelates with job stress.
 Personality differences with relation to emotional
labour.

21
Regarding Work-Life balance the author is searching for:
 Practices that can move toward a better work-life balance.
 How the interrelation of job stress and emotional labour alter one’s work- life balance.
 How family life can interfere with work and vice versa.

22
4.2 The Hotel Sector:
Features of the hotel:
Luxury Hotel
Close proximity to all tourist attractions in Connemara
Sporting Facilities
Fine Dining
4.2.1 Interviewee 1: Hotel General Manager/ Owner:
Job Stress
The manager in this instance provided a surprising answer as he stated that he doesn’t
get stressed very often in this industry although the ‘’last 5 years have been very hard
on him from a business point of view’’, as he says it’s harder to think of new ways to get
more customers in this economic climate. Moreover, he states that in the hotel industry
one has to have ‘’a real passion for what you are doing’’ otherwise it won’t work out
for anyone who enters the industry. This statement suggests that this industry isn’t
suitable especially from a management perspective unless one enjoys it.
‘‘I’ve seen a few people that have come in to the industry that didn’t really have any
real passion for it and it didn’t work out for them because they didn’t know what they
were getting themselves into’’.
Therefore, this suggests the stress involved with this industry can be detrimental and
they were not ready for that level of stress to occur.
On a different note, having to uphold technological demands can be a stressful
experience as he says ‘’he was not brought up with it’’, and that it can decrease the level
of engagement they have with their customers.
Emotional Labour
Emotional Labour is definitely something that is very important in this hotel regarding
the level of engagement the manager and his staff have with their customers. Although,

23
there is a basic level of interaction with customers in any given hospitality organisation,
this manager goes a step further in the degree of interaction with customers as he
entertains them at night as well as interacting with them during the day which he
relishes. It seems that emotional dissonance and acting is a non -factor when he is
working.
‘’After a busy day, I sing songs and play the piano and try and get our guests to join in.
If there are times that I did have a stressful day or have been so busy, I always look
forward playing and singing to our guests as it does make you unwind and have fun in
engaging with your guests which are from all over the world’’.
When asked about personality characteristics and how it is relevant in the hospitality
industry when displaying emotional labour, he states that it is an essential requirement
when working for him.
‘’When I’m hiring someone I look for someone that has the personality and motivation
to fulfil what we intend to give to our customers that is engaging with them as much as
we can and as much as they would like us to. It is all part of the experience and
uniqueness of this hotel. The atmosphere in this hotel is one of a kind in my opinion.
There are few hotels around the world that have a turf fire as soon as you walk in and a
pet parrot called Gilbert saying ‘Howya horse’ , to your customers’’.
Since he enjoys the interaction with customers he decided not even to put Wi-Fi in their
rooms as it forces them to ‘’come downstairs either to the foyer, restaurant or bar to
use the Wi-Fi if they really have to so at least there will be some sort of interaction’’.
Work-life Balance
He describes that he is very fortunate in his occupation as he work closely with his wife
as she manages the wellness and relaxation centre of the hotel. Therefore, with regard to
the demanding hours that people face in the industry, he has the opportunity to work
closely with his wife so it doesn’t impede his work-family life. ‘’I wouldn’t say the
hotel impacted on my work- life balance it actually made it better as it gave my wife the
opportunity to open up her area of expertise in the hotel’’ .

24
4.2.2 Interviewee 2: Hotel Employee- Head chef:
Job stress
The head chef who has been a member of staff there a number of years, works closely
with the manager; he has seen the comings and goings of staff and states the
interpersonal conflict can be the biggest factor regarding stress which aligns with
Meloury and Signal (2014) as they state that chefs frequently are in conflict with fellow
staff members.
Although nowadays, ‘’I think young people now are more willing to take criticism than
they used to be, they’re very mature in that way as there’s more of a respect level
there’’. Furthermore, he states that being a chef in general is a stressful occupation no
matter where one works as.
'’Being the head chef here can be at times very stressful due to the high standards we
have for our food and for our service but I think any chef can say that. But I do enjoy
it.’’
Moreover, the type of employer one has can have a significant role in how one works as
he has great respect for what his employer does for the hotel and for his staff.
Emotional Labour
This individual provided a personal insight into his life and how the ability to
demonstrate emotional labour when interacting with customers can be difficult when
there are problems in one’s personal/family life as ‘’there was a time when my wife had
passed away and it was extremely difficult for me to put a smile on my face at work’’.
He expands by saying how an event like that in your life can influence every aspect of
oneself as he states
‘’when something like that magnitude happens in your life, still after the time off, it is
hard to keep going especially in a job that you are constantly moving and that demands
your attention at all times’’.

