THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ESL

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STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE
INTERACTION STRATEGIES IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE
TEACHING: STUDY ON HIGHER EDUCATION PUERTO RICAN STUDENTS
DURING THE COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Johanna Vivoni Suárez© All Rights Reserved 2021
A doctoral dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Education University of Puerto Rico,
Rio Piedras. In partial fulfillment of the requirements for
Doctor of Education in Curriculum & Instruction
May 3, 2021

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Johanna Vivoni Suárez
Bachelor of Arts in Secondary Education
Major in Teaching of English to Spanish Speakers
University of Puerto Rico-Río Piedras Campus
Master of Education
Major in Teaching of English as a Second Language
University of Puerto Rico-Río Piedras Campus
Dissertation Committee
__________________________________________
Kevin S. Carroll, Ph.D., Committee Chair
___________________________________________
Anibal Muñoz Claudio, Ed.D., Committee Member
___________________________________________
Jose R. Vega Rivera, Ed.D., Committee Member

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ABSTRACT
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, in the year 2020, educational practices changed
from face-to-face classes to distance education classes. As universities were faced with
the challenge of adapting their courses to the distance education modality, English
professors needed to understand which strategies could be more effective to improve
students’ listening, speaking, writing, and reading skills in the second language. The
purpose of this research was to identify what interaction strategies students believed were
more effective to help them improve their skills in English as second language.
This quantitative study compiled a non-probabilistic convenience sample of 284
higher education students in Puerto Rico, by collecting data from a questionnaire. Using
descriptive statistics and the Kendall’s-Tau b analysis, the data showed that students
consider that interaction strategies are the most effective to help them improve their skills
in English as a second language. The Kendall’s Tau b analysis also concluded that there
was a positive correlation between interaction strategies and the language skills being
developed. In other words, according to the students, fostering interaction strategies such
as synchronous group discussions or chats in the online classroom, increased the amount
of English language skills developed. Findings indicate that listening was the language
skill most used in the online English courses. The data also revealed that while students
believe that interactions with their professors and other students are necessary for
learning English, the courses they took did not apply strategies promoting such
interaction. Several difficulties related to learning English in an online course are
discussed as well as recommendations to promote interaction in online English as a
second language classrooms at the post-secondary level.

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RESUMEN
Debido a la pandemia de COVID-19, en el año 2020, las prácticas educativas
cambiaron de clases presenciales a clases de educación a distancia. A medida que las
universidades se enfrentaban al desafío de adaptar sus cursos a la modalidad de
educación a distancia, los profesores de inglés necesitaban comprender qué estrategias
podrían ser más efectivas para mejorar las destrezas de comprensión auditiva, expresión
oral, escritura y lectura de los estudiantes en el segundo idioma. El propósito de esta
investigación fue identificar las estrategias de interacción que los estudiantes entendían
que eran más efectivas para ayudarlos a mejorar sus destrezas en inglés como segundo
idioma.
Este estudio cuantitativo compiló una muestra de conveniencia no probabilística
de 284 estudiantes de educación superior en Puerto Rico, mediante la recolección de
datos de un cuestionario. Usando estadísticas descriptivas y el análisis de Kendall's-Tau
b, los datos mostraron que los estudiantes consideran que las estrategias de interacción
son las más efectivas para ayudarlos a mejorar sus destrezas en inglés como segundo
idioma. Se concluyó que había una correlación positiva entre las estrategias de
interacción y las destrezas lingüísticas que se estaban desarrollando. Según los
estudiantes, fomentar destrezas de interacción como discusiones grupales sincrónicas o
chats en el aula en línea, aumentaron la cantidad de destrezas desarrolladas. Los
resultados indican que escuchar fue la destreza lingüística más utilizada en los cursos de
inglés en línea. Los datos también revelaron que si bien los estudiantes creen que las
interacciones son necesarias para aprender inglés, los cursos que tomaron no aplicaron
estrategias que promovieran dicha interacción. Se discuten varias dificultades

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relacionadas con el aprendizaje del inglés en un curso en línea, así como
recomendaciones para promover la interacción en las aulas de inglés como segundo
idioma en línea a nivel postsecundario.

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Biography
Johanna Vivoni Suárez was born in San Germán Puerto Rico in 1972. She
received her doctoral degree in Curriculum and Teaching in English from the University
of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras campus, where she also completed her master’s and
bachelor’s degree in the same field of study. With over 25 years of experience teaching
English as a second language to higher education students, Dr. Vivoni has devoted her
professional life to serving her country through education. In 2011, she was hired by Ana
G. Méndez University where she served as an Associate Dean, Curriculum and
Instructional Design Director, and Faculty Director working in different facets of the
institution. As an English professor at the post-secondary level, she has taught a variety
of courses including literary genres, composition, business English, conversational
English and reading and writing courses. She is also certified as a distance education
professor and a Module Specialist. She has been actively involved in academic
committees such as the Middle States Faculty Standards Committee, the Academic
Programs Committee, and the Academic governing Board in UAGM. She has also led
projects of great significance for the university such as the Faculty Mentoring Program.
Among her research interests are bilingual education, the teaching of English through
distance education, and service learning.

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Table of Contents
ix
DEDICATION ...............................................................................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER ONE.............................................................................................................................4
INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................4
Statement of the Problem...........................................................................................................5
Purpose of the study.................................................................................................................14
Justification...............................................................................................................................15
Research Questions ..................................................................................................................17
Definitions ................................................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 2................................................................................................................................21
REVIEW OF LITERATURE............................................................................................................21
Introduction..............................................................................................................................21
Historical Context of English in Puerto Rico...............................................................................22
Imposition of English: The Role of Power and its effect on English Acquisition...........................26
Theoretical Framework.............................................................................................................29
The Effects of the COVID-19 on Puerto Rico’s Educational System.............................................32
Distance Education in higher education institutions ..................................................................38
Advantages of distance education.............................................................................................41
The role of the distance education facilitators...........................................................................43
ESL online teaching strategies during COVID-19 ........................................................................44
Strategies to learn a second language .......................................................................................48
ESL Strategies applied to distance education.............................................................................51
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................58
METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................58
Research Method......................................................................................................................58
Research Design........................................................................................................................60
Procedure.................................................................................................................................60
Instrumentation........................................................................................................................63
Population ................................................................................................................................65
Sample......................................................................................................................................65
Ethical Considerations...............................................................................................................67

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Data Analysis Method...............................................................................................................68
CHAPTER FOUR.........................................................................................................................69
RESULTS....................................................................................................................................69
Final Sample .............................................................................................................................71
Demographic Information.........................................................................................................71
Perceptions about technology...................................................................................................83
Perceptions about Interaction Strategies and Learning English..................................................88
Perceptions about the effectiveness of online teaching strategies ............................................94
CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS......................................................................114
Analysis and discussion of the results related to the first research question............................114
Analysis and discussion of the results related to the second research question.......................119
Analysis and discussion of the results related to the third research question ..........................124
Analysis and discussion of the results related to the fourth research question ........................125
Conclusions.............................................................................................................................128
Implications ............................................................................................................................134
Recommendations for future research....................................................................................135
Limitations..............................................................................................................................136
Concluding remarks ................................................................................................................138
References..............................................................................................................................140
Appendix 1..............................................................................................................................156
Appendix 2..............................................................................................................................159
Appendix 3..............................................................................................................................172
Appendix 4..............................................................................................................................174
Appendix 5………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………177
Appendix 6………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………185
Appendix 7………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………205

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Institution of Origin……………………………………………………………72
Table 2: College Majors…………………………………………………………………74
Table 3: Age Range of Participants……………………………………………………...76
Table 4: Age Range of Professors according to participants……………………………77
Table 5: Virtual platforms used in online courses ……………………………………...84
Table 6: Applications for videoconferencing……………………………………………86
Table 7: Were there any assignments and activities to promote interaction?...................88
Table 8: According to your experience, in which of these does more interaction or
communication occurs?.....................................................................................................89
Table 9: How beneficial has technology in an online course been to learn English?.......94
Table 10: Responses to the Effectiveness of online Interaction Strategies……..…….....95
Table 11: Strategies that developed Language skills…….……………………………..98
Table 12: Comparative Data of effectiveness of interaction strategies………..………104

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: College Year for participants………………………………………………...75
Figure 2: Type of English course taken by participants………………………………..79
Figure 3: Time spent studying for the online English class……………………………80
Figure 4: Difficulties encountered during the online course…………………………...82
Figure 5: Technological tools to promote interaction………………………………….85
Figure 6: Interaction with Professors…………………………………………………..89
Figure 7: Interaction with Students…………………………………………………….90
Figure 8: Interaction with Content……………………………………………………..90
Figure 9: Comparison of Interactions………………………………………………….91
Figure 10: Effectiveness of Strategies…………………..……………………………..96
Figure 11: Perceptions by age groups………………………………………………...103
Figure 12: Perceptions of technology based on course level..………………………..106
Figure 13: Interactions compared by course level……………………..……………..107
Figure 14: Interactions compared by college year………….………………………..109
Figure 15: Discussion Board Strategy vs. Language Skill: Discussion Board.……...111

