This document discusses a study investigating the relationship between working hours and health care expenditure in the United States. It provides background on trends showing Americans working increasingly long hours without using vacation time. The study aims to quantify how working hours affects health and whether this correlates with higher health care costs. Literature is reviewed showing relationships between long work hours and poorer health outcomes like cardiovascular issues. Descriptive statistics are provided on data from the Current Population Survey used in the analysis.
Raul Quiroz - Research Paper Business CommunicationsRaul Quiroz
The document summarizes research on the impacts of job search stress on physical and mental health. It finds that unemployment negatively impacts both physical and mental health, increasing risks of weight gain, headaches, and low mental health. Job search stress can cause people to eat less healthy foods high in sugar, salt, and fat. The document suggests people undergoing job searches adopt stress reduction techniques like healthy eating, exercise, and developing a support system.
Chronic Overworking: Cause Extremely Negative Impact on Health and Quality of...SUS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Work is an action that organizes and provides meaning to the use of time in a society that
has programmed its rhythms as a function. It is important in structuring daily life and in
enabling a sense of continuity, provides capital, satisfaction that flourishing human life and
his family. What’s more, it is an antidote against boredom and emptiness. But it also
means we never really clock out while working and become too much workaholic. The
persistent overwork has extremely negative impacts on our health, happiness, and overall
quality of life. Nowadays working overtime has become the norm for most people. It is one
of those things everyone knows is bad for us, but no one really listens. Imbalance between
work and health or overwork not only bad for employees but also for employers. The long
working in the office or at home is bad for our health and our performance at work. A
person who expands more time in work may experience numerous health problems
including mental, physical and social problems. The Significant effects include stress, lack
of free time, poor work-life balance, relation hit and serious health risks lead to tiredness,
fatigue, obesity, lack of attentiveness, insomnia, depression, diabetes, high BP, Cerebrocardiovascular
problem, etc.
This study examined the relationship between stress responses and lifestyle factors like sleep, eating, and overtime work among 3,017 Japanese workers. The results showed:
1) 8.4% of participants were in the stress group. Stress responses were associated with sleeping less than 6 hours among women, and working over 45 hours of overtime among men.
2) Eating at night was associated with stress responses in the initial univariate analysis for both men and women. However, this relationship did not remain significant in the multivariate analysis.
3) Overall, stress responses were related to lifestyle factors for women but not for men. Short sleep was linked to stress for women, while long work hours were linked to stress for men.
The document discusses factors that influence citizens' engagement in leisure-time physical activity (LPTA) and how government organizations can encourage physical activity. It analyzes data on LPTA and predictors like race, unemployment, and farm-produced food consumption across racial groups from 2003-2012. Regression models show unemployment is highly correlated with LPTA, while farm-produced food consumption and race also have small correlations. The goal is to identify opportunities for the Department of Health and Human Services to increase aggregate physical activity levels and associated economic benefits.
1) This study examined the effects of an 8-week physical exercise program on happiness among 120 older adults in Iran.
2) Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group that participated in the exercise program or a control group.
3) Results showed that the exercise program significantly improved happiness in the experimental group, while happiness did not improve in the control group.
Physical Fitness Involvement Among Young Adults and its Relation to other Act...Vinay Ghosh
You can visit our blog below, for more such kinds of free research paper downloads: --
https://academicwritingforstudents.com/visit-our-blog
Physical activity is one of the major traits among young adults and children. The level of
physical activities among children is found to be directly related to some common diseases like
obesity, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer. This paper consists of
a literature review of various research papers, which have been published in the context of
physical fitness. The various papers have been discussed to prove that physical fitness is directly
related to these diseases.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A prevalence of common risk factors of hypertension among young generation li...SriramNagarajan16
Hypertension is one of the upward health related challenge in Bangladesh and hypertension in young generation is increasing
but there is a shortage of data about the risk factors in this age group. The aim was to evaluate and approximation the
frequency of some common risk factors of hypertension among young generation living in Dhaka city. It was a crosssectional study; conducted during March 2016 to June 2016 in Dhaka city. Data were collected by face-to-face interview after
verbal informed consent by a survey questionnaire and stress was measured by Perceived Stress Scale and analyzed by SPSS
version 16. The study was conducted on 150 (n=150) young adults where 76% were male and 24% were female and their
mean age was 22.13 and 23.33% of them were overweight and only 1(n=1) was obese and 44% of them took average amount
of junk food while 14% took huge amounts and 59.33% of them had family history of hypertension and 70.66% of them were
in high stress. The mentioned age range shows a good amount of predominance of hypertension probably indicating a hidden
epidemic. It is needed to improve the measures of key anticipation and early detection of hypertension among young
generation
Raul Quiroz - Research Paper Business CommunicationsRaul Quiroz
The document summarizes research on the impacts of job search stress on physical and mental health. It finds that unemployment negatively impacts both physical and mental health, increasing risks of weight gain, headaches, and low mental health. Job search stress can cause people to eat less healthy foods high in sugar, salt, and fat. The document suggests people undergoing job searches adopt stress reduction techniques like healthy eating, exercise, and developing a support system.
Chronic Overworking: Cause Extremely Negative Impact on Health and Quality of...SUS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Work is an action that organizes and provides meaning to the use of time in a society that
has programmed its rhythms as a function. It is important in structuring daily life and in
enabling a sense of continuity, provides capital, satisfaction that flourishing human life and
his family. What’s more, it is an antidote against boredom and emptiness. But it also
means we never really clock out while working and become too much workaholic. The
persistent overwork has extremely negative impacts on our health, happiness, and overall
quality of life. Nowadays working overtime has become the norm for most people. It is one
of those things everyone knows is bad for us, but no one really listens. Imbalance between
work and health or overwork not only bad for employees but also for employers. The long
working in the office or at home is bad for our health and our performance at work. A
person who expands more time in work may experience numerous health problems
including mental, physical and social problems. The Significant effects include stress, lack
of free time, poor work-life balance, relation hit and serious health risks lead to tiredness,
fatigue, obesity, lack of attentiveness, insomnia, depression, diabetes, high BP, Cerebrocardiovascular
problem, etc.
This study examined the relationship between stress responses and lifestyle factors like sleep, eating, and overtime work among 3,017 Japanese workers. The results showed:
1) 8.4% of participants were in the stress group. Stress responses were associated with sleeping less than 6 hours among women, and working over 45 hours of overtime among men.
2) Eating at night was associated with stress responses in the initial univariate analysis for both men and women. However, this relationship did not remain significant in the multivariate analysis.
3) Overall, stress responses were related to lifestyle factors for women but not for men. Short sleep was linked to stress for women, while long work hours were linked to stress for men.
The document discusses factors that influence citizens' engagement in leisure-time physical activity (LPTA) and how government organizations can encourage physical activity. It analyzes data on LPTA and predictors like race, unemployment, and farm-produced food consumption across racial groups from 2003-2012. Regression models show unemployment is highly correlated with LPTA, while farm-produced food consumption and race also have small correlations. The goal is to identify opportunities for the Department of Health and Human Services to increase aggregate physical activity levels and associated economic benefits.
1) This study examined the effects of an 8-week physical exercise program on happiness among 120 older adults in Iran.
2) Participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group that participated in the exercise program or a control group.
3) Results showed that the exercise program significantly improved happiness in the experimental group, while happiness did not improve in the control group.
Physical Fitness Involvement Among Young Adults and its Relation to other Act...Vinay Ghosh
You can visit our blog below, for more such kinds of free research paper downloads: --
https://academicwritingforstudents.com/visit-our-blog
Physical activity is one of the major traits among young adults and children. The level of
physical activities among children is found to be directly related to some common diseases like
obesity, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, high blood pressure, and cancer. This paper consists of
a literature review of various research papers, which have been published in the context of
physical fitness. The various papers have been discussed to prove that physical fitness is directly
related to these diseases.
International Journal of Business and Management Invention (IJBMI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Business and Management. IJBMI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Business and Management, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
A prevalence of common risk factors of hypertension among young generation li...SriramNagarajan16
Hypertension is one of the upward health related challenge in Bangladesh and hypertension in young generation is increasing
but there is a shortage of data about the risk factors in this age group. The aim was to evaluate and approximation the
frequency of some common risk factors of hypertension among young generation living in Dhaka city. It was a crosssectional study; conducted during March 2016 to June 2016 in Dhaka city. Data were collected by face-to-face interview after
verbal informed consent by a survey questionnaire and stress was measured by Perceived Stress Scale and analyzed by SPSS
version 16. The study was conducted on 150 (n=150) young adults where 76% were male and 24% were female and their
mean age was 22.13 and 23.33% of them were overweight and only 1(n=1) was obese and 44% of them took average amount
of junk food while 14% took huge amounts and 59.33% of them had family history of hypertension and 70.66% of them were
in high stress. The mentioned age range shows a good amount of predominance of hypertension probably indicating a hidden
epidemic. It is needed to improve the measures of key anticipation and early detection of hypertension among young
generation
Health and Wellbeing after Deportation: The Roles of Socio-Demographic Variab...IJSRED
This study investigated the roles of socio-demographic variables in influencing health and wellbeing after deportation. 182 deported participants completed questionnaires assessing health/wellbeing. 3 hypotheses were tested: 1) No significant sex difference in health/wellbeing was found. 2) A significant positive relationship between age and health/wellbeing was found, with older deportees reporting better health. 3) Deportation history and period of stay in deported country significantly predicted health/wellbeing jointly and independently. The findings imply that both male and female deportees need rehabilitation, and that assessment of deportees should account for age, deportation history, and period of stay in deported country.
This study examines how welfare policies across countries impact the time married men and women spend on paid work, unpaid housework, and childcare, and how these differences in time allocation relate to variations in self-reported health between genders. The study uses data from time use surveys in 5 countries to analyze time use patterns among married individuals and health outcomes. The goal is to help explain observed gender differences in health benefits of marriage across welfare regimes and inform policies to reduce health inequalities.
Reducing Tobacco Use Among Adolescents Using Social Cognitive Theory and Soci...Shauna Ayres, MPH, CHES
This document discusses reducing tobacco use among adolescents using Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Social Network Theory (SNT). It summarizes key aspects of SCT, including its focus on personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence health behaviors. Studies discussed found targeting self-efficacy, normative beliefs, and intentions through programs and policies were effective in preventing or reducing tobacco use. The document suggests using a multi-strategy approach incorporating several SCT constructs is most effective for interventions.
This document summarizes a presentation about creating healthy workplaces. It discusses how poor health costs employers money through increased medical costs, absenteeism, and reduced productivity. Many chronic diseases are caused or exacerbated by modifiable lifestyle factors like obesity, tobacco use, poor nutrition, lack of exercise, alcohol use, and stress. Establishing a culture of health in the workplace through leadership commitment, evidence-based wellness programs, and a focus on modifying risk factors can improve employee health and reduce costs. Case studies show that comprehensive worksite wellness programs have led to reductions in health risks, health care costs, and increases in productivity at successful companies.