25
With regard to personality characteristics he states that one needs to be an extrovert in a
way as ‘’if you don’t have an outgoing social personality, I don’t think it’s an industry
someone should work in unless it is one of those hotels that staff don’t talk to their
customers’’.
Work- life balance
In addition to the loss of his wife, the head chef states that who one is
employed under can make a significant difference in how one will approach
one’s job and with the people one works with as there are’’ people here for
as long as I am and have become such good friends it makes work
enjoyable’’. Therefore, social support from fellow employees can have a
significant impact on one’s work-life balance as one has higher job
satisfaction.

26
4.3 The Restaurant Sector:
Features ofthe Restaurant:
Reputation for Cuisine Excellence
Located in the Heart of Galway City
Situated within an agglomeration of restaurants where competition is high on Quay
Street, Galway.
4.3.1 Interviewee3:Manager/Owner
Job Stress
This individual cited the existence of problematic customers as her main source of job
stress. Moreover, the retention of employees can be difficult as most people ‘’only view
waitress work as temporary’’. In demanding nights when it is busy, finding more staff
can be challenging especially when existing employees cannot come in for whatever
reason:
‘’I have to do find someone else that may or may not be available which can lead to
more stress’’.
However, reverting back to the difficult customers she encounters, it was clearly her
main job stressor in observing how stressed she was even explaining unpleasant
customers. With particular attention to one couple who came into her restaurant,
nothing provided was up to their standard and they were so unkind in expressing this
that the owner said:
‘’Myself and the waitress were not right mentally and emotionally for two weeks after
the incident doubting myself, the business, the waitress, my food and wine, and people’s
kindness in general.’’
Emotional Labour
The interrelation of emotional labour and job stress is noteworthy with difficult
customers as some of them need that ‘’extra quality of service’’. This heightens the

27
interaction and psychological demands needed to provide this extra quality of service to
customers who can cause emotional exhaustion which can be stressful.
She also states one must be a good judge of character ‘’ in deciding if people want to be
left alone or if you are on stage performing for your audience’’. However she does state
that it all depends on the situation and how she and her staff are treated. ‘’People are
nice most of the time and then you don’t mind the emotional and personalisation aspect
of things’’.
When asked about personality traits in the restaurant sector she states she had people
employed in the restaurant who simply weren’t maintainable due to their personality
characteristics
‘’ They (customers’) said she had no personality, and they knew by her attitude that she
didn’t want to be there working and they said it was so obvious. She eventually went her
separate way and the customers were even happier coming in’’.
Work-life Balance
The problematic customer described above highlights how stress can spill-over to one’s
personal life in altering work-life balance as she said she was not the same mentally for
two weeks after the incident. She also states that if the author knows how to achieve a
work-life balance ‘’be sure and let me know.’’ She has no time off and ‘’feels married
to the place’’. She has little time to spend with her family and friends which illustrates
her work-life imbalance as work is her main priority as it appears to demand all her
attention at all times.
‘’ I spend little time with family and friends as I’m always working as I’m the manager,
owner, server and sometimes chef at times’’.
4.3.2 Interviewee 4: Restaurant Waitress
Note: (The waitress had a previous experience working in the hotel sector before
working solely in the restaurant sector. Therefore, comparisons were made regarding
the two sectors.)