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DEDICATION
As a daughter, mother, wife and professional, I have endured many challenges to
get to this point. The truth is that God has carried me through all of the obstacles I have
encountered. To Him, I give all the glory, for I just listened and followed His command
that says, “be strong and courageous” Joshua 1:9. Without God guiding my life, I would
not have been able to persist. Thank you, God, for helping me get here!
To my family, thank you for running this four-year race with me! Thank you for
helping me prepare for my comprehensive exams, thank you for understanding all of the
times when I needed to focus on my dissertation, thank you for supporting me through all
of it! I am grateful for my husband who has always supported my aspirations to continue
studying and shooting for the stars. I am grateful for my two beautiful and wonderful
children who have had the opportunity to share this process with me. I hope you have
learned that by putting God first in all that you do, everything else will fall in its proper
place! I hope you have learned through my doctoral degree that you should fight for what
you love. And I hope that both of you always remember that after God, you are, and
always will be, the joy of my life!
Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my 95-year-old maternal grandmother,
Abuela Hilda. Your presence in my life continues to be one of the things which I am most
grateful for! Your love for your family and your achievements as a professional woman
in education, way ahead of your times, are admirable. Your perseverant attitude
throughout your life and to this day, are inspiring. Your way of supporting me as my

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biggest cheerleader and the way you love me unconditionally, are a blessing in my life!
Not everyone can say that their Abuela, who still drives, cooks, and manages her own life
successfully at 95, has such a big impact in their lives! Thank you, Abuela…I love you
and to you, I dedicate this doctoral degree!

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to express my gratitude towards my Dissertation Committee
members who have helped me through this arduous process. I am especially grateful for
Dr. Kevin Carroll, Committee Chair, for his guidance, advice and dedication working
with me since my doctoral degree orientation, to the culmination of four years of hard
work. His dedication and keen interest in helping graduate students accomplish their
goals is admirable. His timely and exhaustive academic advice helped me to accomplish
this dissertation.
I owe gratitude to Dr. José R. Vega Rivera for his assertive advice related to
technology and distance education. His guidance was of great help and I am thankful that
he shared his knowledge and enthusiasm towards the subject, motivating me to continue
striving through the process.
I am also very grateful for Dr. Aníbal Muñoz Claudio who aside from being a
member of my Dissertation Committee, was also my professor for various courses
throughout my doctoral degree. Dr. Muñoz Claudio is an inspiration to all of his students
for his knowledge, kindness, and passion for teaching.
Finally, I want to acknowledge and express my gratitude towards Dr. Romelis
Guzmán Lima and Enid M. Rodríguez García for their unconditional guidance
throughout the process. Their pertinent and valuable advice were essential in my progress
and final completion of my doctoral dissertation.
To all of you, I will forever be grateful for your guidance!

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The world population has been forced to adapt to a new way of living due to the
Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) which started in November 2019. By March 2020, the
virus had widely spread and humanity’s daily routines were disrupted as they had to
adjust to the new reality of living amongst a very contagious virus. According to the
World Health Organization (2020), beginning the month of March 2020 there were
1,911 globally confirmed cases of people infected with COVID-19 and by March 31,
2020 the cases had risen to 59,985. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention
(2020) predicted that the magnitude with which the disease was spreading, would cause a
world pandemic within days. The effects of a global pandemic evidently altered people’s
lives and within a span of weeks, scientists and researchers published information stating
that isolation would be the best preventive measure. Scientists recommended, isolation
for the infected and the susceptible to stop the rapid increase of positive cases (Maier &
Brockmann, 2020).
Many countries decided that social distancing and the temporary closing of most
services were the best strategies against a wider spread of the disease. Schools in the
Unites States, including Puerto Rico were forced to take extreme actions to guarantee the
safety of their academic community. Authorities decided to close schools until the virus
was no longer a threat. However, as it was evident that the pandemic would continue,
school authorities decided to give academic continuance by modifying their teaching
methods to a remote or distance education modality. Teachers and students were now

5
required to immediately adapt to a new modality which brought challenges for all the
community involved.
As universities were faced with the challenge of adapting their courses to the
distance education modality, English professors needed to understand which of these
strategies could be effective to improve students’ listening, speaking, writing, and reading
skills in the second language. This study compiled Puerto Rican higher education
students’ opinions by collecting data from a questionnaire. The researcher’s analysis of
this data and the conclusion that can be generated, provide valuable information about
what strategies students believe are the most effective for the teaching of English as a
second language in Puerto Rico through an online modality. This information may be
useful for educators, as they apply the strategies in their own classrooms in the future.
Statement of the Problem
The Coronavirus disease, also known as the COVID-19, started as a contagious
virus in Wuhan, China in November 2019. By the end of its fourth month of existence,
the World Health Organization (WHO) had declared it a pandemic. According to WHO,
as of September 2020, there were 28,040,853 confirmed COVID-19 cases around the
world and 906,092 people died globally due to this virus. The statistics for the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2020), indicate that these numbers have continued
to increase in almost every country around the world. This, mainly due to insufficient
resources to treat the virus, an absence of an effective cure or vaccination, and a lack of
preventive health measures by the general population.
COVID-19 can potentially have both physical and psychological effects.
According to the CDC (2020), the physical effects of COVID-19 include but are not

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limited to cough, fever, body aches, respiratory problems and even death. However, the
psychological effects of the pandemic are just starting to be studied. A research done in
China with college students during the first months after the virus began, indicates that
the pandemic has also had psychological effects. The study showed that 25% of college
students expressed severe anxiety related to the COVID-19 virus. Among the aggravating
factors for this anxiety were student’s living conditions, if they lived with their family,
and if students that lived in urban areas. The researchers concluded that social support is
of the essence if the college student is to feel confident about his safety. Hence, a student
that feels safe, can focus on his academics. The students who expressed more anxiety had
little to no support from family members and lived in areas where conditions were
unhealthy or with little to no health services available. Also, students that were mostly
lacking any type of support from others, were more prone to anxiety over the virus, hence
concluding that social support can reduce psychological pressure and their willingness to
seek professional help if necessary (Cao et al., 2020). Because the threat of COVID-19
had been so severe causing physical and psychological damage, social distancing and
quarantines were imposed in most of the countries around the world as a preventive
measure. This in turn produced, a series of psychological, practical, and even academic
effects that also need to be studied. The social distancing and isolation of individuals as a
temporary preventive measure, may also be the cause of anxiety, depression and other
mental illnesses which can affect the other areas of a student’s life, including their
academic achievement.
As the global population was being affected by COVID-19, smaller nations such
as Puerto Rico were also equally impacted. According to WHO (2020), in September

7
2020 there were 36,279 confirmed COVID-19 cases on the island and 512 deaths caused
by the virus. However, this was not the first natural disaster Puerto Rico had faced in the
year 2020. The fact is that Puerto Rican people and especially its academic community
had had to learn to adapt to an emergency situation three months before the declared
pandemic with persistent earthquakes felt throughout the island.
Being a small island nation in the Caribbean, Puerto Rico survived devastating
hurricanes in 2017, leaving many people on the island without power or water for
months. Many people lost their homes and were without shelter and government services
including schools were impaired. Schools at that time, were forced to close due to the
physical damage Hurricanes Irma and María had caused. Students missed an average of
two months of class because of the hurricanes and their effects on the island (Jiménez,
2020). Once schools started to reopen, teachers had to improvise outside classrooms and
authorities applied new class schedules in order to deal with the lack of electric power
and water. Also, because some schools permanently had to close, other schools became
the centers where two different populations would join by using the interlocking systems.
This meant that a specific school community would use the building in the mornings and
another in the afternoons with shorter class periods. Special projects such as Escuela Sin
Paredes [School Without Walls] and the Educamos Donde Sea [We Educate Wherever]
were opened in an attempt to meet the challenges (National Network of Public Health
Institutes, 2020).
Characterized by their resiliency during uncertain times, universities also made
great efforts to reopen their doors. Evening classes and complete graduate programs who
also operated at night, had to change their schedules to weekend classes. Professors faced