The Pursuit of Happiness - Australian Doctor - July 3 2015John Kron
The document discusses the rise of the wellbeing movement and what it means for doctors. It notes that while wellbeing was once associated with alternative lifestyles, it has now gone mainstream. Research shows that factors like relationships and community connections are important for wellbeing, beyond just income level. High wellbeing is linked to reduced mortality risk similar to not smoking. However, wellbeing is complex with many interconnected factors. While more needs to be done to improve population wellbeing, there are also concerns that the pursuit of happiness could be taken too far in some cases. The medical field is also increasingly recognizing the importance of wellbeing for health outcomes.
Worklife balance of women doctors in coimbatoreMalathy S
This study examines the work-life balance of women doctors in Coimbatore, India. It analyzes the working conditions and factors that hinder their work-life balance. The study found that most women doctors are between 25-35 years old, married, working 8-12 hours per day. They experience stress from family responsibilities and caring for children and elderly parents. The study suggests hospitals provide more family-friendly policies like flexible schedules and vacation time to improve work-life balance for women doctors. Maintaining a work-life balance remains an ongoing challenge.
Corporate Health and Wellness: Combating Stress in the WorkplaceBabaji Maharaj
There are alarming statistics that show stress as an empidemic, specifically arising from the workplace. The complexities of stress are leading to the need to find solutions, such as Super Yoga and the Super Life program to begin combatting against the stress and anxiety that is pirating corporations profits.
The prevalence and correlates of low back pain in adultsYounis I Munshi
This study examined the prevalence and correlates of low back pain in adults in Southern India. A total of 804 adults (401 men and 403 women) aged 20 years and older participated in the study. The key findings were:
1. The overall prevalence of low back pain was 40.7%, with the prevalence being higher in women (52.9%) compared to men (28.4%).
2. Height, weight, waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, and BMI were not associated with low back pain in both men and women.
3. In women, those who had undergone caesarean sections or sterilization were more likely to experience low back pain.
4. Both men and women
Take a look at this dnp capstone project sample and discover what is correct format of it. FOr more info check this site. https://www.capstonepaper.net/our-capstone-papers/capstone-nursing-paper-writing-services/
The document summarizes the key topics from a 2013 convention on the integration of health. It discusses: 1) cardiovascular disease as a top global killer, focusing on heart and brain; 2) risk factors like lifestyle and aging that contribute to CVD; and 3) approaches to prevention through science, health education, and promoting healthy communities. The goal is to integrate knowledge on CVD causes and solutions to improve population health outcomes.
Educational level, sex and church affiliation on health seeking Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigated the impact of educational level, sex, and church affiliation on health seeking behavior among parishioners in Makurdi, Nigeria. 448 participants were surveyed using a health seeking behavior scale. The study found that educational level and sex were statistically significant predictors of health seeking behavior, with those with higher education and females reporting higher health seeking scores. Additionally, Catholics reported higher health seeking behavior than non-Catholics. The study suggests these factors be considered to improve health policies and promote behaviors.
El documento define diferentes herramientas de información y comunicación como TICS, herramientas de la información, WWW, correo electrónico, página web, messenger, chat, buscador, navegador, foro y red social.
Esta empresa se dedica a la venta de acabados para la construcción como porcelanato, granito, cuarzo y tarvertino. Su misión es ofrecer productos de alta calidad a precios competitivos brindando un excelente servicio a clientes del sector público y privado. La empresa tiene varias sucursales en centros comerciales de la zona central de Costa Rica.
Said Khalil is an Egyptian chemist currently working at the QC Department of New Marina Plast Savola Group in Alexandria, Egypt. He has over 7 years of experience working in quality control roles for various companies. He received his Bachelor's degree in Chemistry and Physics from the University of Alexandria in 2010 and is currently pursuing a Master's degree in Chemistry. Khalil is proficient in English and has received several training certificates in areas like safety, quality control processes, and statistical analysis software.
Este documento resume los fundamentos de los enlaces radioeléctricos, incluyendo la caracterización de antenas como transmisoras y receptoras, cálculos de ganancia, potencia radiada efectiva, fórmulas de Friis, y factores que afectan la señal como ruido y atenuación por lluvia. Explica conceptos clave como eficiencia de antena, ganancia directiva, balance de enlace, y relación señal/ruido para determinar el margen de fading requerido.
Este documento describe los principales componentes internos de una computadora, incluyendo la tarjeta madre, el microprocesador, la memoria RAM y caché, la tarjeta de video, las unidades de almacenamiento, la fuente de poder y el BIOS. Cada componente juega un papel clave en el funcionamiento general de la computadora.
I led the development of a research study and report on the demographics, civil society and politics at Carleton University to assess the state of its environmental activism.
El documento describe las características de la atmósfera terrestre, incluyendo sus diferentes capas, la composición del ozono y su función, la definición de amplitud térmica anual y sequía. Explica que la atmósfera está compuesta de gases y se extiende 1000 km desde la superficie de la Tierra, y está dividida en varias capas definidas por cambios en la temperatura.
Este documento presenta el portafolio diagnóstico de Alexandra Papageorgiou sobre la innovación educativa con recursos abiertos. Actualmente estudia en la Universidad Abierta de Grecia y ha estudiado gimnasia rítmica e informática. Su objetivo es entender mejor las posibilidades de los recursos educativos abiertos y cómo desarrollar actividades usándolos, además de compartir sus conocimientos sobre ellos con los jóvenes.
Health and Wellbeing after Deportation: The Roles of Socio-Demographic Variab...IJSRED
This study investigated the roles of socio-demographic variables in influencing health and wellbeing after deportation. 182 deported participants completed questionnaires assessing health/wellbeing. 3 hypotheses were tested: 1) No significant sex difference in health/wellbeing was found. 2) A significant positive relationship between age and health/wellbeing was found, with older deportees reporting better health. 3) Deportation history and period of stay in deported country significantly predicted health/wellbeing jointly and independently. The findings imply that both male and female deportees need rehabilitation, and that assessment of deportees should account for age, deportation history, and period of stay in deported country.
This study examines how welfare policies across countries impact the time married men and women spend on paid work, unpaid housework, and childcare, and how these differences in time allocation relate to variations in self-reported health between genders. The study uses data from time use surveys in 5 countries to analyze time use patterns among married individuals and health outcomes. The goal is to help explain observed gender differences in health benefits of marriage across welfare regimes and inform policies to reduce health inequalities.
Reducing Tobacco Use Among Adolescents Using Social Cognitive Theory and Soci...Shauna Ayres, MPH, CHES
This document discusses reducing tobacco use among adolescents using Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Social Network Theory (SNT). It summarizes key aspects of SCT, including its focus on personal, behavioral, and environmental factors that influence health behaviors. Studies discussed found targeting self-efficacy, normative beliefs, and intentions through programs and policies were effective in preventing or reducing tobacco use. The document suggests using a multi-strategy approach incorporating several SCT constructs is most effective for interventions.
This document summarizes a presentation about creating healthy workplaces. It discusses how poor health costs employers money through increased medical costs, absenteeism, and reduced productivity. Many chronic diseases are caused or exacerbated by modifiable lifestyle factors like obesity, tobacco use, poor nutrition, lack of exercise, alcohol use, and stress. Establishing a culture of health in the workplace through leadership commitment, evidence-based wellness programs, and a focus on modifying risk factors can improve employee health and reduce costs. Case studies show that comprehensive worksite wellness programs have led to reductions in health risks, health care costs, and increases in productivity at successful companies.
The Pursuit of Happiness - Australian Doctor - July 3 2015John Kron
The document discusses the rise of the wellbeing movement and what it means for doctors. It notes that while wellbeing was once associated with alternative lifestyles, it has now gone mainstream. Research shows that factors like relationships and community connections are important for wellbeing, beyond just income level. High wellbeing is linked to reduced mortality risk similar to not smoking. However, wellbeing is complex with many interconnected factors. While more needs to be done to improve population wellbeing, there are also concerns that the pursuit of happiness could be taken too far in some cases. The medical field is also increasingly recognizing the importance of wellbeing for health outcomes.
Worklife balance of women doctors in coimbatoreMalathy S
This study examines the work-life balance of women doctors in Coimbatore, India. It analyzes the working conditions and factors that hinder their work-life balance. The study found that most women doctors are between 25-35 years old, married, working 8-12 hours per day. They experience stress from family responsibilities and caring for children and elderly parents. The study suggests hospitals provide more family-friendly policies like flexible schedules and vacation time to improve work-life balance for women doctors. Maintaining a work-life balance remains an ongoing challenge.
Corporate Health and Wellness: Combating Stress in the WorkplaceBabaji Maharaj
There are alarming statistics that show stress as an empidemic, specifically arising from the workplace. The complexities of stress are leading to the need to find solutions, such as Super Yoga and the Super Life program to begin combatting against the stress and anxiety that is pirating corporations profits.
The prevalence and correlates of low back pain in adultsYounis I Munshi
This study examined the prevalence and correlates of low back pain in adults in Southern India. A total of 804 adults (401 men and 403 women) aged 20 years and older participated in the study. The key findings were:
1. The overall prevalence of low back pain was 40.7%, with the prevalence being higher in women (52.9%) compared to men (28.4%).
2. Height, weight, waist circumference, waist-hip ratio, and BMI were not associated with low back pain in both men and women.
3. In women, those who had undergone caesarean sections or sterilization were more likely to experience low back pain.
4. Both men and women
Take a look at this dnp capstone project sample and discover what is correct format of it. FOr more info check this site. https://www.capstonepaper.net/our-capstone-papers/capstone-nursing-paper-writing-services/
The document summarizes the key topics from a 2013 convention on the integration of health. It discusses: 1) cardiovascular disease as a top global killer, focusing on heart and brain; 2) risk factors like lifestyle and aging that contribute to CVD; and 3) approaches to prevention through science, health education, and promoting healthy communities. The goal is to integrate knowledge on CVD causes and solutions to improve population health outcomes.
Educational level, sex and church affiliation on health seeking Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study that investigated the impact of educational level, sex, and church affiliation on health seeking behavior among parishioners in Makurdi, Nigeria. 448 participants were surveyed using a health seeking behavior scale. The study found that educational level and sex were statistically significant predictors of health seeking behavior, with those with higher education and females reporting higher health seeking scores. Additionally, Catholics reported higher health seeking behavior than non-Catholics. The study suggests these factors be considered to improve health policies and promote behaviors.
El documento define diferentes herramientas de información y comunicación como TICS, herramientas de la información, WWW, correo electrónico, página web, messenger, chat, buscador, navegador, foro y red social.
Esta empresa se dedica a la venta de acabados para la construcción como porcelanato, granito, cuarzo y tarvertino. Su misión es ofrecer productos de alta calidad a precios competitivos brindando un excelente servicio a clientes del sector público y privado. La empresa tiene varias sucursales en centros comerciales de la zona central de Costa Rica.
Said Khalil is an Egyptian chemist currently working at the QC Department of New Marina Plast Savola Group in Alexandria, Egypt. He has over 7 years of experience working in quality control roles for various companies. He received his Bachelor's degree in Chemistry and Physics from the University of Alexandria in 2010 and is currently pursuing a Master's degree in Chemistry. Khalil is proficient in English and has received several training certificates in areas like safety, quality control processes, and statistical analysis software.