28
Job stress
Similarly to the manager, the effect of an unkind customer is the biggest job stressor for
this employee in the restaurant sector.
‘’If the customer is wrong, you always have to pretend the customer is right and get
back and apologize to them even if it is their fault’’.
From working in the hotel sector, she describes the management as more authoritarian
than in the restaurant sector as she says they are ‘’very dominating and threatening’’.
Moreover, she states that when the manager appears less stressed, she also would
automatically become less stressed. Therefore, it can be evaluated that management can
contribute to stress in the atmosphere they create in the workplace.
Emotional labour
She describes the process of having to surface act and the emotional dissonance that
occurs from surface acting ‘’you have to be very fake sometimes especially if customers
are being difficult’’. She also states that the ‘acting’ required from staff in hotels can be
higher as service requirements are higher because staff are expected to perform their
duties specifically to the level required by managers ‘’in our employment contracts we
have specific lines that we have to say to customers, you have to act so programmed at
all times, you nearly feel like you are a robot’’.
Work-Life Balance:
She expresses that it is next to impossible to achieve a work-life balance when one has a
partner due to the working hours in both the restaurant and the hotel sector. ‘’I work
nights as well as the weekend while he works during the day, so it is very hard to find
time to spend with each other’’. In addition, she voices that she doesn’t bring home her
work-related problems to her home-life. This was a result from her previous employer
in the hotel who told her a few times ‘’to leave my personal problems at the door when
I’m in work’’, which she said she found difficult at times.

29
4.4 The Public House Sector
Features of the Public house:
Located in the heart of Galway City’s ‘Latin Quarter’
Famous for its live Traditional Irish Music which runs twice daily
Famous musicians include Sharon Shannon, Frankie Gavin, Paul Bradley have all played music
in the pub.
4.4.1 Interviewee 5: Owner/ Manager
Job Stress
He states the biggest stressor in his job is the retention of staff as it ‘’can be so hard to
find a great barman that can use his initiative’’. He states that he does have a number of
key employees but as it is summertime, it is harder to find bar staff that are as good as
the current ones as ‘‘common sense isn’t that common’’.
Emotional Labour
When the interviewer familiarised the interviewee with the concept of emotional labour
and the constructs that affect it, he was adamant that it plays a crucial role in the public
house sector. He states that customers ‘’can pull you in a million directions’’. This is in
relation to the fact that customers are always discussing some aspect of the pub with
him, be it good or bad which can become exhausting.
‘’Some customers in the pub sometimes are nearly like children, you have to mind them,
you have to make sure they are ok with everything which can become tiring’’.
Hence, emotional exhaustion and emotional dissonance come into play.
With regard to personality characteristics he states that it is a requirement in the pub but
not entirely essential.
‘’In this business you have to have the ability to talk to people and be social to an
extent, but I had people working for me in the past that were very chatty to the
customers but didn’t do much work and left other people to do it because they nearly

30
thought they were above it, the locals love the chat but when running a business you
have to have people that can handle the busy nights and do whatever is needed’’.
Work-Life Balance
The manager states that it is only now at 60 years of age that he is slowly achieving a
better work-life balance. He said up until two years ago he was bringing in the barrels,
opening up the pub, doing the morning and the afternoon shift. He also says ‘’when I
was not meant to be working I was still working, there was always something to do and
I couldn’t relax even though other staff were working’’.
When asked how it impacted on his family and personal life, he was very open in how
the business can affect a person ‘’It’s very hard to switch off from a place that you
spend more time in than you would at home, even when I was home it was hard not to
talk about as so much things can go right or wrong in a day’’
4.4.2 Interviewee 6: Public House Bartender:
Note: (The bartender in question had experience working in the restaurant sector before
working solely in the public house sector. Therefore, comparisons were made regarding
the two sectors).
Job Stress
The employee states that the interaction with customers when they become aggressive
and intolerable when they consume a high level of alcohol is a major job stressor as
‘’people can abuse you if you refuse to serve them as they think they are more sober
than they actually are’’. Moreover, he states that one can become so consumed by the
sector particularly the ‘locals’ as they require special attention
‘’There are customers that are there every day and you have to listen to their stories
and problems, and when you are busy they still expect you to talk them which can stress
me out’’
Therefore, his psychological strain from customers’ can add to one’s own
psychological strain.

