This document summarizes a study that examined how family communication patterns interact with adoption status to influence adolescent adjustment. The researchers hypothesized that adopted adolescents would be at greater risk for adjustment problems compared to nonadopted adolescents in families with certain communication patterns. They tested this using a sample of 384 adoptive and 208 nonadoptive families. The results supported the hypothesis, finding that adopted adolescents were at significantly greater risk for adjustment problems in families that emphasized conformity without conversation and in families that emphasized neither. Adolescents in families emphasizing conversation were at lower risk, regardless of adoption status.
Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter A Longitudinal FollowDustiBuckner14
Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter? A Longitudinal Follow-Up of
Adoptive Families With School-Age Children
Rachel H. Farr
University of Kentucky
Controversy continues to surround parenting by lesbian and gay (LG) adults and outcomes for their
children. As sexual minority parents increasingly adopt children, longitudinal research about child
development, parenting, and family relationships is crucial for informing such debates. In the psycho-
logical literature, family systems theory contends that children’s healthy development depends upon
healthy family functioning more so than family structure. From the framework of family stress theory,
it was expected that longitudinal outcomes for school-age children adopted in infancy could be distinct
among those with same-sex versus other-sex parents (N � 96 families). Similar findings were hypoth-
esized in terms of parent adjustment, couple relationships, and family functioning in comparing same-sex
and other-sex parent families. Results indicated that adjustment among children, parents, and couples, as
well as family functioning, were not different on the basis of parental sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, or
heterosexual) when children were school-age. Rather, children’s behavior problems and family func-
tioning during middle childhood were predicted by earlier child adjustment issues and parenting stress.
These findings are consistent with and extend previous literature about families headed by LG parents,
particularly those that have adopted children. The results have implications for advancing supportive
policies, practices, and laws related to adoption and parenting by sexual minority adults.
Keywords: middle childhood, parenting stress, couples, adoptive families, sexual orientation
Americans remain divided about their views on lesbian and gay
(LG) adults raising children, according to the Pew Research Center
(e.g., Daugherty & Copen, 2016). Controversy often centers on
whether children need a mother and a father for optimal develop-
ment, yet theoretical perspectives tend to emphasize the impor-
tance of high-quality parenting and family relationships, rather
than family structure (Lamb, 2012). Outcomes for children with
LG parents have been featured in legal and policy debates about
same-sex marriage and the adoption of children. How children fare
with same-sex parents was a pivotal consideration in the June 2015
Supreme Court decision about marriage equality (Obergefell v.
Hodges; e.g., American Psychological Association, 2015). Despite
debate, millions of sexual minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) adults
desire to be parents and many are already parents, including
adoptive parents (Riskind & Patterson, 2010). During recent years,
the number of adoptive LG parents has doubled (Gates, 2011).
According to 2010 Census data, same-sex couples are four times
more likely than other-sex couples to adopt children (Gates, 2013).
From data representing couples and single parents (2000 Census, ...
Another sample paperRelating Adults and ChildrenA S.docxrossskuddershamus
Another sample paper
Relating Adults and Children:
A Significant Element in Community Development
This paper is a strong paper in terms of content, however, it is wordy and could have been more effective if it had been more concise and precise. It is not written in a strong, technical style. There are many words and phrases that to not strongly contribute to the argument the writer is making.
Can you see how a phrase intended to clarify or add information is actually distracting to the reader?
Introduction
The relationships that children have with their families are instrumental to a family’s well-being and the well-being of the community. However, parents’ work and family commitments avert most of family members from being physically present and involved in activities together that promote learning and development. At the extreme, child neglect is associated with poor outcomes for children, including the development of emotional and behavior disorders (Cicchetti, Lynch, 1995). American families are not following healthy relationship standards, not providing enough support and guidance to youth, leaving their communities distant and unsociable. Time spent with parents is important for socialization, development of relationships, and learning appropriate ‘life tasks’ for young children. Healthy family relationships fuel the health of all families, building strong communities and composing a future for ourselves one generation at a time. As a civilization, it is in our best interest to make a conscious choice: to make family life a priority and apply ourselves toward improving the quantity and quality of time families spend together, and increasing overall the happiness of today’s families and communities.