Este documento resume los fundamentos de los enlaces radioeléctricos, incluyendo la caracterización de antenas como transmisoras y receptoras, cálculos de ganancia, potencia radiada efectiva, fórmulas de Friis, y factores que afectan la señal como ruido y atenuación por lluvia. Explica conceptos clave como eficiencia de antena, ganancia directiva, balance de enlace, y relación señal/ruido para determinar el margen de fading requerido.
Este documento describe los principales componentes internos de una computadora, incluyendo la tarjeta madre, el microprocesador, la memoria RAM y caché, la tarjeta de video, las unidades de almacenamiento, la fuente de poder y el BIOS. Cada componente juega un papel clave en el funcionamiento general de la computadora.
I led the development of a research study and report on the demographics, civil society and politics at Carleton University to assess the state of its environmental activism.
El documento describe las características de la atmósfera terrestre, incluyendo sus diferentes capas, la composición del ozono y su función, la definición de amplitud térmica anual y sequía. Explica que la atmósfera está compuesta de gases y se extiende 1000 km desde la superficie de la Tierra, y está dividida en varias capas definidas por cambios en la temperatura.
Este documento presenta el portafolio diagnóstico de Alexandra Papageorgiou sobre la innovación educativa con recursos abiertos. Actualmente estudia en la Universidad Abierta de Grecia y ha estudiado gimnasia rítmica e informática. Su objetivo es entender mejor las posibilidades de los recursos educativos abiertos y cómo desarrollar actividades usándolos, además de compartir sus conocimientos sobre ellos con los jóvenes.
Baldomero Espartero fue un militar español que nació en 1793 en Logroño y murió en 1879. Tuvo una destacada carrera militar en la que alcanzó los títulos de príncipe de Vergara y duque de la Victoria. En 1840 fue nombrado general y regente de España tras la muerte de su esposa. Sin embargo, su estilo autoritario y las medidas liberales que tomó descontentaron a muchos, por lo que se adelantó la mayoría de edad de la reina Isabel II.
El Don es un largo río en Rusia europea de unos 1950 km que desagua en el mar de Arov. Es el cuarto río más largo de Rusia y atraviesa ciudades con más de 100,000 habitantes. Tiene un curso lento con una pendiente media de 0.1% y es navegable, por lo que históricamente ha sido importante para el comercio.
Este documento presenta un resumen del tema 4 sobre los recursos de internet. Incluye una introducción sobre la crisis de la monarquía española en el siglo XIX y eventos como las Cortes de Cádiz y la Constitución de 1812. También describe brevemente el sexenio absolutista entre 1814-1820 y el trienio liberal de 1820-1823, así como la década ominosa de 1823 a 1833 en España.
Using a case-control model for study, viral markers were investigated for their use in predicting water health and contamination source. Samples were taken from three separate watersheds: Agricultural, Urban, and a Reference. From each of these, sub-samples were taken with respect to an identified contamination source: up-stream, down-stream, and at the site of contamination. Each sample was filtered in order to isolate viral particles and viral genetic material (DNA and RNA) was shotgun sequenced using the MiSeq bench top sequencer. Data was quality filtered and matched to a database in order to identify the viruses from which these reads came. Samples were compared to one another in order to identify significant differences in viral communities.
The document details the Halliburton Project/Chemical storage section construction project. It provides the project name, dates from start to finish lasting 65 days, and that the work completed included building a 30m x 22m warehouse and other steel work. The construction manager oversaw the project from November 2013 to January 2014.
Raul Quiroz - Research Paper Business CommunicationsRaul Quiroz
The document is a memo from Raul Quiroz, a master's candidate in accounting, to Dr. Carolyn Edwards at the business school. The memo discusses research Quiroz conducted on the impact of job search stress on physical and mental health. It finds that job loss can negatively impact health by increasing stress levels, leading to issues like weight gain, headaches, and low mental health. The memo suggests eight steps people can take during job searches to reduce stress, such as staying positive, managing uncertainties, networking, and learning from rejections.
Exploring occupational balance in adults in SwedenGrupo OT5
The document summarizes a study that explored occupational balance in adults in Sweden. The study found:
1) Occupational balance, as measured by the Occupational Balance Questionnaire (OBQ), was positively correlated with self-rated health and life satisfaction, supporting the relationship between occupational balance and health.
2) No significant differences in overall occupational balance were found between men and women or between those living with children and those who did not.
3) Some differences were found between groups on individual items of the OBQ, with those living with children reporting lower scores on items related to time for desired activities and balance between solo and group activities.
Technical And Business Of EntrepreneurshipDiane Allen
The document discusses technical and business undergraduate students' self-efficacy in entrepreneurship. It finds that business undergraduates may have higher self-efficacy in entrepreneurial endeavors than non-business students, as business students had more opportunities to be involved in business activities. Preliminary analyses were conducted to ensure assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity were not violated.
RESEARCH ARTICLE Open AccessExperiences of reduced work ho.docxronak56
RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access
Experiences of reduced work hours for
nurses and assistant nurses at a surgical
department: a qualitative study
Kristina Gyllensten1* , Gunnar Andersson2 and Helena Muller2
Abstract
Background: There is a shortage of registered nurses in the European Union (EU), and job dissatisfaction and perceived
high work–family conflict have been identified as causes of nursing staff turnover. Reducing work hours is an organisational
intervention that could have a positive effect on nurses’ and assistant nurses’ job satisfaction, work–life balance, and
willingness to stay in the job. An orthopaedic surgery department at a large hospital in Sweden introduced reduced
work hours for nurses and assistant nurses in order to improve the working situation. The aim of the study was to investigate
the experiences of reduced work hours and no lunch breaks among nurses and assistant nurses at an orthopaedic surgery
department at a hospital in Sweden, with a particular focus on recovery and psychosocial working environment.
Methods: A qualitative design was used in the study. Eleven nurses and assistant nurses working at the particular orthopaedic
department took part in the study, and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data. The interviews were analysed by
interpretative phenomenological analysis.
Results: Four main themes were developed in the analysis of the data: A more sustainable working situation, Improved
work–life balance, Consequences of being part of a project, and Improved quality of care. Each theme consisted of
subthemes.
Conclusions: Overall, reduced work hours appeared to have many, mainly positive, effects for the participants in both
work and home life.
Keywords: Reduced work hours, Nurses, Assistant nurses, Qualitative research, Psychosocial working environment,
Work-life balance
Background
There is a shortage of registered nurses in EU countries,
and this shortage is expected to worsen. Job dissatisfaction
and ill health are two important factors responsible for the
loss of practising nurses [1]. Perceived high work–family
conflict has also been identified as a cause of nursing staff
turnover, and not surprisingly, long working hours and
shift work have been found to be related to work–family
conflict among nurses [2, 3]. A large-scale study on work
shifts for European nurses found that long work hours
had a negative impact on fatigue, health and patient safety
[4]. Introduction of reduced work hours is an organisa-
tional intervention that could have a positive effect on
nurses’ and assistant nurses’ job satisfaction, work–life bal-
ance, and willingness to stay in the job.
The six-hour working day and reduced work hours are
hot topics that have received increasing attention in the
Swedish debate, with supporting arguments focusing on
decreasing unemployment and benefits for dual-earner
families and non-supporting arguments focusing on
reduction of competitiveness of companies and costs for
imp ...
The Impact of Burnout syndrome on Nurse Workers .docxrtodd33
The Impact of Burnout syndrome on Nurse Workers !1
The Impact of Burnout Syndrome on Psychosocial Wellbeing, Expected Outcomes, Self-efficacy,
Turnover, and Interest in Career of Nurse Workers.
Olajumoke Omiyale
Aspen University
Author Note
Essentials of Nursing Research N494
Dr. Keshea Britton
Date of Submission February 11, 2020
Burnout Among Nurses !2
Background
Burnout is a very common condition across the world and especially in the nursing
career. It's the reduction in the energy and zeal of nurses manifesting in form of being
emotionally exhausted, lacking motivation, feeling frustrated, fatigued, and low reaction time
which reduces individuals' output and work efficacy in general. Burnout has been strongly
attributed to the deficit in the number of healthcare professionals, a concern that goes way to be a
matter of global importance. The rapidly changing healthcare landscape that brings a paradigm
shift to increased demand for healthcare services in the world population has come with its
challenges. Although experts associate the change to improvement in the quality of life for which
people become capable of seeking healthcare services, the move has placed a lot of pressure on
not only the healthcare systems but particularly on the workforce (Mudallal, Othman, & Al
Hassan, 2017). However, governments have not moved at a similar pace to address these
pressures, leaving the mantle on the health institutions and professionals. To be specific, nurses,
as well as other healthcare providers, are left with a large number of patients to takes care of, a
number that keeps on increasing day after day, keeping them on the run all the time. The absolute
result of this healthcare environment is burning or wearing out, which without doubt minimizes
the efficacy of the nurse’s output.
The working environment for which the nurse staff doesn't match the care demand
culminated by poor leadership creates unattractive working conditions. Indeed, WHO reports
indicate that shortages of nurses would nationally and internally interfere with the efforts to
health and well being of the world population. Where staff shortage exists, human resources are
Burnout Among Nurses !3
overstretched, working conditions become poor and unbearable, work becomes increasingly
hazardous to the health of the nurse- they get no rest, become stressed, productivity decrease
with the poor patient outcome which add up to the trauma of the workers. They end up losing
interest in their job, become highly dissatisfied, burnout and increase the chances of quitting the
job. In return, the turnover of nurses affects the quality of healthcare services offered because of
a lack of expertise and increasing the workload burden on the remaining staff (Sobral, et. al,
2018). .
The Impact of Burnout syndrome on Nurse Workers !1
The Impact of Burnout Syndrome on Psychosocial Wellbeing, Expected Outcomes, Self-efficacy,
Turnover, and Interest in Career of Nurse Workers.
Olajumoke Omiyale
Aspen University
Author Note
Essentials of Nursing Research N494
Dr. Keshea Britton
Date of Submission February 11, 2020
Burnout Among Nurses !2
Background
Burnout is a very common condition across the world and especially in the nursing
career. It's the reduction in the energy and zeal of nurses manifesting in form of being
emotionally exhausted, lacking motivation, feeling frustrated, fatigued, and low reaction time
which reduces individuals' output and work efficacy in general. Burnout has been strongly
attributed to the deficit in the number of healthcare professionals, a concern that goes way to be a
matter of global importance. The rapidly changing healthcare landscape that brings a paradigm
shift to increased demand for healthcare services in the world population has come with its
challenges. Although experts associate the change to improvement in the quality of life for which
people become capable of seeking healthcare services, the move has placed a lot of pressure on
not only the healthcare systems but particularly on the workforce (Mudallal, Othman, & Al
Hassan, 2017). However, governments have not moved at a similar pace to address these
pressures, leaving the mantle on the health institutions and professionals. To be specific, nurses,
as well as other healthcare providers, are left with a large number of patients to takes care of, a
number that keeps on increasing day after day, keeping them on the run all the time. The absolute
result of this healthcare environment is burning or wearing out, which without doubt minimizes
the efficacy of the nurse’s output.