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challenges such as teaching without having any technological resources because there
was no power. Professors who taught computer courses used paper-template keyboards or
unpowered keyboards as a realia strategy, so that students could receive something more
than just theory. Professors of other courses, such as English, mostly relied on books and
class discussions as they attempted to adapt to an abnormal situation which lasted for
months. That was the reality as the country managed to slowly regain its services, so
Puerto Rico was no stranger to emergency situations before the pandemic.
In January 2020, while many Puerto Ricans were still trying to recover from the
damage caused by the hurricanes almost two years before, the island woke up to a 6.4
earthquake that destroyed buildings around the island and caused severe damage (El
Nuevo Día, 2020 Jan 7). For the next two months, over 500 seismic movements were felt
all over the island causing physical and psychological damage to many people. As in
2018, the President of the Teachers’ Federation, Aida Díaz expressed to the Miami
Herald that students were coming from an already traumatic experience and now they
were going to arrive at a school where, “there aren’t teachers, where there aren’t enough
classrooms or where it’s uncomfortable. That’s going to cause an additional trauma”
(Gurney, 2018). Feelings of uncertainty, fear and instability overwhelmed the population
and the educational system once again was affected. The Secretary of Education, Dr.
Eligio Hernández Pérez, declared that 95% of the schools were not apt to reopen and that
structural assessments should be done before students and teachers could return (Jiménez,
2020).
Two years prior to this, public school students in most regions had missed two
months of school due to the hurricanes, so the Department of Education’s authorities

9
established a special emergency plan for this new emergency. The plan was activated for
all the educational system, but this time it was different. Because it was not safe to enter
school grounds due to structural instability, education had to be offered remotely. The
plan was that each student had to stay at home for the next weeks or even months, until
their school was certified as being structurally safe. Many teachers sent photocopied or
PDF modules of assignments to their students as everyone patiently waited until they
could reenter the schools. Students were expected to complete these modules in order not
to fall behind in their academics. Higher education institutions were quicker to reopen,
but even they had to postpone their spring calendar because of the missed days of class.
Considering the physical and psychological repercussions of these two natural
disasters on the people of Puerto Rico, when COVID-19 was declared a pandemic,
people just added one more emergency to their life experience. However, unlike the
hurricanes and the earthquakes, authorities did not have a clear picture of how long
students would have to be kept out of school because of the COVID-19 pandemic. As in
other parts of the world, the confirmed cases of COVID-19 increased in Puerto Rico and
by March 2020, schools’ modalities changed almost overnight into a remote emergency
teaching. With schools in Puerto Rico officially closed and the remote modality in place,
teachers, students struggled to adapt as quickly as possible to finish the semester
successfully. According to Trust and Whalen (2020), the COVID-19 pandemic revealed
the deficiency of teacher training for an emergency remote teaching (ERT) situation.
Even though technology had been a part of most societies for many decades, research has
indicated that teachers were “ill prepared to teach with technology” (Foulger et al., 2017,
p. 418) and their study showed that the lack of preparation, resulted in difficulties during

10
the teaching-learning process, adding additional challenges for the teachers at a time
when they were needed the most.
Puerto Rican educators had the same difficulties. From March to May 2020,
emergency remote teaching was implemented as the necessary path to be able to
complete the semester as best as possible. Educators, mostly by their own initiative, had
to figure out what technological platforms would serve them best and each of them
decided to use strategies, many of them improvised, to complete the required curriculum
content and evaluation requirements to conclude the semester as successfully as possible,
considering the challenges. Dr. Eliut Flores Caraballo, professor in the Graduate School
of Science and Technology in the University of Puerto Rico at Río Piedras, mentioned
that after a month of quarantine, educators in Puerto Rico were in “survival mode”, using
any available resource that they could find (López, 2020). However, the multiple
difficulties such as lack of teacher/student training, technological fluency, and lack of
computer and internet access, became a situation that was difficult to overcome. Luis H.
Donato Jiménez, the director of the computer laboratory for faculty support in the
University of Puerto Rico, indicated that students and educators felt frustrated and
confused with all the different instructions related to remote teaching during that period.
This, mainly because of inadequate infrastructure in homes and schools as well as
insufficient training for both students and teachers (Reboyra & Torres, 2020).
As the new academic year approached and because the COVID-19 quarantine was
still in effect, institutions had the summer to train educators and have them plan for and
prepare for what was now going to be an online modality. Many higher education
institutions provided professional development training to prepare faculty members to

11
teach courses with distance education strategies. The emergency remote teaching of the
previous semester had served as a learning experience and educators were now expected
to use the lessons learned to be more effective in teaching courses online. However, for
many educators and students, this would be their first distance education course and
Puerto Ricans already had many academic challenges that would still have to be worked
with, even prior to the emergencies.
One of the educational challenges that already existed before the emergency, were
the difficulties English teachers and their students had had to confront. The English
language in Puerto Rico has been taught in public and private schools ever since the
American’s conquest of the island in 1898. There has been a long history of reluctance to
learn the English language as Americans tried to impose it as the official language in the
beginning of the twentieth century. Even though many efforts have been made
throughout the years to expose students to the English language, the fact is that most of
the people believe that they have a low proficiency in English. Pousada (1996) mentions
that the teaching of English in Puerto Rico is a highly sensitive issue. “ESL teachers are
seen, on the one hand, as purveyors of U.S. colonialism and agents of cultural destruction
and, on the other, as liberators and providers of marketable skills” (p. 500). English is
perceived as being foreign and alien, while Spanish is seen as being a part of the people.
Presenting this perspective is crucial to understanding Puerto Rican students’ perception
and perspective of the English language. Since 1898, Puerto Rico has suffered countless
radical changes in the way English is taught as a second language. In his book, Torres-
González (2002) talks about the different factors that have influenced our society in terms
of second language acquisition. He states that there are many reasons why Puerto Ricans

12
are still not considered completely bilingual. First, the language was imposed on the
people in our school system during the first half of the twentieth century. This was an
unsuccessful strategy because it was more political than pedagogical, and it did not
consider all the linguistic and educational aspects related to the children who were being
taught the target language. Another limitation, among several that the educational system
encountered, was that there were not enough English-speaking people to teach in the
island, so English continued to be taught in schools, but Spanish remains the language
used by the people.
Currently, English is being taught as a second language in Puerto Rico from the
first grade to the higher education level. After 13 years of instruction, there is still a
problem with lack of proficiency. A study titled Desarrollo de las Competencias
Lingüísticas del Estudiantado de la UPR, Río Piedras [Development of Linguistic
Competency in the UPR Rio Piedras Student Body] showed that undergraduate students
were found to have made little progress after their first two years of English courses at
the university (Arzán, 1999, as cited in Pousada, 1999).
Most of the universities in Puerto Rico require a minimum of four basic English
courses which are usually taken in the first two years. According to the major university
catalogs in Puerto Rico, these courses give greater emphasis to developing
communicative competencies developed through written and oral skills. So, if the English
courses in higher education in Puerto Rico were focused on developing bilinguals’
communicative skills in face-to-face learning before the pandemic, how did they achieve
these same objectives through online courses? The Distance Education Report titled
Faculty Development in Distance Education (2018) indicates that in order to articulate

13
the skills and competencies required for online teaching success, the desired end-state of
faculty preparedness must be considered. The inevitable questions must be, are Puerto
Rican English college professors prepared to teach in an online environment in order to
guarantee that success? What strategies are they using to promote second language
learning?
Distance education language teaching strategies are different from strategies used
in face-to-face teaching. In a study done in the British University of Egypt with learners
of English, Soliman (2014) establishes that e-learning is a way in which educators can
use computer technology to enhance language skills and to promote independent
learning. The European Commission (2001) defines e-learning as “the use of new
multimedia technologies and the internet to improve the quality of learning by facilitating
access to resources and services as well as remote exchanges and collaboration”, (p.20).
Soliman’s study concludes that online learning encourages learners to work
independently and by doing so, it addresses differentiation allowing students to work at
their own pace. He concluded that through online learning, students’ language skills can
be further developed because they have more time to practice reading, writing, speaking,
and listening via the different resources. He mentions that because students will have
more time to practice their English language skills, they will improve their
communicative competency. However, Mohammadi & Mahdi Araghi (2013), conducted
a study in Iran concluding that online language learning requires that students have self-
directed language learning readiness (SDLL), a quality which will allow students to take
control of their own learning in terms of establishing goals, identifying resources,
selecting appropriate methods to learn and evaluating the learning progress. According to