31
Emotional Labour
The interviewee states the degree of emotional labour displayed depends on an
individual’s mind-set and personality. If one is not equipped psychologically to deal
with different types of people and how they can act with alcohol ‘’you can crumble’’.
Moreover, there is a high degree of surface acting as ‘’you have to pretend to care in
what they are talking about so you are not being rude to them’’.
In relation to the comparison between the public house and restaurant sector, he states
the level of emotional labour is different as in the public house sector the interaction
with customers is minimal as when one is busy with other customers especially at night
if they are not troublesome with the alcohol. With regard to the restaurant sector he said
one must be more careful with words and actions ‘’as it is more of a civilised setting’’.
Work-Life balance
The interviewee says that hours can vary more in the public house sector than the
restaurant sector as one could be working from the morning or the evening or the night
while the restaurant he worked in opened from evening time onwards only.
Moreover, he states that work-family life can be influenced by the emotional labour and
job stress incurred as one becomes ‘’emotionally connected and involved with some of
the locals’ problems, that it’s hard to change mode straight away when you return
home’’.

32
Table 1: Summaryof findings
Focalpoints
from the
findings
Job stress Emotional labour Work-life balance
Hotel
Interviewee 1:
Manager
When he becomes
stressed, he doesn’t
let the stress
prolong- can rectify
it effectively.
Thinks emotional
labour is positive
and doesn’t
experience stress
from using
emotional labour.
Doesn’t experience
work-life imbalance
from job stress or
emotional labour
(although the last 5
years have been
difficult for him
from a business
perspective).
Moreover, he works
closely with his
wife.
Interviewee 2:
Head Chef
Interpersonal
conflict with
colleagues was his
main source of job
stress but not
anymore. People
more willing to take
critique nowadays.
Hard to apply
emotional labour
when talking to
guests- due to his
wife’s passing.
Had a work-life
imbalance due to
his wife’s passing.
Support from
colleagues helped
him to achieve a
better work-life
balance.
Restaurant Job stress Emotional labour Work-life balance
Interviewee 3:
Manager
The existence of the
jay-customer as her
main source of job
stress in addition
with working hours
Says you are
performing on a
stage sometimes in
the sector which is
linked with the
Rude customers and
her working hours
are her sources of
work-life
imbalance. Has not

33
with her staff. application of
emotional labour.
time for social life
or family life as she
is working all the
time.
Interviewee 4:
Waitress
Impolite customers
are her main source
of job stress. When
she was working in
the hotel, the work
atmosphere
provided by
managers and the
managers
themselves were her
source of job stress.
Can find the
‘acting’- surface
and deep acting
difficult, as she has
to be very’ fake’ at
times.
She states that in
hotels the level of
emotional
dissonance is higher
as there is an extra
need for quality
service for
customers that is
required by
management.
Tension between
her feelings and
what is required by
management.
Unsociable working
hours enhance her
work-life
imbalance, although
she said it is more
demanding in the
hotel sector as her
relationship with
her partner suffers.
Whilst working in
the hotel
previously, she had
been told her home-
life had been
affecting her work-
life by her manager.
Public House Job stress Emotional labour Work-life balance
Interviewee 5:
Manager
Recruiting suitable
staff is a source of
job stress for him as
there are a number
of people that are
not equipped with
working in this
sector.
He states that
interacting with
customers can be
difficult as he can
suffer from
emotional
exhaustion and
emotional
He states that it is
only now that he is
achieving a better
work-life balance.
He was unable to
switch off from
work when he was
not working.

34
dissonance from
them.
(Mindfulness useful
in this regard).
Interviewee 6: Bar
Tender
Psychological
demands from
listening to
customers on a
daily basis with the
addition of alcohol
intoxication from
customers are his
main sources of job
stress.
There is an inter-
linkage with his
source of job stress
regarding his
customers as he has
to surface act when
listening for
example
customers’’ stories.
He says that it can
be hard to switch
off after work after
dealing with a
specific array of
customers.
Therefore, he can
bring his work-life
back to his home-
life impeding his
work-life balance.