The working environment for which the nurse staff doesn't match the care demand
culminated by poor leadership creates unattractive working conditions. Indeed, WHO reports
indicate that shortages of nurses would nationally and internally interfere with the efforts to
health and well being of the world population. Where staff shortage exists, human resources are
Burnout Among Nurses !3
overstretched, working conditions become poor and unbearable, work becomes increasingly
hazardous to the health of the nurse- they get no rest, become stressed, productivity decrease
with the poor patient outcome which add up to the trauma of the workers. They end up losing
interest in their job, become highly dissatisfied, burnout and increase the chances of quitting the
job. In return, the turnover of nurses affects the quality of healthcare services offered because of
a lack of expertise and increasing the workload burden on the remaining staff (Sobral, et. al,
2018). .
Running head: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SELF-EFFICACY 1
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SELF-EFFICACY 2
The Relationship between Physical Activity and Self-Efficacy in Schools
Abstract
Few studies have examined the relationship between physical activities and health outcomes among adolescents. The majority of the adult population knows much about health-risk behaviours of adolescents, and knows less about their health-promoting behaviours. The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between physical activity levels and self-efficacy among adolescents.
Introduction
According to Start Active, regular physical activity associates with benefits for physical and mental health (as cited in Roberts et al, 2015). Studies have indicated that health life traits and styles have an impact on lifelong health and life quality. Childhood poor diet and physical inactivity have been risk factors for a multitude of chronic health condition in adulthood (Matthews et al, 2015). According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for children, only 42% of children and 8% of adolescents achieve current recommended physical activity.
Most students studying in Hoca Ahment Yesevi University were hound to have health issues emanating from lack of physical exercise and personal fitness programs (Ozkan, 2015). Up to 70 per cent of university students are reported as not participating in regular free-time physical activity or exercise (Haase et al, 2004, as cited in Roberts et al, 2014). Simon et al (2015) mentioned that majority of the adult population fails to achieve recommended daily exercise, 30-minutes moderate intensity exercise. When physical activity is conducted regularly as the researchers found out, it is likely to improve the physical fitness of the students and generally of people and therefore contributing heavily to better healthy life styles. Achieving daily exercise was shown to promote better sleep quality and higher psychological functioning in adolescents (Kalak et al, 2012, as cited in Rew et al, 2015).
Styles and activities that promote the health of humans increase their chances of wellbeing and therefore promote healthy living. In achieving well-being in health, there must be a mentioned engagement in activities which are likely to enhance the same such as proper exercises and fitness methods. Health promotion takes quite a multidimensional structure, that is, intellectual, mental, physical and social and therefore a number of behaviours which are meant at promoting behaviours are identified by health professionals and other researchers. These behaviours include life appreciation, stress management, health responsibility, social support, exercise and better nutrition. Therefore a general conclusion is arrived at that physical activity and exercise have an impact on the quality of human life and can actually aid its improveme.
Objectives: We examine the predictors of sickness presenteeism in comparison with sickness absenteeism. The paper focuses on the effects of working-time match and efficiency demands and differentiates the estimates by a respondent’s self-assessed health. Methods: We use survey data covering 884 Finnish trade union members in 2009. We estimate logit models. All models include control variables such as the sector of the economy and the type of contract. Results: Working-time match between desired and actual weekly working hours reduces both sickness absence and presenteeism in the whole sample that consists of workers with all health levels. The point estimates reveal that working-time match decreases the prevalence of sickness absence by 7% and presenteeism by 8%. However, the estimates that differentiate by a respondent’s health show that this pattern prevails only for those workers who have poor health. Hence, the point estimates for those who have poor health are much larger than the ones for the whole sample. Working-time match reduces the prevalence of sickness absence by 21% and presenteeism by 20% for those workers who have poor health. In contrast, working-time match has no influence whatsoever on the prevalence of work-related sickness for those who have good health. We also find that efficiency demands increase presenteeism in the whole sample. However, additional results reveal that this pattern prevails only for those workers who have good health. Conclusions: The effects of working-time match and efficiency demands on the prevalence of sickness absence and presenteeism are strongly conditional upon a worker’s self-assessed health level. Therefore, the worker’s initial health is an important attribute that has to be taken into account when one is designing appropriate policies to reduce sickness absence and presenteeism.
Stress and Healthcare Workers Productivity at Lexington Medical blazelaj2
Stress and Healthcare Workers Productivity at Lexington Medical Center
Veronica N Cornell
Claflin University
ABSTRACT
[BY1]
The research proposal aim at assessing the effect of workplace stress on workers productivity at Lexington Medical Center. The objective of the research is to assess worker productivity, the stress level among health workers, and the extent to which their productivity and performance is related to stress levels. The research survey will be a cross section and it will involve 120 participants (about 20% of the total population) and it will be conducted through convenience sampling techniques and stratified sampling. The data will be collected using questionnaire and descriptive statistical regression analysis will be used for data analysis. Before the actual data collection, there will be pilot study to determine reliability of the
[BY2]
research process. At this stage, the research will include expert opinion to enhance validity of the research.
This abstract did not give a background and summary of your study, and your expected outcome
Keywords:
Employee productivity/ job performance, work place stress/occupational stress, doctors, nurses, medical attendant Lexington Medical Center.
Table of Contents
[BY3]
Why do you have a background and Statement of the Problem? The background can be covered in the statement and description of the problem.
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................ 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION.. 1
1.1 Background to the Research Problem.. 1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem.. 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study. 3
1.3.1General Objective. 3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives. 4
1.4. Research Questions. 4
Why do you have a General and a Specific Objectives and Research Question. Please read the textbook or my powertpoint and understand it. Also my dissertation..
1.4.1 General Research Question. 4
1.4.2 Specific Research Questions. 4
1.5 Relevance of the Research. 4
1.6 Organization of the Dissertation (Why disseration? Disseration is totally different from a Research Proposal 5
1.7. Limitations. 5
CHAPTER TWO.. 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW... 6
2.1 Overview.. 6
2.2 Conceptual Definitions. 6
2.2.1 Work Place Stress. 7
2.2.2 Employee Performance. 7
2.3. Theoretical Literature Review.. 8
2.3.1 Employees Performance Management 8
2.3.2 Stress at Workplace. 8
Work Stress and Employees Performance. 10
Theories of Work Stress. 10
The Job Demands-Control Theory (JD-C) 10
The Role Theory. 11
Empirical Literature Review.. 11
Assessing Employee Performance. 12
2.5.3 Relationship between work Stresses and Employee Performance. 13
Research Gap Identified. 13
2.9 Statement of Hypotheses. 14
CHAPTER THREE.. 15
3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.. 15
3.1 Overview.. 15
3.2 Research Design. 15
3.3 Study Population. 15
3.4 Area of the Research. 15
3.5.1 Sample Size. 16
3.5.2 Sampling Procedure. 17
3.6. Variables and Measurements ...
Activity: Week 2 SWOT PowerPoint
Due Week 2 and worth 200 points
Dr. John Bradley is an Emergency Room physician. He worked a 24-hour shift due to a staff shortage. As a result, he had a patient that died because he failed to provide a duty of care, he breached his duty, and caused an injury. A prima facie case of negligence was established when Dr. Bradley failed to provide appropriate medical care. Liability was also based on ‘res ipsa loguitor’ (the thing speaks for itself). The incident is considered a Sentinel Event and must be reported to The Joint Commission (a non-profit hospital regulatory agency).
After a trend analysis of several Sentinel Events, “We Care Hospital” fired the Health Care Administrator. As a result, you were hired as the new Health Care Administrator. You have reviewed the Sentinel Event with Dr. John Bradley and discovered several factors that showed the hospital was negligent. The three basic forms for negligence are malfeasance, misfeasance, and nonfeasance. Your first task is to rationalize your answers by using any applicable legal precedents.
Then, prepare a Microsoft PowerPoint 10-slide narrative using a SWOT Analysis. A SWOT Analysis identifies strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in a situation. Review the video: Strategic Planning and SWOT Analysis. To help you prepare the narrative PowerPoint using Microsoft 365 and older versions, review the video: Record a slide show with narration and slide timings.
Your 10-slide SWOT PowerPoint should follow this format:
1. Slide 1: Cover Page
a. Include the title of your presentation, the course number and course title, your name, your professor’s name, and the date.
2. Slide 2: Background / Executive Summary
a. Describe the details of the situation. Use bullets with short sentences. The title of this slide should be Executive Summary.
3. Slide 3: Thesis Statement
a. Identify the focus of your research. The title of this slide should be Thesis Statement.
4. Slides 4-9: Support
a. Support your thesis statement following the SESC formula: State, Explain, Support, and Conclude. (An overview of using Sublevel 1 and Sublevel 2 headings is provided in the following video: APA Style - Formatting the Title Page, Abstract, and Body).
b. You should include at least three court cases and related peer-reviewed articles from within the past five years. In-text citations should be in the American Psychological Association (APA) format.
5. Slides 10: References
a. Use APA format for your Reference slide. (To help you with APA in-text citations and your Reference list, some students use Citation Machine.
Note: Writing Resources are available from Strayer University’s Writing Center, Tutor.com, and Grammarly.com.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
· Examine the various applications of the law within the health care system.
· Analyze how such various applications of the law affect decisions in the development and operation of a heal ...
Employee well-being influences individual, organizational, and societal outcomes. Work-related stress contributes to 120,000 deaths per year in the U.S. and increased health care costs. It also reduces productivity and increases absenteeism and turnover. Employee well-being spills over to affect family life, with job stress correlating to poorer parent-child relationships and marital problems. However, work can also provide benefits to well-being like daily structure, social contact, and a sense of purpose when organized appropriately. Policies aim to improve well-being could yield individual and economic gains.
Respond to the Main post bellow, in one or more of the follomickietanger
Respond to the Main post bellow, in one or more of the following ways:
Ask a probing question, substantiated with additional background information, and evidence.
Share an insight from having read your colleagues’ postings, synthesizing the information to provide new perspectives.
Offer and support an alternative perspective using readings from the classroom or from your own review of the literature in the Walden Library.
Validate an idea with your own experience and additional sources.
Make a suggestion based on additional evidence drawn from readings or after synthesizing multiple postings.
Expand on your colleagues’ postings by providing additional insights or contrasting perspectives based on readings and evidence.
INITIAL POST
An Intervention Program to Promote Health-Related Physical Fitness in Nurses
This quantitative, quasi-experimental study conducted by Yaun et al. (2009) aimed to determine the effects of an exercise intervention on nurses’ health-related physical fitness. The researchers also expressed an explicit interest in the relationship between physical fitness and the incidence of musculoskeletal disorders. Taiwanese nurses from five different units volunteered to be part of the study. The participants were divided into two groups with 45 nurses in the experimental group and 45 nurses in the control group. There was no randomization, but all the participants gave written informed consent (Yaun et al., 2009).
Internal Validity
According to Polit and Beck (2017), internal validity pertains to the empirical relationship between the independent variable and the final results. Researchers must establish that the intended cause created the effect, and that it was not influenced by other variables (Polit & Beck, 2017). After all, correlation does not equal causation, and an astute researcher will adeptly identify and control convoluting variables. Further, Andrade (2018) asserts that internal validity assesses whether the design of the study, the conduct of the researchers, and the analysis of the results answer the research question without bias (Andrade, 2018).