14
the study, 58.5% of the higher education students they surveyed, did not possess high
levels of SDLL. So, what implications would that have on Puerto Rican learners of a
second language taking English online courses? Given the lower proficiency of many
students entering universities in Puerto Rico, the change to teaching English through
distance education may have an impact in how students are learning. Gibbons (2002)
states that, “students must know how to learn every day, how to adapt to rapidly shifting
circumstances, and how to take independent initiative when opportunity disappears. Self-
directed learning prepares students for this new world in which the active learner survives
best” (p. 2).
As educators we must ask ourselves, if certain qualities are required of learners in
order for them to be successful in language learning in an online environment, then what
happens with those students who do not possess these qualities when the online
environment is their only option? What happens if professors do not promote interaction
strategies that are needed to learn a second language? During the time of the COVID-19
pandemic where online learning was the only option Puerto Rican students had, then it is
really of the upmost importance to make sure that educators learn how to use the most
effective strategies and apply them successfully to reach all students regardless of their
backgrounds, needs, technological gaps, learning styles and types of intelligences.
Purpose of the study
The goal of the research study was to examine and analyze students’ perceptions
regarding their English language learning process in an online course in order to share
that information with English as a second language educators at the higher education
level. Specifically, this study investigated the effectiveness of online teaching strategies

15
for language learning in English as a second language courses according to their students’
perceptions. The study surveyed higher education students enrolled in English courses
during the 2020-2021 academic year. This specific population of Puerto Rican students
provided unique information about how the language skills of listening, speaking,
reading, and writing English are being learned through different online teaching strategies
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, this information can be shared with
English professors who are currently working hard to plan for and implement effective
strategies in their new online learning environments. While there is data about the
effectiveness of online teaching, no specific data about online English teaching strategies
during the pandemic was identified. The information provided by the Puerto Rican
students can potentially help professors to strengthen, improve, readjust, or perhaps even
discontinue the use of some of the strategies for teaching English in an online course in
Puerto Rico.
Justification
The issue of learning English in Puerto Rico has been an important subject for
more than a century. Throughout the years, educational authorities have mandated
specific strategies to be applied to students in the classroom and very few of them have
proved to be effective. The fact is that Puerto Rican English teachers are still searching
for the strategies or a model of teaching that will help their students improve their
English proficiency. While many Puerto Ricans have achieved sufficient receptive skills
(listening and reading) in English, many still struggle with the productive skills of writing
and speaking (Carroll & Mazak, 2017). In addition to all the challenges, Puerto Rican

16
teachers and students have had to face with learning English, now they also have to deal
with the new modality of online learning and all of the new challenges that come with it.
The students’ feedback about the strategies their professors are applying in an
English online learning environment, provides valuable information letting the higher
education level educators know what the learners think are effective strategies for
language learning. The data also reflects what language skills students believe are
strengthened during the teaching-learning process. This data provides professors with
valuable information that may help them to design and offer effective online lessons
which will help their students improve their English communicative competencies.
While there are numerous studies done on distance education’s effectiveness and
even its application to language classrooms, there are not many investigations about
distance education in language classrooms in Puerto Rico and no studies having the
COVID-19 as a variable. Thus, this research study provides valuable information for
English educators on the island. The field of English education can benefit from the
results of this study for it can potentially provide the higher education professor a
guideline and recommendations to help improve teaching strategies so that students can
improve their language skills in an online English classroom. Furthermore, the study
provides valid quantitative data about a period of time that has never been researched,
because there has never been a time in history where all of the world is quarantined, and
all classes are imparted via distance education. As the world faces uncertainty about how
authorities will contain the COVID-19 virus and how the current situation is affecting
student’s learning, it is imperative that educators identify the effective strategies quickly.
Finally, there is an urgency to better understand online language teaching and learning

17
due to the pandemic. As educators strive to improve their online teaching practices, the
result of studies such as this one, can potentially be considered beneficial for the field of
education.
Research Questions
The intent of this research study was to identify what Puerto Rican higher
education English students perceive to be effective online teaching strategies for learning
English. To obtain this information, the study sought to answer the following research
questions:
During the unique period of the COVID-19 pandemic in Puerto Rico,
1. What are college students’ perceptions on the use of technology in online
classes to learn English as a second language?
2. Which interaction teaching strategies do students perceive to be effective
and ineffective to help them improve their English skills in online classes?
3. What are students’ perceptions about which teaching strategies help
develop the four language skills of listening, reading, writing and speaking
English?
4. Are there any differences in students’ perceptions due to their background
variables?
Definitions
The following terminology is defined for the benefit of the readers and to provide
context about the concepts being discussed.
1. Learning: This is the process in which behavioral changes occur as a result of
experiences. It is considered change, diversity, profit, self-sufficiency,

18
relationships, respect, problem-solving, creativity, innovation, support,
satisfaction, growth, and evolution (Maldonado, 2008). For this study, students’
will be reflecting on the process of their online English classes and how they
perceive the strategies are helping them to make the behavioral changes that are
considered “learning”.
2. Effectiveness: The concept of effectiveness refers to the level of goal attainment
and specifically for this study it is referring to students’ language skills and the
degree to which they can use these skills in English.
3. Interaction teaching strategies(online): These are the educational strategies used
by professor in an online course that promote activities with student-student or
student-professor interaction.
4. E-learning: Instructions that is offered by electronic means whether it be distance
education through online courses (“web-based training”), or by instructional
modules in the computer “computer-based training” o CBT) (Cintrón, 2008).
5. Language skills: Skills relate to different aspects of using language, such as
listening, reading, writing or speaking. Skills are our ability to do these things.
They are usually divided into two types: receptive and productive
(Netlanguage.com, 2017)
6. Distance Education: It is a formal education based on the point that the group that
is learning is separate and they use interactive telecommunication systems to
connect with the learners, resources, and instructors (Schlosser & Simonson,
2010). In this research, distance education is a synonym of online education.

19
7. COVID-19 pandemic: The Coronavirus, otherwise known as COVID-19 is
defined as a disease caused by what is now called severe acute respiratory
syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; formerly called 2019-nCoV). It was first
identified as an outbreak of respiratory illness cases in Wuhan City, Hubei
Province, China. It was initially reported to the WHO on December 31, 2019. On
January 30, 2020, the WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak a global health
emergency. On March 11, 2020, the WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic
(Cennimo, 2020).
8. Higher education students: For this study, higher education students are
specifically those who meet the requirements to participate in the survey. In this
case they are defined as Puerto Rican college students who took an English course
in the university during the COVID-19 pandemic (August-December 2020).
9. Emergency remote teaching: Otherwise known as “ERT” is a temporary
modification of the normal or traditional mode of teaching. It is activated when
extraordinary circumstances oblige the educational community to teach at a
distance for a specific time. In ERT, educators simply change face-to-
face teaching strategies into digital education.
10. ESL strategies: These are methods that educators use to deliver content material
in ways that keep students engaged and practicing different skill sets. There are
specific strategies used to develop skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) in
English as a second language.

20
11. Synchronous class: A meeting between students and their educator that is held at
the same time of day. These meetings can be done remotely using web
conferencing technology.
12. Asynchronous class: Asynchronous communication is any type of communication
that doesn't depend on an immediate response.

21
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
After 122 years of American colonization, Puerto Ricans are still resistant to
succumbing to the perceived American acculturation through the imposition of the
English language. “The perceptions of threat associated with English in Puerto Rico due
to colonization practices and the on-going political environment, have positioned English
as a problem, which has consequently led to a primarily monolingual island” (Carroll,
2016, p. 167). According to Vélez (2000), as cited in Nickels (2005), the “average Puerto
Rican, for the most part, enthusiastically support the concept of individual bilingualism
but the concept of societal bilingualism is much more controversial” (p. 229). Inevitably,
Spanish represents their family’s language, their traditions, and their means to
communicate within their context. To put it simply, Spanish connects them to their
Puerto Rican identity. While some argue that “others may perceive English as an
opportunity for socioeconomic mobility, a tool for academic purposes, and a means to be
part of a pluralistic, multicultural, and multilingual world” (Cardona, 2014, p. 38),
Spanish is still the language of choice in Puerto Rico.
This chapter examines the history of English teaching in Puerto Rico and how the
COVID-19 global pandemic has affected language teaching. It includes discussions on
the effects of past emergencies on the island’s educational system, the effects of remote
and distance education modalities on the schools and how the pandemic has forced
educators and learners to cope and adapt to changes in medium of instruction. Finally, it
provides evidence of other studies that present information about teaching strategies used