35
Chapter 5: Discussionof Findings
5.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the author will critically compare and contrast the material in the
literature with the research findings to determine similarities and dissimilarities between
them. Moreover, the discussion will entail judgement in how the concepts explored are
of different relevance between the hotel, restaurant and public house sector. Since most
of the literature regarding the hospitality industry is directed towards the hotel sector,
sections will be divided under themes of job stress, emotional labour and work life
balance with similarities and differences made between the hotel, restaurant and public
house sectors and how the literature and these findings align.
5.2 Job Stress
The findings in relation to the, restaurant and public house align with those of Wong
and Lin (2007) in terms of psychological demands, repetitive tasks and unsociable
working hours, albeit on various level as they state that unsociable working hours and
repetitive tasks are the main causes job for job stress in the hospitality industry
However regarding the hotel, repetitive tasks and unsociable working hours were not an
issue as the hotel manager says that
‘’Most of our employees have the ability to work in the bar, restaurant and front office
so there is flexibility in hours in that regard’’.
Contrary to Wong and Lin (2007), this shows that there is a sense of flexibility as there
may be more demand from management for employees to work in a particular
department such as the front office as opposed to the bar. This may potentially lead to
job enrichment as an employee does not have to perform a specific task day-in and day-
out, although with the head chef interviewed, this is not the case.
Contrary to this, the restaurant waitress interviewed said the working hours in the hotel
she had worked for previously before working in the restaurant required very
demanding working hours as she would be working until late at night and in at work
early the following morning which led to increased job stress and work-life imbalance.

36
Therefore, with regard to working hours and repetitive tasks, repetitive tasks are more
present in the restaurant and public house sector, with the hotel sector having more job
roles which an employee can perform. On the other hand, working hours are seen as
more of a source of job stress in the hotel sector than the restaurant and public house
sectors but are more suitable for change due to the increased flexibility of employees
changing job roles when required by management.
According to Ledgerwood et al., (1997) it is far easier for managers to change the way
they treat their staff (e.g., in improving the social support) rather than change structural
aspects of the organisation, therefore it can be concluded from the Chiang et al., (2010)
statement that a better work-life balance may all depend on the type of work
environment that is provided by management to increase job satisfaction and decrease
job stress. The rationale behind this is that according to the head chef of the hotel and
the manger they have a mutual respect and friendship with each other which stimulates
a better work environment which in turn can lead to decreased job stress. A divergent
point made by the restaurant employee was when she worked in the hotel sector was she
felt that managers were very ‘‘threatening and dominating’’, which led to higher job
stress. In addition, she states that when managers appear less stressed, it decreased
stress for the employee. Therefore, work-life balance may all depend on the work
environment a manager provides for employees who can decrease the overall stress
incurred which aligns with Chiang et al.’s, (2010) statement.
The interrelation of emotional labour and excessive tasks requirements are constructs
that can lead to burnout (Zapf, 2002) with burnout triggered from job stress, hence one
can see the interrelation between the concepts of job stress and emotional labour.
Coinciding with the bartender’s quote from the public house sector that ‘’you can
crumble’’, with regard to offensive customers, this is reinforced to a higher degree in
the public house sector due to increases in alcohol consumed by customers which
heightens the inability to perform emotional labour and increases job stress. This
concurs with Gill et al., (2006) who state that the public house sector is more of a
stressful environment due to increased alcohol consumption from customers.
Regarding the restaurant sector, interaction with customers when they complain and are
rude is the highest job stressor from the author’s findings as according to the restaurant
waitress even if the customer is wrong one might have to apologize and say they are