Consequently, the research conducted by Yaun et al. did have some issues that negatively impacted the internal validity of their research. Firstly, convoluting variables were not adequately controlled. The exclusion criteria consisted of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, renal disease, pulmonary disease, severe musculoskeletal aches, and pregnancy. However, other significant variables such as age, gender, marital status, educational level, or other medical issues. It is worth noting that the diet and exercise habits of the participants were not limited by the researchers.
Moreover, the nurses in the experimental group worked a fixed schedule whereas nurses in the control group worked alternating shifts. Secondly, the lack of randomization coupled w ...
The Changing Organization of Work and the Safety and Health of Working PeopleRobson Peixoto
Organizational practices have changed dramatically
in the new economy. To compete more effectively,
many companies have restructured themselves
and downsized their workforces, increased their reliance
on nontraditional employment practices that depend
on temporary workers and contractor-supplied
labor, and adopted more flexible and lean production
technologies.
A Corporate Wellness Program And Nursing Home Employees HealthValerie Felton
This study evaluated the impact of a corporate wellness program across 18 nursing homes. The nursing homes were categorized based on the level of wellness programming offered: well-developed, emerging, or no program. Surveys were administered to employees to assess health behaviors, working conditions, and beliefs. There were no significant differences found between programming levels for most health outcomes. Workers in facilities with well-developed programs had a slightly lower average BMI and were less likely to exercise regularly or be non-smokers. The authors conclude the program had modest influence on employee health and that more supportive approaches are needed.
This document discusses work-life balance and summarizes several research papers on the topic. It begins by defining work-life balance and outlining its positive and negative effects. It then reviews literature that has studied work-life balance among married women and dual-earner couples. The document also summarizes the objectives, methodologies, findings, and conclusions of the reviewed research. Overall, the research emphasizes the need for organizations to support work-life balance policies to improve employee satisfaction and performance.
We analyse the relationship between unemployment and self-assessed health using the European Community Household Panel (ECHP) for Finland over the period 1996–2001. Our results reveal that the event of becoming unemployed does not matter as such for self-assessed health. The health status of those that end up being unemployed is lower than that of the continually employed. Hence, persons who have poor health are being selected for the pool of the unemployed. This explains why, in a cross-section, unemployment is associated with poor selfassessed health. However, we are somewhat more likely to obtain the negative effects of unemployment on health when long-term unemployment is used as the measure of unemployment experience
Gender Difference in Response to Preventative Health Careiowafoodandfitness
Luther College Students prepared the following community assessments as part of their Psychology of Health and Illness class in the Fall Semester 2008.
Quantitative Analysis Template !Instructions When analyzing.docxamrit47
Quantitative Analysis Template !
Instructions: When analyzing a journal article, first focus on the title of the article and/or the abstract.
Determine the independent variables (IVs) or the dependent variables (DVs) from these sections. If the
IVs and DVs are what you are looking for, then go ahead and read the whole article and fill out the following
information below. The purpose of filling out this template is to organize the most relevant information in a
journal article.
Reference (APA style) !!!
Background of the problem {e.g., According to Jonson et al. (2008), low self-esteem is correlated to lower
academic performance and behavioral problems in young adolescents.} !!!!!
Rationale (Key phrase: …few studies…) !!!!
Purpose (Key phrase: to determine or to examine…) !!!!
Past Studies{i.e., facts that are relevant to the IV and DV with citations (APA style)} !!!!!
Participants !
Age group(s) !
Gender !
Ethnic group(s)
SES !!
Quantitative Methods (survey, causal-comp, experimental, single-subject, mixed)
Assessments !
IV:
Measure !
Example question !
Likert-scale !
Reliability !
DV:
Measure !
Example question !
Likert-scale !
Reliability !!
(If there are more IVs and DVs that you feel are relevant, then you may note them here) !!
Treatment (Intervention) !!!
Hypothesis or research question(s) (Focus on the IVs and DVs from your definitions section) !!!!
What was significant (results) in the study? Focus on the IVs and DVs that you have picked. You don’t have
to state all the IVs and DVs from the article. What reasons do the authors give for the significant data (key
phrase in the discussion section: may be, might be)? !!!!!!!
Implications (What is the study recommending to educators? How can educators apply what they have
learned to their children/students/clients?)
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Mental Health and the Life Span
Depression and Retirement in Late
Middle-Aged U.S. Workers
Jalpa A. Doshi, Liyi Cen, and Daniel Polsky
Objective. To determine whether late middle-aged U.S. workers with depression are
at an increased risk for retirement.
Data Source. Six biennial waves (1992–2002) of the Health and Retirement Study, a
nationally representative panel survey of noninstitutionalized 51–61-year-olds and their
spouses started in 1992.
Study Design. Workers aged 53–58 years in 1994 were followed every 2 years there-
after, through 2002. Depression was coded as lagged time-dependent variables mea-
suring active depression and severity of depression. The main outcome variable was a
transition to retirement which was measured using two distinct definitions to capture
different stages in the retirement process: (1) Retirement was defined as a transition out
of the labor force in the sample of all labor force participants (N 5 2,853); (2) In addition
a transition out of full time work was used as the retirement definition in the subset of
labor force participants who were full time workers (N 5 2,288).
Princip ...
Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Expectant Mothers on Physical Activity A...ijtsrd
Pregnancy is often considered a crucial and complete metamorphic stage in a woman life. Undoubtedly as you continue your pregnancy, you will have numerous questions about various aspects of having a healthy and safe pregnancy. Being physically active during pregnancy contributes significantly towards the health and wellbeing of the mother as well as the child. The aim of the current study is understand the knowledge, attitude and practices of expectant mothers towards physical activity in pregnancy. A total of 100 expectant mothers in the third trimester, 50 of government hospital and 50 of private hospitals, were selected from different maternity hospitals across the city, Hyderabad, through random sampling. The data was collected through self administered questionnaires. Data compilation was done using Microsoft excel version 2010 and statistically analysed using chi square test. The results revealed that while majority of the expectant mothers from both the hospital settings agreed that physical activity is important during pregnancy, they reported decrease in physical activity following pregnancy which may be attributed to various reasons like the lack of advice from health care providers regarding physical activity majorly among the government hospital women and reported barriers like fatigue and pregnancy discomfort, lack of time and fear regarding the safety of physical activity during pregnancy. It was observed that greater number of expectant mothers of the government hospital performed adequate physical activity when compared to their counterparts. Thus, the study concludes that although there was no statistically significant difference in knowledge regarding the guidelines for physical activity in pregnancy yet the expectant mothers of government hospitals were more physically active than that of expectant mothers of the private hospital. Anam Fatima | Dr. P. Ashlesha ""Knowledge, Attitude and Practices of Expectant Mothers on Physical Activity - A Comparative Study"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-4 , June 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23745.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/medicine/gynecology/23745/knowledge-attitude-and-practices-of-expectant-mothers-on-physical-activity---a-comparative-study/anam-fatima
This document discusses employer uncertainty regarding implementing worksite wellness programs. While employees spend most of their time at work, making it a sensible place to promote health, many employers are reluctant to establish wellness programs. This reluctance stems from factors like perceived costs, views of obesity as a personal issue, and concerns about recouping investments. However, research shows wellness programs can reduce absenteeism and healthcare costs associated with obesity-related diseases. Both large employers and employees generally support wellness programs more than small employers. Further investigation is still needed to fully understand employer uncertainties around the value of worksite wellness initiatives.
Similar to The Effect of Working Hours on Health Care Expenditure in the United States (20)
The Effect of Working Hours on Health Care Expenditure in the United States
1. The Effect of Working Hours on Health Care Expenditure in the United States
Year after year, the United States is becoming known as a country of workaholics. In
2015, employees in the U.S. reached a 40-year high for unused vacation days. Oxford University
calculated this phenomenon to equate approximately to 169 million days, or the $52.4 billion in
lost benefits (Kasperkevic 2015). Furthermore; for the United States being the most powerful and
influential world leader, we do not mandate employers to provide paid vacation time. Only one
in four Americans receive paid vacation or holiday, which trails well behind a bulk of the
developed world. I find this trend to be regressive in terms of societal norm; and intend to
support this through the discovery of adverse effects on health care costs related to individuals’
working hours (Mohn 2013). The goal of my study is to investigate, and possibly quantify, the
degree to which working hours affects one’s health (using health care expenditure as a proxy).
An Economist article titled Working Hours: Get a Life from 2013 took a look into the
relationship between hours worked per year and productivity. To help identify its readers with
the purpose of their article; C.W. and A.J.K.D. referenced essays from Bertand Russell (“In
Praise of Idleness” 1932) and John Mayard Keynes (“Economic possibilities for our
grandchildren” 1930). The objective of these essays was to emphasize a utopian lifestyle that
would arise from a rise in technology, and more importantly, a lessening demand for labor.
Despite a vast rise in technology since the 1930’s, we have yet to cultivate an economy in which
labor is not the driving force.
A simple regression between hours worked per year (2080 hours/year equaling 40
hours/week) and GDP per hour worked (productivity) shows a strong negative correlation
between these two variables confirming that the marginal productivity is a diminishing function
of working hours. A simple empirical example comes from comparison of Greek and German
workers. Despite the fact that Greeks are hard-working individuals averaging about 2,000
working hours per year, Germans who work a mere 1,400 hours each year achieve a productivity
measure that is 70% higher than those of Greek workers (C.W. 2013).
In addition to the negative impact of working hours has on productivity, a recent study
recent study published by Lancet Medical Journal showed health related risks of long working
hours. The aforementioned study displayed a positive relationship between working hours
greater than 40 per week and cardiovascular issues. The study found that people working just an
hour extra a week, between 41 and 48 hours per week, have a 10% higher risk of stroke or other
cardiac events; while people working 49 to 54 hours per week have a 27% higher risk of stroke
(Mohney 2015).
According to the above study, the health risk only rises with additional working hours.
Individuals who worked 55 hours a week or greater were shown to be 33% more susceptible to
strokes, even after monitoring other risk factors such as smoking and alcohol consumption; and a
2. 13% increased risk for coronary heart disease or heart attack (Mohney 2015). The statistical
inferences in this study are similar to what I hope to find in my research; relating to long working
hours and general adverse effects it has on an individual’s health.
The main research question of my study is to investigate the relationship between health
care expenditure and the number of hours individuals work per week. My research hypothesis is
that an increase in weekly working hours over a certain threshold positively correlates with
health care costs. This should be consistent with the findings of previous studies; demonstrating
that an increase in working hours has a negative impact on health, and thus, positively relating to
health care expenditure.
Literature Review
There is a substantial ongoing research focusing on the correlation between work and
health, but only few investigate this link for workers of the United States. A recent study
conducted using a sample of Korean workers illustrates the impact of gender on self-rated health,
in regards to hours worked per week (Seong-Sik 2015). The study consisted of men and women
similar in age distribution, who were asked to rate their health on the 5-point SRH scale (ranging
from “very good” to “very poor” health). Working hours were placed into ranges; including 20-
35h (less than standard working hours), 36-40h (standard working hours), 41-52h (overtime
within legally permitted working hours excluding weekend work), 53-68h (overtime within
legally permitted working hours including weekend work), and 69h or more (legally prohibited).
The results of this study showed women to have a higher proportion of poor health.