22
in online English as a second language classrooms around the world and what language
skills are being developed with these strategies. All of this information provides a context
and background to learn more about how technology in a pandemic era is affecting the
way the English language teaching strategies are being used at the tertiary level in Puerto
Rico.
Historical Context of English in Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico is an archipelago comprised of several small islands in the Caribbean,
where the main land measures approximately 100 x 35miles. Because the Spaniards
colonized it over 500 years ago, the spoken language of the approximately 3.5 million
population is largely Spanish. However, in 1898, during the Spanish-American War, the
United States of America obtained control of the island-nation shifting its political,
cultural, social, and educational future permanently. To comprehend current language
learning circumstances in Puerto Rico, it is necessary to understand it historical
background and the events that have led up to the present day.
Since 1898, Puerto Rico has suffered countless radical changes in the way English
is taught as a second language. Torres-González (2002) talks about the different factors
that have influenced Puerto Rican society in terms of second language acquisition.
Torres-González states that there are many reasons why Puerto Ricans are still not
considered completely bilingual.
First, the language was imposed on the people in our school system during the
first half of the 20th century. This was an unsuccessful strategy because it was more
political than pedagogical, and it did not consider all the linguistic and educational
aspects related to the children who were being taught the target language. Another

23
limitation that the educational system encountered, was that there were not enough
English-speaking people to teach in the island. Among the strategies to deal with this
limitation, the United States decided to bring American teachers substituting those Puerto
Rican teachers who were not willing to learn English. Those who were willing to learn
had to take intensive English courses, hours of training, and some were even sent to the
mainland to learn as quickly as possible. This policy did not work due to the resistance of
the students and teachers, but mainly because the educational system was not really
prepared for such a drastic transition (Torres-González, 2002).
When learning about the history of English education in Puerto Rico there are
certain historical facts that must be taken into consideration. Some of them are the
concepts of assimilation and nationalism. One of the many assimilation methods used in
Puerto Rico was the immersive curriculum that students were exposed to, in order to
Americanize the culture (Carroll & Mazak, 2017). Pousada (1999) stated that, “fostering
English is linked in the minds of many Puerto Ricans with assimilationism, while
defending Spanish is the hallmark of nationalism” (p. 1). Teaching English in Puerto
Rico is highly problematic because according to Pousada (1999), it is perceived as being
foreign and alien, while Spanish is seen as being a part of the people. Presenting this
perspective is crucial to understanding Puerto Rican students’ perception and perspective
of the English language.
Although “…Spanish was the uncontested language of the island…English was
originally spoken by only a tiny portion of the elite…” (Pousada, 1999, p. 3). Through
this statement we can assume that Puerto Rico’s first contact with the English language
was not through the colonization process. Therefore, one can conclude that the language,

24
although not imposed as the primary language, did interact with the inhabitants and was
useful to Puerto Ricans during the Spanish colonial regimen. During this period, Puerto
Rico’s interactions with the U.S. were mostly economic and involved trade. “…active
trading between the U.S. and Puerto Rico ensued, and from that moment on, the U.S.
became an increasingly important element in the Puerto Rican economy” (Pousada, 1999,
p. 4). The Americanization attempt had already begun and it was mainly associated with
an important part of any society, its economy.
Due to the economic ties, Puerto Rico welcomed American citizens and their
families; thus, opening the doors to their culture (Pousada, 1999). Throughout this
migration into the island, the American elite started to fabricate cultural links between
Puerto Rico and the U.S. One must consider that the language was not the only thing that
these migrants brought into the island. Their ideologies, their principles, their religions,
their food, and their perspectives, were a few of the concepts that began to infiltrate in the
island.
The Americanization attempt might have started through the economy of the
island, but it continued through the never-ending feud in education. Upon taking control
of Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War, the American government ordered the
establishment of “universal, obligatory, and free education on the island” (Pousada, 1999,
p. 6). The United States of America installed their mandatory school system to replicate
their American mentality and to help the Puerto Rican people assimilate their culture as
soon as they arrived on the island. At the beginning of the 20th century, some Americans
such as Commissioner of Education, Victor Clark, believed that the Spanish spoken in
Puerto Rico was a “patois”, further exemplifying the attempt to rid the Puerto Rican

25
people of their culture and their identity (Pousada, 1999). In a way, Americans were
trying to “fix” Puerto Ricans’ inadequacies and some believe that over a hundred years
later, things still have not changed.
According to Pousada (2000) English is viewed both positively and negatively
depending on the group you ask on the island. The language is seen as useful in the
modern globalized world in order to advance in careers and it is also viewed as a way to
enhance the individual’s repertoire. However, those opposed to English say that the
language is a symbol of the “islands’ schizophrenic relationship with the United States
and that English is the potential usurper of Spanish and Puerto Rican culture.” (Pousada,
1999).
Educators have inquired whether Puerto Ricans in general master the English
language or not. Some critics have been quoted to saying that, “In Puerto Rico we have
two official languages, but in reality, we don’t master either of them” (El Nuevo Día,
2013). This statement is not surprising and in fact, it has been uttered by others even a
century ago. One year after the Americans arrived in Puerto Rico after winning the
Spanish American War, Education Commissioner, Victor Clark (1899) wrote in a report
that, “A majority of the people do not speak pure Spanish, their language is a patois
almost unintelligible to the natives of Barcelona and Madrid. It possesses no literature
and little value as an intellectual medium.” (Torres & González, 2002, p. 36).
When the Americans acquired Puerto Rico as a territory in 1898, they were
determined to “fix” the island by Americanizing all its population. The general thought
was that Puerto Rican people were lacking education and culture. According to historical
document interpretations, Americans believed it was their duty to mold the citizen into

26
becoming as American-like as possible. This was, however a very difficult task that has
not been achieved yet, because most Puerto Rican feel a high level of loyalty toward their
native language and traditions. However, The United States insisted and with the Jones
Act in 1917, Puerto Ricans were given U.S. citizenship, showing the United States’ direct
intentions to Americanize the Puerto Rican people. This further expanded the conflict, for
it made the efforts by the U.S. to turn Puerto Ricans into Americans more “plausible”
(Pousada, 1999, p. 10). This was yet another way to push Puerto Ricans to consider the
United States as their nation and to identify themselves as American citizens. However,
the Americanization process relied mostly on creating language policies that would
influence the population immediately by making English the official language of the
government, including its schools. According to Resnick (1993), “The apparent failure of
the teaching of ESL in Puerto Rico derives from the conflict between the language needs
of Puerto Rico…” (p. 261).
The Americanization goal was not achieved due to many factors that included not
having enough English-speaking teachers, not having the adequate curriculum and the
fact that the population did not react well to the imposition. Because the issue of the
English language in schools was handled more as a political matter, rather than analyzed
and applied as an academic one, the attempt of changing Puerto Ricans’ official language
was ineffective.
Imposition of English: The Role of Power and its effect on English Acquisition
The mere fact that the native language, Spanish, was perceived as an
unintelligible patois demonstrated the lack of understanding and lack of respect
Americans had towards Puerto Rican culture and its people. In other words, it

27
demonstrated racism, or as Flores and Rosa (2015) would say, a raciolinguistic ideology
of establishing the ‘white speaking subjects’ as the norm. So, if the language of the
“white American” was the norm, or what was expected as the standard, then all other
varieties of the language including Puerto Rican English would be considered a
deviation. This monolinguistic perception is carried throughout the history of many
minorities where the language of power, places a burden on the natives to reproduce its
sounds and forms, thus producing insecure speakers and an unrealistic perception that
equality will come once they completely master the new language.
Puerto Rican speakers, like many other minorities around the world, are then
confronted with the reality that even if they are proficient in English, their language will
always be considered an inferior variety, not because of the way they sound or how well
they apply language structures, but rather on the simple fact that they are Puerto Ricans.
So according to Flores and Rosa (2015) Americans continue to view Puerto Ricans as
Victor Clark viewed them over one hundred years ago, people that need help to change
and improve.
While some bilingual practices are subtractive, Flores and Rosa (2015) believe
that it should be additive. This, in Puerto Rico’s case, would mean that while English is
being incorporated into the people’s speech, the respect for the native language should
not be lost. In fact, it is quite the opposite. As Spanish in Puerto Rico is shifting towards
an English-influenced Spanish, this should not be taken as a threat, but as an adaptive
measure made by the people, users of the language. In other words, when attempting to
explain how appropriate is the use of Puerto Rican English or Spanish (English-
influenced), one must immediately ask, “appropriate for whom?” McNamara (2012)

28
spoke about the roles in relations of power and how each subject conducts themselves
according to the role they play. As part of the poststructuralist approach to language, the
‘white speaking subject’ should not determine what is appropriate for a particular group.
The concept of standard English should never be applied as a variable of comparison, for
it in itself, represents a role of power where the minority will always be seen as inferior
no matter how close they come to the ‘power figure’.
Flores and Rosa (2015) argue how social and racial ideologies affect students
throughout the learning process. They state that “the white listening subject” will always
see a second language speaker as “deficient” even if they reach a native-like proficiency.
Unfortunately, that is very true in the United States where too often, students are labeled
as lacking proficiency simply because of their racial background. Along with the work of
researchers such as Foucault (2012), Bourdieu (1977), Ruiz (1984) and Troike (1984),
Flores and Rosa express how social aspects are of great importance in the educational
environment. The element of power and those who possess it as an authority in the social
context, cannot be allowed to excerpt their authority over those learning the language for
if this continues to happen, English as a second language will continue to be viewed as
having little or no care for the first language. Sadly, as Sridhar (1996) states, they will not
be able to take advantage of the vast wealth of knowledge and learning that can come
from communities and their language heritage. In Puerto Rico, educators need to use this
diverse heritage and knowledge of the first language to improve curricula and motivate
students to understand the value of their heritage language and how it can be used to learn
a second language. Furthermore, educators must provide the adequate learning