37
right. This is consistent with Chiang et al.’s, (2010) statement that employees in this
sector have high stress levels due to the constant interaction with customers. With
regard to the restaurant manager, intolerant customers caused her higher levels of stress
which had a spill-over effect on her personal life.
In contrast with the interaction with customers in the restaurant and public house sectors
being the main job stressor, interpersonal conflict with fellow employees was cited as
the head chef’s main source of job stress.
In essence, negative working hours and working environment created by managers are
the main job stressors according to the waitress who previously worked in a hotel in
the hotel sector and aggravating customers being the main job stressor in the public
house and restaurant sectors. There was little indication in how the hotel manager
interviewed experiences stress in his occupation along with head chef merely stating
that his job demands can be stressful but that every chef would say the same thing.
5.3 Emotional Labour
The degree of emotional labour required varies as it has different effects on the
individuals interviewed.
Regarding, the public house sector, the bartender states that ‘’you might only have a 15
second interaction with customers on busy nights’’, therefore emotional labour required
to be portrayed may only be at a minimum as one doesn’t have time to portray
anything above the ‘display rules’. Moreover, Sandiford and Seymour, (2002) state that
it is harder to utilize emotional labour with the increased consumption of alcohol by
customers in the public house sector as it can result in increased emotional exhaustion
from an employee perspective. The reasoning behind this is that it is more difficult to
exchange proper dialogue with the customers hindering the ability to apply emotional
labour.
Therefore, personality and emotional labour are not a necessity from the results of these
findings. Although, the degree of emotional labour required in ‘‘morning and daytime
shifts’’ requires more customer interaction with more emotional dissonance and acting
occurring as this is when there are more locals present the employee says ‘’you have to
pretend to care in what they are talking about so you are not being rude to them’’.

38
On the other hand, the employee interviewed in the restaurant stated that she has to be
very ‘fake’ at times with customers, illustrating emotional dissonance and surface
acting.
With regard to the hotel sector, the restaurant employee who previously worked with a
hotel said she was provided with scripts to follow which relates to the literature from
Ross’(1995a) description of ‘’well- honed scripts’’ for employees to follow. However,
this contrasts with the interviewees interviewed in the hotel as the manager embodies
interaction and engagement with customers which is not based on any scripts. Building
on this statement, he says the interaction with guests can de-stress him after a long day
when he entertains them. This indicates that emotional labour can have a positive
influence on staff and their clients.
Regarding personality characteristics in the three sectors, respondents had different
answers as to whether a specific type personality is essential when working in the
hospitality industry but the general consensus being that one has to be outgoing and
social due to the interaction with customers.
The manager of the restaurant states that personality is a vital part for one working for
her as a specific personality type can harm one’s business as there was customer
dissatisfaction with one of her employees as the employee didn’t have the right
personality characteristics to serve customers to a satisfactory level. This relates to the
literature in saying that one must be socially and cognitively equipped to work in this
industry (Kim et al., 2007). Conversely, in the public house sector it is not as much of a
requirement as the employer states even though you have an outgoing personality it
does not mean that the employee will perform job roles to the required level as they can
feel ‘‘above it’’. In relation to the hotel sector, according to the restaurant employee
who previously worked in the hotel sector said ‘’you nearly feel like you are a robot’’
therefore personality played no part in being a requirement in that specific hotel. In
contrast to this statement, referring back to the literature of Zapf and Holz (2006) when
discussing the hotel sector, the negative consequences of emotional labour can be linked
to the degree one encompasses neuroticism as a personality trait which can lead to
burnout particularly in the hotel sector which suggests that personality does play a role.
Furthermore, the employer and head chef interviewed for this dissertation stated that
personality is a key requirement in this hotel as one’s personality should reflect the