Approximately 75% of men and women worked more than standard working hours, but more
women worked longer than 5 days per week. This is likely due to women receiving significantly
lower wages than their male counterparts and needing additional income. Of the individuals in
the study, women were found to hold whiter collar jobs, and were also found to be less educated
than the participating males (which would inherently contribute to the gender wage differential).
Seong-Sik (2015) stated that working hours in the South Korea’s labor force are strongly driven
by factors of demand (the vast majority of individuals working over 40 hours per week). In
regards to women, the statistical findings were realistically supported by the idea of women
balancing their work and family lives. Attempting to support a family and take care of a family
would in doubt bear more burden on women compared to men. In sum, this study found that
higher levels of working hours contributed to poor health. In C.W.’s Working hours: Get a life
(2013); South Korea’s labor force is graphically shown to work an additional 400 hours per
person per year in 2012, compared to an approximate 1,000 working hours differential in 1990.
Workplace interventions have shown to be impactful to individual’s health and
consequently, productivity (Vander Klink, Blonk, Schene, Van Dijk 2001). Specifically,
workplace interventions in the forms of cognitive-behavioral and multi-model interventions were
found to have a significant impact on work-related stress. Outcomes that had the most significant
impact on work-related stress (deriving from workplace interventions) include: complaints,
3. psychological resources, responses, and perceived quality of work life. Although this study has
shown us the advantageous of taking a workplace intervention, I suspect the same advantage to a
greater magnitude will occur with a simple reduction in working hours of an individual. The
importance of this research is to exemplify a technique in order to counteract the negative effects
of our working culture.
Another study by Fein & Skinner (2015) looked at major occupational groups, along with
gender, to identify pathways through which work hours impact health (Fein & Skinner 2015).
The theoretical framework used in their research was based around the idea that working hours
increases work-life conflict, and hence leads to health outcomes. Previous research by Skinner
estimates the relationship strength between work-life-conflict and health to be between 0.23 and
0.40, depending on particular health outcomes. The relationship between work hours and health
in said study estimates a weaker relationship than work-life-conflict and health. It was shown
that the coefficient for working hours’ effect on health was 0.15 for psychological health, and
0.06 for physical health. The research suggests that work hours were only associated with
negative health outcomes when the hours did not fit or interfered with workers’ other
commitments or activities. For women, this effect was shown to be greater, similar to Seong-Sik
(2015). The average woman may struggle to balance a work-life and family obligations; to a
greater extent than their male counterparts (Fein 2015).
Bell, Otterbach, and Sousa-Poza (2012) have recently conducted a study to investigate
the impact of the difference between actual and desired work hours on self-perceived health
outcomes. Their purpose was to indicate the consequences of employment policies and shed light
onto the discrepancy between actual and desired work hours. This research shows that many
individuals are overemployed on average, working 4+ hours per week than desired. One notable
insight found was that overemployed employees were generally less satisfied with their own
health than unconstrained full-time workers. Several other significant inferences included
stronger negative coefficients related to overemployment (compared to unconstrained and
underemployed workers) in relation to health satisfaction and self-assessed health, over all
weekly working hour intervals; ranging from (Bell 2012).
In another study, Nagashima, et. al (2007) accepted that there was a statistically
significant relationship between working hours and an individual’s health. Thus, their research
aimed at identifying a threshold in which number of hours worked per month had a profound
impact on mental and physical fatigue. They developed their results through the distribution of
questionnaires to 843 (720 used in the study) male factory workers, which I suspect could have
influenced their findings. Nagashima’s results stated that working greater than 260 hours per
month would begin to have an adverse impact on the Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS).
Measures involved in this scale include decreased vitality, general fatigue, physical disorders,
irritability, decreased willingness to work, anxiety, depressive feelings, and chronic tiredness; in
which general fatigue and tiredness, depressive feelings, irritability and decreased vitality were
4. most prevalent. In order to minimize these effects, males working in the sample factory should
work less than 260 hours per month (Nagashima 2007).
Conceptual Framework
There are also a number of additional implications of high working hours on health care
expenditure pertaining to the theory of demand for health capital. Basic economics tells us that
individuals use their income to maximize a preference function (utility). In regards to demand for
health capital, the preference function is as follows: Ut[utility]=U[Ht (health), Xt (other
commodities)], in a given period t. Since we know humans are not immortal, it is so that every
individual has a depreciation factor on their health. The health function for an individual in a
future period is dependent on his/her current health, minus the given depreciation consistent with
aging/risk averseness, plus investment into health-benefiting activities.
The Grossman Model states that individuals have the choice to invest in either medical
care (their health) or other market goods and services. Beyond this trade-of between health and
market goods is how any person spends their time. The time constraint of this individual is as
follows: TT (total time) = TW (time at work)+ TH (time spent on health) + TX (time spent on
other commodities) + TL (time lost due to illness).
My research is focused around two effects that will result from the aforementioned
model, which are highly related to the workplace culture in the United States; the first of which
is the wage effect. This effect states that the higher an individual’s wage the less incentive he/she
has to invest time into their health. Such as, an hour of working out would be more costly to a
CEO of a large corporation compared to a low wage, general labor employee. Secondly, the
Grossman Model also suggests the hours effect. This effect states that the more time you spend
working, the less time you have to invest elsewhere (specifically into time spent on health). For
example, a full-time worker will have less time available for consumption than a part-time
worker, and thus, will likely invest less time into their health.
I believe that Americans spend too much time at work; thus suffer additional time lost
from illness or sickness. Furthermore, U.S. obesity rates continue to rise year over year along
with diabetes, while physical inactivity stays level. Despite the lackluster investment of time
spent on health, the United States still pays second most in the world on health care.
This phenomenon is a product of the U.S. labor market, which encourages workers to
seek extraordinary working hours. Therefore, I intend my research to empirically prove the
positive relationship between working hours and health care expenditure (as a proxy to represent
individuals’ health). This would exemplify my belief in how our society has shifted to dedicate
more time towards work, consequently devaluing time spent on health and increasing the cost of
health care in the United States. This research could potentially make significant inferences into
the cost-benefit analysis individuals’ use when evaluating their demand for health capital;
5. incentivizing people to invest more time into better-health producing activities, rather than
working more hours simply to incur additional medical expenses.
Data & Descriptive Statistics
The data used to create this report are derived from the Current Population Survey (CPS).
The CPS is one of the oldest, largest surveys jointly sponsored by the U.S. Census Bureau and
the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Data composing the Current Population Survey are gathered
on a monthly basis from citizens of the United States. The sample size of this expansive survey is
approximately 90,000 individuals over the age of fifteen; excluding persons in the Armed Forces
along with persons institutionalized in prisons, hospitals, nursing homes, and other such
institutions. Individuals in the sample are contacted year-over-year, with a 90% response rate.
The government is willing to sponsor this survey because of its immense use throughout
research regarding the United States. Beyond the benefits of making this information available
public for research, the U.S. government derives a number of macroeconomic variables from this
data, including various unemployment rates (U1-U6) and the labor force participation rate.
Furthermore, the CPS is a valuable investment for the government in its ability to give
information regarding broad, demographic information; such as age, race, education, income,
marital status, and so on. Having such a large sample size, the Current Population Survey serves
as the most important survey in capturing statistics unbiased across the U.S. population.
Table 1 displays the proportion
of individuals pertaining to each health
insurance classification. Those with
health care coverage make up 86.24%
of the United States’ population, while
only 13.76% do not have any form of
health insurance. Excess observations
not accounted for in this distribution were due to survey participants not supplying an answer, or
possibly having a recent change in coverage. Despite having 80.09% of the population being
privately insured, the remaining 6.15% of insurance being provided by the government; the
United States still experiences difficulty with “crowding out” of the private-insurance industry.
Health care services in the United States have experienced sharper inclines in pricing
than seen throughout any other industry, with the exception of higher education institutions. The
proportion of individuals holding private insurance increased 4.2% in 2014; this trend will
eventually put downwards pressure on healthcare prices in the U.S. market. However, there are
numerous forces that drive said prices upwards including such as implementation of technology,
advanced surgical methods, demand for assistive living, and so on. Exacerbating the issue is an
expanding portion of elderly people in this country, who are the primary demographic for health
care services.
6. In its entirety, the Current Population Survey consists of 90,430 observations; however,
to better serve my research, I excluded all individuals who did not provide an input for average
weekly hours worked. Dropping said data will allow me to more accurately identify the effect of
working hours on health care expenditure. Removing said data leaves 9,563 observations for
analyses and overall, a more accurate portrayal of the findings. Part time workers have been
classified as those who work 27 hours per week or less. 27 working hours per week was set as
the threshold between full and part time employment because 28 working hours per week is the
lowest point at which a worker in the United States can qualify as being fully employed by an
employer. Full time workers are defined as those who regularly work 28 or more hours per week;
while those who regularly work 45 hours per week or greater are considered overemployed.
The figure to the left
shows that the vast majority
of individuals (67.4%) in this
sample are full time workers.
Part time workers represent
17.2% of this data set. As
shown in the figure,
overemployed individuals
constitute a modest
percentage of workers
(15.4%). Although
overemployed individuals
are generally considered full
time workers, separate
classification is necessary in order to produce information related to the adverse effects of
strenuous labor driven from working an extraordinary number of hours.
7. Descriptive statistics in Table 2 are provided for the key independent variables. The set of
control variables includes, age, race, gender, disabilities, years of education, number of kids in a
family under six, weekly earnings, type of health insurance, and working hours. Demographic
information revealed in the descriptive statistics show a majority (64.6%) of respondents being
white, followed by 9.8% black and the remaining 16.2% of the population being Hispanic (while
9.2% are unspecified). The average age of those surveyed was 40 years old; with a minimum age
of 15 years and maximum age 64 years. The gender distribution in the analytical sample is split
evenly between male and females. Only 3.7% of sample observations reported having various
forms of disability. 57.3% of observations in the sample classified as married individuals.
Average years of education and works hours per week are 14.1 years and 36.5 hours,
respectively. Gross weekly earnings average $575.46 per week.
8. In Table 3, I have broken down the Descriptive statistics by working classification
(identifying sample size, mean, and standard deviation; vertically). There are several trends that
can be recognized within the different categories of insured/uninsured individuals. First, is the
trend of age to increase usual working hours; likely as a result of the need to save for retirement,
satisfy medical expenses, reassess financial position, and so on.
The next two variables look at race’s effect on working classification. Looking at the
white population, it can be seen that they consist of 66.26%, 61.45%, and 76.6% of part time, full
time, and overemployed; respectively. Black individuals on the other hand, display values of
8.9%, 11.06%, and 5.5% in the same respect. From this data, it can be inferred that the white
population is most likely to be overemployed, next to be part time, and least of the three to be
full time workers. The black population makes up a much less significant portion of the
population than whites, hence the lower percentages for worker classification. Information from
this data set tells us that most blacks are full time workers, followed by part time, and are least
likely to be overemployed.
Males display a trend of having working much more so than women. While men are
37.7%, 49.7%, and 67.7% to work part time, full time, and be overemployed; while women
comprise the remainder of each category. While this is the case now, women have been
progressing towards greater working hours over the years; evening this scale over time.