29
environment so that students see the value of learning a second language and expanding
their linguistic repertoire to broaden their opportunities.
Historically and currently, Puerto Rican citizens believe they can have a fulfilled
personal and professional life without being proficient in English (Eisenstein Ebsworth et
al, 2018). Many times, English may be associated with imposition, thus creating
resistance to the learning process. Many Puerto Ricans have also experienced negative
reactions to trying to speak English and as a result they become introverted by the fear of
mispronouncing words or simply not feeling adequate (Flores and Rosas, 2015). So even
though students have been exposed to English in schools since they were children, many
other factors should be considered when analyzing what teaching strategies can be more
effective for the island’s population.
Theoretical Framework
The foundation of this study is based on theories and approaches related to social
interaction during the learning process. Through the perspectives of theorists such as Lev
Vygotsky, Albert Bandura and Michael Long a theoretical framework will be presented
in order to provide the groundwork needed to further explain the how language
acquisition occurs in distance education.
Vygotsky established theories and sociocultural perspectives are the precursors of
many other educational theories and approaches that have evolved as a result of
technological advances in education. As a psychologist of the first half of the twentieth
century, Vygotsky argued that social interaction is a key factor in the learning process.
He explained that people, through language, and hence through interaction, can increase
knowledge and can create new mental constructs. The social environment created for the

30
learners is crucial and he claimed that every human being comes with an innate operative
system, but it is only through social interaction that cognition can be developed.
According to Vygotsky (1986), cognitive function and the potential to learn and develop
a language, emerge from the social interaction with the external context of the learner. He
explained that learning is initiated when the learner perceives external stimuli, proceeds
to internalize this acquired knowledge and later self-regulates to adapt to new
circumstances. Thus, the Vygotskian perspective indicates that language has a function or
purpose which is to be communicated with others in order to construct. This
constructivist theory, labels language as a means to regulate behavior and as the main
instrument of thought.
The concept of interaction is also a critical part of what is known as the
Interaction Approach developed originally by Michael Long in 1996. Long (1996) claims
that there are three main processes related to learning: input, negotiation of meaning, and
output. As Vygotsky, Long believed that exposure to a second language and the
opportunity to produce the second language would increase the learners’ proficiency.
Through interaction, the learners’ cognitive resources interplay with the input and output
constructed by the educator.
The Interaction Approach indicates that learners that engage in interaction with
each other will achieve greater second language acquisition. In a study completed by
Parlak & Ziegler (2017), they compared educational interaction strategies in synchronous
computer-mediated communication (SCMC) with face-to face (FTF) communication in a
traditional classroom setting. The researchers claim that there was no difference in
anxiety levels, that language awareness was higher in FTF courses, but that learners

31
believed that SCMC was less stressful, hence making SCMC a more effective strategy for
learning a second language.
Finally, because this study is dealing with second language teaching-learning in
an online modality, it is necessary to mention the Connectivism Theory (Siemens, 2005).
The distance education theory is based on certain postulates which define its core
essence. First, educators are facilitators of the student-centered process. As facilitators,
they work with students to guide them in their own path to second language acquisition.
Because the Connectivism theory is mainly based on the distance education modality
placing media in the hands of the learner, Siemens establishes that learning is more
constructive. The approach emphasizes the need for interaction and collaboration stating
that without it, learning would be gravely impeded. Connective knowledge means that
there are connections captured by the senses through interaction between the learners.
Thus, interaction is what produces learning opportunities for the students in an online
classroom.
As Bandura (1977) stated in his social learning theory, interaction plays a critical role
in learning. Knowledge and behavior are learned from their environment through
observation, imitation, and modeling. Some may think that it is impossible to have social
interaction in distance education courses. Some may argue that the fundamental nature of
distance education is that it is designed to provide individuals with a flexible learning
platform so they can learn at their own pace and excerpt autonomy in their learning. While
both of those statements are true of distance education, it is also true that with the adequate
strategies, educators can enable students to interact synchronously or asynchronously as they
develop their language skills. Evidently as we consider the role of interaction in learning,

32
there is a definite concern about humans’ reality in a time where the required conduct is
one of isolation and social distancing. However, technology is willing to allow educators to
apply plenty of social interaction strategies that will stimulate knowledge, thus resulting in
the possibility of improving their second language acquisition.
With the impossibility of face-to-face classes and a mandatory action towards
teaching English courses in the online modality, educational philosophies and strategies
must be re-examined. On the one hand, we are told that social distancing is required, and
this has resulted in online education during the pandemic. On the other hand, educational
experts indicate that online education for the teaching of English as a second language is
most productive if social interaction occurs (Long, 1996; Swain & Lapkin, 1998). So, as
educators move forward in these uncertain times, it is of the essence that they understand
what strategies will be most effective in their new teaching-learning environments.
The Effects of the COVID-19 on Puerto Rico’s Educational System
Puerto Rican’s level of English proficiency has been a constant concern for
English educators during the past century. Throughout its history, students have had to
endure changes and go through many adaptation processes which have perhaps,
influenced the current lack of proficiency in the second language. Unfortunately, the
island of Puerto Rico and its people have endured additional significant adversities
between the years 2017-2020 which have had a considerable impact on the educational
system. A combination of devastating hurricanes, damaging earthquakes and living
through a pandemic, have influenced the way schools are creating new learning
environments. These have also triggered changes in how students and teachers have had

33
to adapt to teaching/learning modalities while dealing with physical and psychological
devastation around them.
Hurricane Irma hit Puerto Rico in September 2017 leaving most of the country
without power or water. Two weeks later, Hurricane María, a category 5 hurricane, also
hit Puerto Rico, and most of the services including the educational institutions were
severely impacted. The island suffered consequences for months and in some areas for
over a year because the buildings and homes were severely impaired, including schools
that were either too damaged to be used or they were serving as shelters for the thousands
of people that had to leave their homes due to the hurricane’s devastation. According to
EFE News Service (2017), only twenty-two of the over a thousand schools were able to
reopen a month after the hurricane hit. As a result, students around the island missed an
average of two months of school and inevitably their education was affected. In a survey
done by Instituto de la Juventud (2019), 23% of the students’ parents reported that their
children had had changes in attitudes towards school because of hurricane María and 8%
did not want to return to school. Also, 12% reported problems concentrating and 9.9%
lowered their academic achievement during the year after the hurricane (Noticel, 2019).
Evidently, students and adults were affected by the hurricanes, and there are a few studies
focused on how learning may be impacted by disasters.
Disasters such as the ones described in Puerto Rico and the outbreak of COVID-
19 have led educational authorities to turn to distance education as a solution. In a study
titled “Distance education as a response to pandemics: Coronavirus and Arab culture”, Al
Lily et al. (2020) present the concept of crisis distance education as a defensive strategy
against the spread of the COVID-19. They clarify that even though many countries have

34
previously been exposed to natural and human-made disasters, distance education was
not used as a solution in other crises as it is being used in 2020 with the COVID-19
pandemic. They state that there are fundamental differences between what was
traditionally known as distance education and the crisis distance education (CDE).
Among the differences are suddenness, internationalization, popularity, expansion,
imposition, and medical emergencies.
As in parts of the Arab world (Al Lily, Ismail, Abunasser, & Alhajhoj Alqahtani,
2020), Puerto Rico had also lived through a series of natural disaster which had brought
changes to the educational system. Unfortunately, two years later, as Puerto Rico started
to regain its confidence in the safety and reliability of its institutions, on January 7, 2020,
a 6.4 earthquake shook the island and once again, the educational system was affected.
Schools such as the Agripiña Seda High School in Guánica, Puerto Rico, completely
collapsed and hundreds of other schools were left with dangerous structural defects that
forced the authorities to close all the schools once again. This time, the government
required all schools in Puerto Rico to have a structural engineer certify that they were
safe to use before the classes in that particular school restarted. Since the date of the
initial earthquake was precisely the day schools were reopening after the winter break,
students were once again out of school, and this time for many, weeks passed before it
was safe to go back. Many educators remembered the academic delays caused by the
hurricanes, so in an attempt to save the semester, they sent their students hardcopy
modules and PDF electronic material so that the students could work on class content
individually until classes could restart. For other students that were not so fortunate,