39
hotels own ambitions and objectives. Therefore, the emotional labour required from the
employees in that hotel should imitate the employer’s own beliefs in the engagement
with clients which is of an ‘extrovert’ nature and in essence what emotional labour
constitutes.
The result from the findings show that emotional labour is not as abundant in the public
house sector as in the hotel and restaurant sectors but is still dependent on the time of
day one is working according to the bartender.
5.4 Work-Life Balance
The findings show significant implications in how job stress, emotional labour and the
interrelation of these two concepts affects work-life balance and in which sector in the
hospitality industry is it more extensive in.
The results are fascinating as they go against several arguments from the literature in
how authors’ view staff in the hotel sector as having the most work-life imbalance.
The restaurant employer specifically had the greatest work-life imbalance from the data
gathered from the interview, although there is a limitation on this as each person’s
work-life balance perception can be different. Not being mentally right until two weeks
after an offensive customer shows the severity of how job stress affects work-life
balance and how the ‘’jay-customer’ ’affects one and how hard it is then to portray
emotional labour.
Family/personal life has been shown to impede work- life from the literature and from
the interview with the waitress from the restaurant as she states that she had been told to
leave her problems at home and not to bring them into work as it affected her delivery
of service quality to customers when she worked in a hotel. This shows that it can be
hard to use emotional labour when there are problems in one’s home/personal life which
can dampen the service quality from that individual to a given customer which can be
linked to the literature from Beauregard and Henry (2009) as they state that when these
issues are rectified and/or by implementing work-life balance practices can increase
organizational performance by better service quality as they have better employee
satisfaction.

40
In contrast to all the literature discussed, the manager of the hotel interviewed stated
that work-related stress does not impede his work-life balance as he knows there is logic
behind the stress and doesn’t let the stress prolong. Furthermore, there are little signs of
work-life imbalance as he works closely with his wife which implies that there is more
communication than in a couple who don’t work together. Although, recognising that
this may not be a regular occurrence with partners working together, knowing that he
entertains guests at night-time whilst working during the day can have a significant
effect on another person’s work-life balance if they were doing the same thing without a
partner working with them. Therefore, this may just be an exception in one having a
better work-life balance.
Since there is very limited literature regarding the public-house sector with reference to
work-life balance, the results were interesting in how one’s work-life can be so
imbalanced. The public house owner said only now is he achieving a better work-life
balance due to him being so consumed in the business even when he is not working.
Moreover, he states that he had little time for family-life which shows how work
occupied most of his time and energy.
5.5 Work-Life Balance Practices
Pertaining to the three sectors examined, there was little indication that any of the
employers provided specific policies or initiatives for employees achieving a better-
work life balance. However, each employer says they try and be as accommodating as
possible if there is a valid reason for staff changing working hours or requiring more
flexibility in hours to achieve a better work-life balance with regard to supporting
family friendly policies aligning with Karatepe and Baddar (2005) and MacInnes (2005)
who states that these policies have a positive effect on one’s work-life balance. The
manager of the restaurant states:
‘’Family friendly policies, I am very supportive for this type of policy as when I was an
employee, there would often be times when I couldn’t get off work for family related
issues and you would resent them for that as there were matters that I really had to get
off work for. So I try and be as sensitive and supportive as possible when employees
really need to get off work for family related issues.’’

41
Although, they do find this immensely difficult especially in the restaurant sector with
regard to absenteeism and working hours as the employer states:
‘’There is little manoeuvre around their working hours as I only have 2 waitresses, 1
chef, 1 kitchen porter and myself. So if one of them is really unable to work, it does
damage the service, especially on a busy night as I have to do find someone else that
may or may not be available which can lead to increased stress. That person then may
not be able as much as my existing employee to wait on 2/3 different tables a night and
not as efficient and effective to keep up with a fast paced environment.’’
The hotel manager has a different approach regarding work-life balance practices as he
says diversification in job roles can lead to flexibility as one employee can cover for
another in a specific department which can help one’s work-life balance as they have
increased autonomy and flexibility in their working hours. However this was not the
case with the waitress from the restaurant interviewed who used to work in the hotel
sector as she states:
‘’You can never get time off at all in the summer months, what hours that were given to
you, you had no choice but to do them, you couldn’t change them for whatever the
reason’’.
Aligning with the work of Wong and Lin (2007) the head chef interviewed stated that a
good relationship with one’s employer and social support from colleagues can be
enough for one to achieve a better work-life balance as they state it can decrease one’s
overall stress as the manager and staff were very empathetic when his wife had died.
Regarding the public house employer and employee interviewed, the employer stated
that the organisation is too small to implement concrete work-life balance policies but
he addresses each request from employees accordingly and tries to accommodate them
as much as he can.
Therefore, it may not be as relevant to provide work-life balance practices in this
industry especially in the public house sector, rather a better work environment with a
good relationship with colleagues and employer which can in turn provide better
flexibility regarding working hours. Although, a simple analysis, it can be proved that
this will go a long way to achieve a better work-life balance for a given individual

42
because some managers may have forgotten the relevance and value of it as the previous
hotel employee depicts such managers in the industry as ‘threatening’.