Those with a disability are significantly less likely to work full time and obviously less so
to be overemployed. A good percentage of individuals with disabilities are unemployed;
however, those observations have been removed from my test. Marital status has a strong impact
on working classification as well; increasingly likely to work a greater number of hours per
week. Education also trends upwards with working hours; as they are more encouraged due to
higher wages and greater value to a company.
Gross weekly earnings are a data set that obviously trends upwards with worker
classification. Interestingly, the gap between overemployment and full employment is greater
than that of the full time and part time differential; implying people are paid exponentially more,
on average, if they work more.
The trend in insurance status tells us that as one works more hours, they are more likely
to have private insurance; and definitely less so to be on government insurance as they earn too
much to qualify. Lastly, giving us a glimpse at my research question are descriptive statistics for
health care expenditure; in regards to working classification. Those who work a greater number
of hours, as suggested, will incur greater medical expenses. Each progression in working
classification brings a greater change to health care costs, despite a larger difference in working
hours from part to full time employment, compared to full time and overemployment.
As mentioned previously in this paper; observations with higher incomes and working
hours have implications on the time individuals spend on health activities. Thus, the higher these
9. inputs are, on average, the less time these individuals spend on health related activities will be as
well. This in turn, will result in higher healthcare costs. The following page contains quadratic
regressions for both working hours’ and weekly earnings’ effects on health care expenditure,
perfectly exemplifying these theories.
From the above visualizations, it can be seen that working hours and weekly earnings
have distinct quadratic relationships with health-care expenditure. The weekly earnings
relationship with health care expenditure consists of a narrower confidence interval over the
whole range of studied earnings, meaning weekly earnings has a more consistent relationship
with health care expenditure than working hours. Both positive associations are compatible with
our theoretical expectations coming from the Grossman Model. The regression analysis should
shed light whether these trends hold after controlling for a rich set of various individual level
factors.
Research Design & Results
My research hypothesis states there is a quadratic relationship between working hours and health
care costs. Working less hours per week increases the likelihood of poverty leading to poorer
health conditions; contrarily, working more hours dissuades individuals from spending time on
health related activities, while increasing disposable income (inevitably increasing money spent
on one’s health) simultaneously.
In the above empirical model, Yi is annual healthcare expenditure, which can be regarded
as a proxy for an individual’s health status, Hi is individuals’ usual weekly working hours and Xi
represents a set of control variables such as. There are a number of other factors that influence
the health care expenditure of an individual outside of my control and main independent
variables, which compose 𝜀 𝜀, the fit of the model not captured by the variables I have selected to
include.
10. I have chosen health care expenditure (Yi), calculated as the sum of premiums and out-of-
pocket medical expenses, to be my dependent variable testing my hypothesis. Self-perceived
health classification of individuals was an alternative to my favored dependent variable. Despite
it being a relevant variable for my test, I suspected the range of values was not wide enough to
provide meaningful interpretation. Furthermore, portraying my intended outcome in quantifiable
U.S. dollars as presented with health care expenditure will deliver a greater, more accurate
impact than factor data. Additionally, I transformed the dependent variable by taking the natural
log of it. As a result, parameters of the independent variables can be interpreted in the semi-
elasticity form, a percent change in health care expenditure due to a one unit change in an
independent variable.
Average working hours per week (Hi) is my main independent variable that thoroughly
answers my research question; the effect of working hours on health care expenditure. Although,
since my hypothesis suggests that working hours has a quadratic relationship with health care
costs, I have included a separate squared data set of those variables, in addition to the original
data set for usual working hours per week. The most inherently relevant control variable (Xi) I
had conjectured to include was average age of survey participants. No matter how much money
or time we invest into our health, its status will still depreciate, hence why age is an obvious
factor affecting health care expenditure of individuals. The older an individual is, greater health
care expenses can be expected. Furthermore, values for the age data set were found to be
consistently correlated with the other independent variables; most notably found in working
hours per week (both in linear and quadratic form) and wage.
Another independent variable I have configured is the categorical status of individuals’
health insurance; whereas those with private insurance have a value set equal to one and other
persons’ (holding government insurance or uninsured) are set equal to zero. Through the use of t-
table comparisons between costs of health care of the three different categories, I concluded
having private insurance significantly increases an individual’s expected health care expenditure.
Moreover, the regression’s results will give enlightening inferences into the magnitude and
significance of the disproportioned state of the health insurance industry (referring to the
“crowding out” theory)
On average, people with private insurance spend $2,217 per year on healthcare,
compared with $487 and $301 per year for those with government insurance and those
uninsured; respectively. This is the case as a result of the “crowding out” of the health insurance
industry; where individuals only purchase insurance if they have a forceful need to do so. Such a
large difference between costs of medical care among these categories, along with the results of
the t-tests indicate that privately held insurance has a strong, positive, and significant impact on
health care costs.
Health classification, as perceived by the survey participants, has also been introduced
into my model. This variable contains data ranging from one to five; one being indicative of
11. excellent health, while a value of five implies poor health conditions. Thus, the relationship
between health care classification and health care expenditure should result in a positive
relationship; meaning a greater value (indicating poor health) will cause greater health care costs.
Since my model is theoretically based around the health status of individuals in regards to
working hours, it is only reasonable to include a variable directly associated with their health
status as well. Despite the possibility of misperceived health care statuses, I found this health-
related variable to be the most suitable for the purpose of my research.
Wage is a data set I calculated by dividing gross weekly earnings by average usual hours
worked per week. While this variable may not be completely accurate to the person’s wage, it is
expressive of how wage is determined in such a context; consequently affecting the health care
costs of individuals. The consumer choice theory states that an increase in income increases
consumption of certain goods (normal goods); including those related to the person’s health
(research shows that healthcare can be considered as a normal good). Thus, this variable should
have a positive relationship with health care expenditure.
I have included wage as a control variable in my model because it enables me to
distinguish the income effect (greater disposable income to be broadly distributed) from the
hour’s effect. The hour’s effect conversely states that working more hours will limit an
individual’s excess time, therefore reducing demand for spending time on health related
activities. An important theory supporting my model is that the United States is unique to a
culture that supports working an abundance of hours per week. A consequence of this social
construction is the trend in the health of U.S. citizens; as can be seen in increasing obesity rates,
rises in mental health related illnesses, stress, and so on.
Lastly, education is another important variable to control for; because it has been proven
to have a strong, positive correlation with the health of an individual. Educated people are more
likely to partake in less risky behavior that will negatively impact their health, along with taking
proactive measures to combat illness or improve their health status. However, since my
dependent variable is related to health care expenditure instead of individuals’ actual health, the
coefficient may be suppressed.
Since educated people are more likely to be proactive in regards to their health, the effect
on health care expenditure contains negative pressure; whereas taking precautions to your health
will prevent future ailments, thus, health care costs. On the other hand, those with upper level
education on average, have private health insurance. As mentioned previously, this puts
significant upwards pressure on health care expenditure.
Below is a chart exhibiting the degrees of correlation between the variables used in my
test. As you can see, there are no extraordinarily high levels of correlation between any of the
variables, with the exception of working hours per week and working hours per week squared.
The most consistently elevated degrees of correlation lie with age, as previously stated. As one
12. gets older, they are more likely to work, have consistency of sustaining themselves above the
need for government insurance, while having demand for health insurance, consistent changes in
health classification, and have greater experience; thus higher wages.
Another high degree of correlation exists between education, wage, and private
insurance. A correlation of 16.08% between private insurance and wage is predictable. As one
becomes an increasingly impactful member of a company or industry, their benefits are to
increase as well (including health insurance packages). Wage and education were found to have
a relatively strong degree of correlation (26.94%). Education has been shown time and time
again to have a very strong, highly significant impact on individuals’ wage. Lastly, the
correlation between education and private insurance is 26.29%. As stated above; educated
persons are more likely to maintain good health and less likely to qualify for government health
insurance, due to having greater wages on average. Therefore, as a result of safeguarding against
risk; education has a relatively strong degree of correlation with private insurance status. While
some degrees of correlation presented are higher than desirable, they should not be problematic
in the analysis of my regression.
The degree of correlation between age and working hours was found to be 24.26% Thus,
as Americans get older; they are more likely to work greater than average working hours. A
familiar economic interpretation of this phenomenon is that nearing retirement age, individuals
become enlightened in regards to their less than desirable life savings. The Social Security
Administration often deludes individuals into thinking they have input an appropriate amount of
their allotted income towards sustaining a modest standard of living throughout retirement.
However, as retirement nears, these individuals discover their financial needs outweigh social
security benefits provided for them and decide to take on greater working hours in their later
years of employment.
13. The fit of my model captured 13.15% of the trend occurring in the percent change of
health care expenditure, with a total of 9,562 observations. This goodness-of-fit figure implies
that influential forces not included in this test account for 86.85% of changes in the dependent
variable. The probability that the variables included in my model have a no relationship with
percent change in health care cost is practically non-existent, given an F-score of 259.39. As
previously stated, all coefficients can be interpreted in percent changes to annual healthcare
expenditure, calculated as the sum of out-of-pocket costs and cost of premiums on health
insurance.
My main independent variable, usual working hours per week squared, has a positive
coefficient equal to .0178. This can be interpreted as a one hour increase in working hours
producing a 1.78% rise in annual healthcare costs. This variable has a t-score of 3.66, reaching
well beyond a 95% confidence level; indicating a reliable regression estimate. By way of the t-
score, the confidence interval for working hours per week squared is .00828-.02741; understood
in the same manner as its coefficient. This is a relatively loose range of possible values
(consistent with the t-score) on a 95% confidence interval, both ends of which still contain
positive figures.
The point of interest in my model, working hours per week squared, was not found to be
significant (t-score of -.24). As well, the coefficient calculated in my regression was -.0000179;
interpreted algebraically as a one hour increase in usual working hours will cause healthcare
costs, in terms of percentages, to decrease by -.00145(working hours per week)2 .This
relationship is extremely feeble and contains a negative trajectory, in opposition of my
hypothesis. Moreover, the confidence interval ranges from -.0001326 to .0001035; showing both
a potential positive or negative relationship. Overall, it can be said that the quadratic relationship
between working hours and health care expenditure is weak, displays a negative trend (in
conflict with expectations), and has an 80.9% probability of being unreliable; which is extended
by the inconsistent sign of the confidence interval. Therefore, I conclude that this model failed to
reject the null hypothesis of working hours having a linear impact on health care expenditure.
14. Age is the next independent variable I would like to discuss; with a coefficient of positive
.0224, marginally stronger than that of working hours per week. This can be interpreted as each
year being added to your life increasing cost of health care by 2.244%. Given a t-score of 16.87,
age has a 95% confidence interval from .0002507-.0003102. Being highly significant, it is
improbable for this variable to not have a real world effect on health care expenditure.
Simply from a glimpse of the t-test comparisons of each type of health insurance status, it
can be inferred that this difference is significant. Indeed, in my model, private insurance status
versus those government insured and uninsured has a t-score of 24.38; the most reliable in my
test. This dependent variable has a coefficient of 1.161, understood as private health insurance,
on average, will result in a 116.12% increase in medical expenses per year; over those with
uninsured and with government insurance. Indicative of its t-score is a narrow confidence
interval between 1.068 and 1.254, making its devastating impact on health care expenditure
apparent.