35
school time came to a halt once again and the outcomes were later seen in the results of
several standardized tests and studies.
Jiménez (2020) indicated that schools were once again affected and after the
experience with the previous hurricanes where students missed months of school,
educators, students and parents were really concerned about how many days would be
missed because of this new natural disaster. Four days after the first earthquake, another
high intensity earthquake hit the island causing more damage; and consequently, for the
next two months, over 500 smaller earthquakes were felt throughout the island. Students
in Puerto Rico could not afford to lose any more days of school especially after reports
indicated that their scores after the hurricanes, were the lowest scores on several areas of
the achievement tests compared with all of the 50 states and Washington, D.C. (National
Assessment of Educational Progress, 2019). According to the Findings and Tendencies
Report (College Board, 2019) which publishes the findings of the university admission
standardized test called Prueba de Admisión Universitaria (PAA) [College Entrance
Exam], and cited by Smallwood (2020), in 2017, the average score on the English section
of the test was 439 out of 800. Scores within the range of 450 to 549 are considered to
demonstrate basic proficiency. Hence, it is concluded that most of the students entering
universities in 2017, scored below average in their English language proficiency.
According to Martínez Rodríguez (2014), Pousada (2000), and Soto Santiago
(2009), the lack of proficiency in English will ultimately affect both public and private
universities in Puerto Rico and the students they are teaching. This has been evidenced in
the study Desarrollo de las Competencias Lingüísticas del Estudiantado de la UPR, Río
Piedras [Development of Linguistic Competency in the UPR Rio Piedras Student Body]

36
where undergraduate students were found to have made little progress after their first two
years of English courses at the university (Arzán, 1999, as cited in Pousada, 1999). One
of the contributing factors to this lack of improvement was attributed to the negative
experiences and errors brought from elementary and secondary schooling (Smallwood,
2020). If students were having those types of results for years prior to the natural
disasters, by deduction, results in English proficiency once students missed so many days
of school, can only be lower.
Additionally, missed days of school meant that students would not be able to
interact with their peers or their teachers socially or academically. It also meant that for
classes such as English, many students would not be exposed to the English language at
all. This evidently would lower the possibilities of many to continue to progress in their
second language acquisition because of the fact that their English language input would
be significantly decreased. For many students in Puerto Rico, at all academic levels, their
time to practice English is during school with their teacher and classmates. For many,
English is not a language that is used outside of the classroom, so as classes came to a
halt, so did the opportunity of many to improve in their second language.
One hundred and twenty-two years later, we continue to ask ourselves why the
teaching of English is still not effective. It is still questionable if we have enough
specialized English teachers to impart courses and now it is necessary to ask if these
English educators are equipped to teach in an online modality which is required due to
the presence of COVID-19. Educators must carefully analyze the strategies that are being
implemented in their classes to teach English and ask if these teaching strategies are

37
effective to achieve the language objectives needed to help Puerto Rican students learn
English as a second language.
The COVID-19 pandemic forced universities to rethink their plans for the new
academic year, so after the 2020 spring semester ended with an emergency remote
teaching modality, schools had time to better prepare their staff over the summer. Dr.
José Pons, president of the Carlos Albizu University, stated that during that time of
uncertainty, universities learned how to create exhaustive plans to mitigate the impact
COVID-19 had had on higher education institutions. He argued that one of the main
lessons learned, was that higher education institutions could not afford to continue having
a culture of improvisation. So, during this time, universities all around the world and in
this case, in Puerto Rico, offered emergency professional development workshops and
simultaneously the administrators had to make radical changes in course programming,
technology inventories and offerings. According to Manuel Fernós, the president of the
Interamerican University, this institution trained 100% of his faculty and converted 8,500
classes into distance education courses designed in Blackboard between May and August
2020. By the start of the 2020 fall semester, all universities on the island had in one way
or another, offered professional development to all its faculty members in an attempt to
prepare them to offer online course. While previously, online courses were only offered
by professors who had been formally certified as distance learning educators, due to the
global emergency, the totality of educators in Puerto Rico at all levels, had to adapt and
provide their courses using technology.
What was once a non-traditional method of imparting English classes through
what was called CALL (Computer-assisted language learning), evolved into what is

38
currently called Technology-mediated language learning (Thorne & Smith, 2011) and
because of the pandemic, distance education is now the norm for all Puerto Rican
students. In a recently conducted international online forum, the presidents of various
universities in Puerto Rico described the current situation as one “that is here to stay”.
Manuel Fernós, president of the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico, stated in the
forum conducted on September 30, 2020, that distance education should not be
considered a temporary solution because, online education will continue to grow for
present and future generations. He argued that universities must begin the process of
creating a comprehensive plan that must include curricula and syllabus adaptations,
student training, faculty professional development to include distance education
certifications, creation of better support structures for students and faculty, and a more
robust technological infrastructure that will allow all of these new technologies to operate
adequately.
COVID-19 is changing how the whole world lives and learns. Experts believe that
the outbreak will take a long time to control, hence as educators, we must prepare to deal
with all the challenges distance education will bring.
Distance Education in higher education institutions
Simonson (2013) defines distance education as a formal type of education based
on an institution where the learning communities are separated and where interactive
telecommunication is used to connect to students, resources, and professors. According to
this definition, distance education is very dependent on interactive telecommunications.
The level of interaction has become an important aspect for educational research because
some may question the ability of the distance education modality to provide the same

39
amount of interaction as face-to-face courses do.
Because interaction is the main factor according to Simonson (2013), it is important to
discuss Moore’s theory of Transactional Distance.
Transactional distance, “as distinguished from physical or temporal distance,
refers to the psychological or communicative space that separates the professor from the
learner in the transaction between them, occurring in the structured or planned learning
situation” (Moore, 2013, p. 1). According to Moore's theory, transactional distance in a
distance education course, includes three main elements which are: interaction, course
structure, and learner autonomy. This theory explains and quantifies the learning
relationship between professor and student in the e-learning situation, where there is a
significant physical or temporal distance between the two. The theory was established in
1997, and subsequently has included the enhanced teleconferencing abilities of the
computer and Internet which expand the mutual dialogue relationship between the
professor and the student and allows the capability of a multilateral relationship which
can incorporate other students into the interaction.
Moore (2013) argues that by manipulating the interaction, it is possible to
increase dialogue between learners and their professors, thus reducing the transactional
distance. In other words, if the online course and its content are very structured and
professor-learner dialogue or interaction is non-existent, the transactional distance
between learners and professors will be high. On the other hand, there is a low
transactional distance in those courses that have a lot of interaction and less
predetermined structure.

40
The other factor to analyze is learner autonomy. Learner autonomy is when the
students are the ones establishing their individual goals, determining their learning
experiences, and many times their evaluation decisions. The greater the transactional
distance, the more autonomy the learner must exercise because there will be less
interaction or direction from the professor. According to Moore (2007), interactions in
distance education courses intend to develop students’ knowledge. He refers to the
interaction between facilitators and students with symbols or words. The interaction
consists of exchanges which build on each other. The transactional distance education
theory focuses on the quality of that dialogue and the frequency of this exchange
(Giossos et al., 2009). For Moore, interaction can occur in different capacities such as
using synchronous technology which has a high capacity of interaction. However, if the
professor chooses to have a high level of participation (teacher-centered) during the
synchronous meeting, this will impede student participation in the class, therefore making
transactional distance higher.
Current distance education platforms such as Blackboard, Moodle, Google Meet,
WebEx, or Teams include the capacity to have synchronous meetings with students
promoting the needed interaction in the courses. As professors meet with their students
using video and audio tools, they are also able to interact by using the chat tool within the
meeting space. Professors may also choose to create blogs, wikis, polls, discussion
forums and email communications to promote further interaction. These provide
additional opportunities for learners to develop not only their speaking skills, but they are
also able to develop their reading and writing skills as they are participating in class,
which is basically limitless of interaction opportunities.