43
Chapter 6: Conclusion
This dissertation set out to investigate job stress and emotional labour and how they
affect work-life balance in the hospitality industry. This research also set to determine
the sector in which work-life imbalance is more widespread as a result of job stress and
emotional labour.
There is limited work in the existing literation on job stress and emotional labour in how
the two concepts interrelate and how they can lead to alterations in work-life balance.
Furthermore, there is little research on the restaurant and public house sector with the
majority of attention devoted to the hotel sector. This gap in the literature sprung the
author’s attention in discovering the differences and similarities between these sectors
regarding work-life balance as the author believes the hospitality industry has been
underserved with regard to research.
Job stress and emotional labour are inter-related in that each can have a spill-over effect
on each other.
To conclude this dissertation, it can be said that the restaurant manager experiences the
biggest work-life imbalance resulting from the job stress she experiences from the ‘jay-
customer’. This contradicts previous literature findings that hotel managers and staff
have the biggest work-life imbalance due to their job stressors. It seems that there may
always be this type of customer no matter where one goes in any hospitality
organisation even if customer demands are met, that the customer may have that
offensive attitude or personality. Therefore the restaurant manager may benefit from
enhanced coping mechanisms such as ‘mindfulness’.
Job stress and emotional labour certainly has an effect on work-life balance from the
data gathered in this dissertation. According to Langer (2014) work-life balance should
be classified as work-life integration nowadays as there can be positive and negative
outcomes from each side and each side deals with people. Therefore, to integrate the
two is more effective as ‘balance’ can suggest that ‘work’ and’ life’ remain separate
(Langer, 2014).

44
6.1 Recommendation for practice: Mindfulness
An emerging concept has been introduced which is receiving more attention over the
last number of years to promote ‘Mindful Organizations’(Gebauer, 2012) which the
author believes can prove beneficial if attempted to implement this strategy in
organisations in the hospitality industry.
Mindfulness is the process of actively noticing new things’’, (Langer, 2014)
According to Langer (2014), individuals who practice mindfulness are said to enjoy
people better and that others will like ‘you’ better. This statement can be linked to the
degree of emotional labour a member of staff displays to a given customer. Moreover, it
aids in one’s understanding of why individuals act the way they do. Therefore, it may
stimulate one’s ability to alter one’s surface or deep acting by having a better
understanding of one’s customers which can lead to higher employee and customer
satisfaction
Coinciding with the point that managers need to provide a better work environment,
practicing mindfulness can reduce job stress, hence employees are less stressed as there
can be a spill-over effect which can happen discussed by the restaurant employee
regarding her previous hotel manager as when the manager was less stressed, she would
automatically become less stressed. Mindfulness can help decrease job stress by
changing how an individual interprets potentially stressful incidents to view these in a
more positive light. Due to the lack of implementation of work-life practices in the
organisations examined in this dissertation, mindfulness may be a useful remedy or
alternative for work-life balance practices in decreasing job stress and in aiming to
achieve a better work-life balance. It is clear that organisation’s examined in the
dissertation need to change especially the restaurant and public house, and mindfulness
could be beneficial in helping staff achieve a better work-life balance while
simultaneously improving organizational performance.
Therefore, the author’s recommendation for future research is for managers to practice
mindfulness and see whether there were any changes before or after the process which
proved beneficial for themselves and for the organisation. If successful, implementing

45
‘mindful organising practices’ so that staff perform it also may show whether
performing emotional labour is more of a positive experience and if it decreases job
stress. Lastly, evaluating oneself after perhaps a month to see if a better work-life
balance was achieved will be fundamental to this potential study.

46
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