Individual's’ wages in my regression analysis, as shown in the table above, supplies us
with a coefficient of .005338; taken to mean each dollar added to your wage will result in an
estimated .5338% increase in health care expenditure. An output t-score of 5.54 for this factor
provides us with a .00345-.00723 confidence interval. Inclusion of this variable allows for
comparison between the impacts of the income effect and hours effect; comprehended through
wage and working hours per week.
Education is another important variable in my regression; because of the characteristics
educated persons have in regards to health care. As described previously, those with higher
levels of education are more likely to gain higher wages Moreover, those with greater education
are likely more conscious of their health; thus, are further inclined to utilize health care available
to them.
Lastly, I would like to discuss the effect of health classification, as perceived by
contributors of the CPS. This independent variable is important because it directly relates to the
health of individuals, rather than the cost of their health. The regression delivers a coefficient of
.0974 and a t-score of 5.62 (confidence interval from .0634-.1314). After determining the
variable’s significance (well above that of a 95% confidence level), it can be assumed that an
increase of one on the classification scale (1 being in excellent health, 5 being in poor health)
will increase health care expenses by 9.74%. Health classification was found to have the second
strongest relationship with health care expenditure behind that of being a holder of private
insurance.
The alternative to this variable was an indication of a person’s disability status. Results
for the same regression with these variables being substituted yield a coefficient of .2352 and t-
score of 2.93. While the magnitude of its coefficient is much greater than health classification,
and reasonably so, it has a less reliable t-score. This is a result of the wide range of health care
15. costs respective to various disabilities; whereas health classification will likely weigh their
disability status, along with health care costs.
Although the results of my primary model failed to show a quadratic relationship
between working hours and health care costs, I was able to support my hypothesis via
substituting my dependent variable, percent change in health care expenditure, with an indicator
of good health. Derived from the health classification variable, good health encapsulates values
one through three (indicating good health), set equal to one; and values of four and five set equal
to zero. The results of this model’s regression resulted in a goodness of fit of 29.31% (compared
to a prior 13.15%) and a high level significance for the overall test. Dependent variables follow
the same trend as in the previous model despite having an opposite sign; whereas those with
good health will typically incur lesser health care expenditures.
Despite a few variables now lacking significance on a 95% confidence level, there are a
number of inferences that can be made regarding the regression’s output. Firstly, education is
shown to have a negative and significant relationship with good health. While there are many
arguments contradicting this result; educated individuals could simply be more inclined to
perceive themselves as less healthy, than their less-educated counterparts. Secondly, and most
importantly, the quadratic variable for working hours now displays a significant, negative
relationship with a person’s health (as stated in my research hypothesis). While the linear
working hours per week remains to have a positive impact on good health. Therefore, given its
parabolic form, there is a point at which working hours will begin to negatively impact the health
of individuals. Taking the derivative of my regression output (0.0017- 2(0.0000165)(working
hours)= ẟ good health/ ẟ working hours) holding the control variables constant, I was able to
determine that the threshold for working hours changing from a health-increasing activity to a
health-diminishing activity lies at 51.5 hours per week.
16. Discussions & Conclusions
After rigorously testing of my research model, I conclude that usual working hours per
week does not have a quadratic relationship with health care expenditure (as the sum of
insurance premiums and out-of-pocket costs). The independent variable testing for this quadratic
relationship, displayed a negative relationship with health care expenditure, while my hypothesis
states a positive relationship should exist. Despite these contradictory results, the variable was
found to be insignificant (t=-.03, P>|t|=.765). However, the working hours’ variable testing for a
linear relationship with health care expenses in my regression was discovered to have a positive
and significant (t=3.54, P|t|=.000) relationship with my dependent variable. Additionally, this
linear relationship states that a one hour increase in working hours per week will cause a 1.72%
increase in health care expense. While this is enlightening information, it is diluted by exogenous
variables; responsible for 86.70% of changes in the health care costs.
The motivation of this paper was to obtain evidence that being working beyond ordinary
hours per week would have negative impacts on one’s health. In my primary regression, this
relationship was exemplified through the dependent variable health care expenditure; where
those with higher medical expenses will more than likely be less healthy. Although my main
research model did not yield the results I had hoped, a supplementary regression ran under the
same premise supported my hypothesis. In this second regression, my main dependent variable
health care expenditure is substituted with categorical variable for those who classify themselves
as having good health; without making any adaptations to the independent data sets. Through
this complementary regression model, it was found that working hours per week contained both
a positive, linear relationship and a negative, quadratic relationship with good health. As a result
of having a decent income and standard of living; working improves health up until a certain
point. At this threshold, defined at 51.5 working hours per week, working begins to have a
deteriorating effect on a person’s health. This is an interesting phenomenon that occurs; which
support the main rationale of my research hypothesis. I created one more model based from my
primary regression; using a categorical variable for those working greater than 51.5 hours per
week in place of my main independent variable. The results tell us that those who are
overworked, on average, incur 32% more medical expenses.
Although my holistic research hypothesis was found to be empirically unsupported, I
conclude the theory behind my motivation to be valid. Simply by viewing U.S. consumption
trends, it can be determined that demand for goods and services is steadily on the rise. In other
words, citizens are experiencing greater a greater desire for newly developed goods and services;
especially in the realm of technology. Granted this may be an apparent observation; it does not
recognize what pressure this puts on citizens to afford such luxuries. Due to individuals having
little control over their wages in the short term, funds for this climbing consumption are
maintained through additional working hours.
17. Research similar to my own referenced in the introduction of my paper identify a number
of criteria that influence health in regards to labor; including work interventions, work-life
conflict, working significantly more hours than desirable, and one that blatantly assumes a
relationship between working hours and health of individuals. This last study mentioned, by
Nagashima, strives to recognize the point in which working hours begins to have a profound
impact on health; interpreted in a comparable form to the threshold I calculated at 51.5 working
hours per week. Nagashima’s study was conducted in a factory setting in Japan; which
determined their threshold to be at 60 working hours per week. This figure is significantly above
my own; showing a more profound effect on health (rather than health care expenditure), cultural
differences, and demographic differences due to the study’s factory setting.
Because my research conveys working hours’ effect on health care costs rather than
health itself, the relationship should differ in interpretation than other studies; however, is still
relevant to the reinforcing theory. Supported by the Grossman Model, my results reveal a trade-
off consumers must make concerning working hours and health care consumption. Those who
work low hours per week will have poorer health and lower medical expenses on average; due to
lower income, thus lesser demand for health care even when suffering from an illness.
Individuals who work more will have higher income allowing for greater consumption in health
care, but also increasing risk factors related to work-life conflict. Accepting 51.5 working hours
per week as the point of inflection with health care expenditure, it should be determined that
working above this threshold will negatively impact the health of individuals; and thus, people
should be discouraged from doing so.
The United States is a country that thrives upon an honest day’s work. However, those
seem to be getting longer as society grows more advanced. According to the Economic Policy
Institute, “The average worker worked 1,868 hours in 2007, an increase of 181 hours from the
1979 work year of 1,687 hours,” a 10.7% increase over 38 years. Furthermore, at 22%, the
increase in annual working hours was greater for the lower-fifth percentile (U.S. wage
distribution) than the middle-fifth percentile of earners (10.9%). While those with more lucrative
wage experienced moderate annual wage growth from 1979-2007, the bottom 60% of Americans
derived annual wage growth as much from increasing working hours, as they did from real
hourly wage increases. Subsequently, inputting the results of my regression in with this trend
displays a problematic phenomenon occurring in the lower class in regards to American culture
and heavily inflated costs of health care.
The “crowding out” of U.S. health insurance is causing prices for the service to increase
exponentially, due to healthy individuals bearing the risk of being uninsured. Therefore, the
statistical significance of working hours on health care costs found in my regression; combined
with the escalating health care prices and lackluster lower/middle class wage growth, causes poor
conditions for many Americans. Testing for elasticity between working hours and health care
expenses, holding the other variables in my regression constant, tells us that a 1% increase in
working hours will increase health care expenditure by .375%. Given a 22% increase in annual
18. working hours between 1979-2007; the calculation states working hours has caused an average
8.25% incline in health care costs for the lower-fifth class of workers, over that same 38 year
time span. I would argue that the trend in Unites States’ working class culture puts upwards
pressure on health care inflation as well. Dedicating more time towards work, and less towards
other utilities for time (specifically health related activities), individuals are relying upon
prescription medication and procedures reactive to health conditions; rather than being proactive
in regards to health status.
The Affordable Care Act (ACA) entering healthier, risk-tolerant individuals to the
markets should in time allow health insurance agencies to reassess risk of the average policy-
holders. Improving the distribution of health in the health insurance market will eventually
alleviate positive pressure on prices caused by a concentration of high-risk individuals. There are
a large number of factors driving up health care prices; including supply of doctors,
technological use in facilities, and increasing demand for medical care. However, normalization
of the health insurance market, accomplished via the ACA, theoretically has a beneficial impact
on affordability of health care; especially amongst lower-earning individuals.
The previous paragraph addresses the most current progression made towards
normalization of the health insurance industry. Regardless of the long-term impact of ACA on
insurance pricing, the problem is still eminent amongst society; whereas few people are
concerned with trends in working hours. This is likely so do to working hours being a choice for
individuals, allowing for greater levels of consumption; often times necessary for sustaining a
preferable standard of living. Due to a conflict of interest, we cannot expect society to resolve the
issue independently. Thus, employers should be held accountable for monitoring weekly
working hours, in order to cultivate a healthier workforce; in order to benefit both the worker and
the company in which they work for. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, improving the
physiological conditions in workers increases their motivation; which in turn will convert into
productivity, and then into greater profits for the company. Expending the endowment point of
working hours’ effect on good health calculated earlier; employers should limit individuals’
weekly working hours to no more than 51.5. A superior policy implementation would be for
consumers to elect a greater involvement in preventing poor health and associated conditions;
rather than relying on pharmaceutical drugs and unnecessary medical procedures while partaking
in risky behavior.
Despite achieving respectable results in regards to answering my research question, there
are still a number of limitations I encountered while doing this research. One limitation was the
time constraint of completing this study. Although this Senior Seminar course enabled adequate
time to fully investigate our research questions, there is much more thought that could have been
put into my research. Another limitation of this study is the goodness of fit, equal to 13.30%. It is
apparent other factors are affecting health care expenditure; inclusion of which would benefit
both the efficacy and insights of the research. These exogenous variables would include
information such as disability status, race, medical conditions (consisting of asthma, diabetes,
19. obesity, and other such factors), number of drinks per week, smoking status, marital status,
number of children in a family, family income, and many other factors influencing the risk
pertaining to an individual.
To conclude, my paper provides empirical evidence that working hours has a positive
correlation with health care expenditure; and also has a concave-down relationship with good
health. Although there are many other studies related to the trends in U.S. working hours, my
research presents tangible figures for relevant factors’ influences on health care costs and
demographic trends in health care expenditure. Furthermore, through a supplementary
regression, I was able to calculate the break-even point of working hours’ affect towards good
health; which can be used as a benchmark for the optimal point of working hours’ per week.