41
The asynchronous strategy may also provide opportunities to develop language
skills as students are immersed with technological content such as videos or audio
classes. Through professor-assigned activities and assignments, learners are therefore
able to develop writing and reading skills which are needed for language development.
Perhaps one of the disadvantages of the asynchronous meetings is that the students will
not receive immediate feedback from the professor or his peers.
Advantages of distance education
Due to the low costs and flexibility, distance education has grown and
transformed rapidly in higher education institutions (Boling, Hough, Krinsky, Saleem and
Stevens, 2012). Even though students expressed that their online experiences are equally
effective as their face-to-face experiences, according to Simonson et al. (2012), there are
advantages to a distance education course. The advantages include convenience,
flexibility, and easy access to students. Distance education also allows students to
participate in courses which would have been impossible any other way, due to location
and other responsibilities. Gallagher and LaBrie (2012) argue that other benefits of
distance education are that institutions can hire new faculty members without having to
limit themselves to local talent and without having professors incur in moving costs. Qui
and McDougall (2013) indicate that distance education allows professors to monitor
students’ participation more effectively, expose students to more diversity and provides
an opportunity for more participation without the limits of time.
Challenges of distance education
Among the challenges that are present in distance education are the fact that there
may be less supervision or monitoring of students. Sun and Rueda (2012) indicate that

42
distance education allows students to be more independent than a traditional learning
environment. Hence, students must be self-directed because the professor is expected to
adopt the role of a facilitator. Another challenge related to distance education is that,
according to Sun and Rueda (2012), professors, more than students, feel intimidated with
technology. They mention that some faculty members are not even interested in learning
new technological resources such as wikis, blogs, webcast, podcasts, among others.
Other challenges in online education can limit the learning process for the
students. Because students are mainly at home, there are many distractions. According to
Guijosa (2019), multitasking behavior and distraction can undermine the effectiveness of
online education. Obviously, the lack of adequate services such as electricity or internet
and even the lack of adequate equipment such as a laptop, tablet, or smartphone, can be
detrimental for a student who will be completely dependent on these services and
equipment. Finally, another challenge of distance education is students’ potential for
being academically dishonest. Students’ academic integrity can be endangered especially
in exams and tasks, since professors have no control of who is on the other side of the
screen at home. Because the professor supervision is obviously limited, there is a risk that
cheating may occur. Watson and Sottile (2010) conducted a study regarding online class
cheating. Data showed that students were more likely to obtain answers from others
during an on-line test or quiz. They also argue that the possibility of receiving answers
without the monitoring of a professor, presents problems for the standard lecture-based,
test-driven course (Watson and Sottile, 2010).
While most of the students will conduct themselves honestly, it is evident that
professors must acknowledge the possibility of a breach when assigning tests or quizzes

43
online. Several strategies may be applied to ensure students’ honesty including online test
proctors, presenting items randomly for each student, offering tests that require critical
thinking, among others. All of these require that the educator be trained to work with the
needs and singularities of an online course.
The role of the distance education facilitators
In distance education, the professor takes the role of a facilitator and his role is of
crucial importance in the virtual learning environment. Sánchez et al. (2013) claims that
technology cannot substitute facilitators, it only transforms their roles. The new role of
facilitator means that professors will apply many of the same teaching strategies by using
technology to make them effective. The context in which the strategies are being
implemented have changed from the traditional classroom into a virtual setting.
According to Darabi, Liang, Suryavanshi and Yurekli, (2013), effective teaching
strategies in a distance education course are those where the professor oversees
monitoring, moderating and interacting with students while he is facilitating interaction
and collaboration among them.
Throughout the years, distance education has become more prevalent in all
countries around the world, and it is no surprise that students and educators are interested
in this modality as a versatile option for their lifestyle. As COVID-19 has required the
world to move towards distance education, educators should look at results of previous
studies to learn about students’ perceptions of the effectiveness of distance education.
The results of a study conducted with undergraduate students in the Gaziantep University
indicated that students believe that computer-assisted distance education systems have
advantages such as having visual elements and giving them the opportunity to follow

44
courses at any place and time, having chance to learn at their own pace and using
technology in education (Şirin & Tekdal, 2015).
According to Watson (2020) COVID-19 has taken many professors out of their
comfort zone. The findings of the study show that initially educators rated many of the
problems with distance education as serious, but that they quickly found solutions such as
dividing lessons into a greater number of shorter units. However, the study shows that
professors are still struggling with problems such as finding adequate and motivating
strategies or activities and marking student assignments. Teachers were ambivalent about
the benefits of online teaching stating practical advantages, but emphasizing on the
difficulties of achieving some English language objectives and maintaining students’
interest.
Evidently, distance education has its advantages and disadvantages, but now more
than ever, it is essential to analyze its best practices and its possible consequences on
learners.
ESL online teaching strategies during COVID-19
It is undeniable that the COVID-19 pandemic provoked an instant modification in
most of the education components. The teaching-learning environment had to adapt to
the new reality, and consequently, both learners and educators have had to change. Both
sides are developing competencies for distance education which were not needed
previously. Snow (2015) argues that to be a successful online learner, the student must
develop a sense of self-awareness and willingness to take an active part in their learning
process. To become engaged, students must examine their learning goals and understand
their learning beliefs styles. Of course, the professor also has an integral part in

45
supporting the students to achieve their language goals. The professors must provide an
environment that is apt for students to interact with each other and use strategies that will
support their second language development. Through interaction, learners can develop
their communicative competencies, learn, and apply communication strategies, monitor
their outcomes, and modify their approaches. Professors, on the other hand, are
facilitators of this process providing practices related to structure, dialogue, the social
environment, and collaborative control (Snow, 2015).
According to Brown and Lee (2015), professors need to be at least as
technologically proficient as their students, they need to keep up with new technology,
use research to support their teaching decisions, and constantly assess the effectiveness of
the technological strategies used to teach. They argue that by using technology, educators
have greater potential for maximizing student learning and becoming active users of the
target language through interaction and collaboration with others (Ormiston, 2011 as
cited by Brown & Lee, 2015). In fact, Bandura stated that computer technologies have a
motivational component that should be taken advantage of for the benefit of our students’
learning. Due to its dynamism and innovativeness, technology can be considered useful
for learning English as a second language. Teachers should survey their students’
interests at the beginning of each school year and, as Bandura stated, look for those
things that motivate them to provide a more pleasant, stress reduced learning
environment.
In a study conducted by Altunay (2019) in Turkey, a total of 62 English students
were surveyed and interviewed. The results indicated that students were happy with
distance language learning settings because they liked the flexibility of time and place,

46
but they suffered from lack of equipment and technical problems. The study also revealed
that a benefit obtained from distance education is that they will have the chance to watch
the recorded lessons if they miss a class. However, since most students in this study did
not have a personal computer, they participated in the virtual classes from the library
laboratories or in Internet cafes, and for this reason, they could not freely participate in
oral activities and they were not able to have instant interaction with the professor or their
peers. The study concluded that students think that face-to-face learning is more effective
than distance learning to learn English.
However, another study was conducted in the United States after the COVID-19
pandemic and the results showed that, although still relatively important, the priority for
teaching and learning decreased for both the practitioners and their students during the
pandemic due to a variety of new stressors in their lives.
Hartshorn and McMurry (2020) indicate that students and teachers felt differently
about the transition to remote teaching and learning due to the pandemic. While both still
viewed the crisis to have a generally negative effect, students perceived the effect on their
English learning somewhat more negatively than the teachers’ perception of the
pandemic’s effect on their teaching. The authors conclude that the transition to online
instruction was more challenging for the students than the teachers. Results also show
that students improved in both speaking and writing overall during this period. However,
while no statistically significant difference was observed for gain scores in writing, t(277)
= .676, p = .500, when comparing the previous semester (M = .35, SD =1.02) and the
semester of the pandemic (M = .44, SD =1.09), the decrease in gain scores for speaking
from the preceding semester (M = .58, SD =.97) and the semester of the pandemic (M =

47
.28, SD =.93) was statistically significant, t(227) = 2.41, p=.017, d=.319. In other words,
students improved in both their speaking and writing skills, but the improvement was
much smaller for speaking compared to writing.
But language is more than just writing and speaking. Language learning is a
complex process. The term “language” has very different meanings depending on the
field of discipline. In its informal use, language can be defined as a system of
communication used by a particular country or community. Skinner (1975) believed that
language is a learned behavior acquired through association. Through association and by
positive reinforcement, learners begin to understand the communicative value of the
language, hence making them more capable to internalize the new language. On the other
hand, Krashen & Terrell (1983) proposed that all humans have an innate ability that
guides the language learning process. For Krashen, language acquisition requires
meaningful interaction in the target language, and this natural communication where
learners are not concerned with form, but rather on the message, is what provides the
foundation for language acquisition.
Many researchers have argued that after the teenage years, the degree of the skill
levels of learners of English will vary from native-born English speakers (Kuhl, 2011).
Krashen (1991) contended that acquisition depends on the quality of comprehensible
input and the learner’s ability to acquire the language. Krashen refuted the notion that age
is an indicator that predicts language acquisition. He suggested that believing the
conjecture that younger second language learners fare better in acquiring language than
older language learners is inaccurate. Krashen, Long, and Scarcella (1979) proposed three
generalizations that were derived from research studies. In their first generalization, they

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ESL

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ONLINE TEACHING STRATEGIES IN ESL

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