This paper intends to address this concern, bring attention to its presence shown in families across America, and discuss techniques on how to promote healthy change in the lives of a family using its external and internal developmental assets to enrich specific elements of the human experience.
Statement of the Problem
For reasons that significantly vary in nature and are difficult to verify, American families are not following a healthy design. YMCA of the USA polled 1,005 parents from across the United States, investigating how much support and success they experience in raising healthy, responsible, and caring children and teenagers. Among those surveyed, 46 percent feel overwhelmed by everything, 34 percent feel unsupported by family or friends, and a staggering 52 percent feel that they are unprepared for a situation that arises, overall feeling dissatisfied with their parenting. To further dismay, in the same study, a majority (53 percent) of parents surveyed said they don’t often seek support in the vital and challenging task of raising children and teenagers. This devastating combination of dissatisfactory parenting and inability to seek help lands American.
Family Meals Buffer the Daily Emotional Risk Associated With FChereCheek752
Family Meals Buffer the Daily Emotional Risk Associated With Family
Conflict
Emma Armstrong-Carter
Stanford University
Eva H. Telzer
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Family meals have been associated with positive adolescent outcomes in cross-sectional and longitudinal
research. However, it is not known how adolescents experience family meals on a daily basis, and
whether family meals buffer stresses associated with interpersonal conflicts on the daily level. To address
this gap in the literature, adolescents (N � 396, 58% female, Mage � 14.57 years) completed diary
checklists for up to 14 days, reporting their emotions, experiences of family and peer conflict, and
whether they ate with their family that day. On days that adolescents shared a family meal, they felt
greater happiness and role fulfillment, and less burnout and distress. Moreover, family conflict was
associated with more negative emotionality only on days that adolescents did not also eat with the family.
Findings suggest that family meals buffer daily risks associated with familial conflicts. Follow-up
analyses suggest that these processes may be particularly important among older adolescents.
Keywords: adolescence, family meal, emotions, family conflict, peer conflict
During busy daily life, meals are often the only time when
family members come together to engage, and provide and receive
emotional support (Larson, Branscomb, & Wiley, 2006). Perhaps
in part because daily family meals represent a stable, routine, and
context for emotional connectedness (Goldfarb, Tarver, & Sen,
2014; Jones, 2018), family meals have been associated with many
positive outcomes across development. For example, adolescents
who more frequently eat with the family are less likely to be
overweight or underweight, have substance use problems, and
struggle with clinical depression (Fulkerson et al., 2006), and tend
to feel more emotionally close to parents and siblings (Fiese et al.,
2002) compared with their peers. The benefits associated with
family meals also extend beyond the home. Adolescents who more
frequently eat with the family tend to exhibit higher academic
performance (Eisenberg, Olson, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, & Bear-
inger, 2004), fewer antisocial behaviors (Fulkerson et al., 2006;
Prior & Limbert, 2013; Sen, 2010), and increased social compe-
tencies with peers (Fulkerson et al., 2006).
Prior research has been almost entirely cross-sectional, retro-
spective, or longitudinal, which can only tell us about average
meal eating behaviors between adolescents. This work has exam-
ined how average family meals at one time point relate to average
well-being at another time point (Goldfarb et al., 2014). To extend
prior research, it is important to clarify whether family meals are
associated with positive or negative emotions on the daily level.
Examining temporal relations at the daily level may help us to
understand the processes by which family meals promote long-
term well-bei ...
Family Processes in Child Anxiety the Long-Term Impactof Fa.docxlmelaine
Family Processes in Child Anxiety: the Long-Term Impact
of Fathers and Mothers
Kaela L. Stuart Parrigon1 & Kathryn A. Kerns1
Published online: 23 December 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract The current study investigated links between parent
and child anxiety, and family process factors, over a 9 year
period. Specifically, we examined the role of partner conflict,
attachment security and parental autonomy granting in
explaining changes in child, father, and mother anxiety symp-
toms. We utilized data from the NICHD Study of Early Child
Care and Youth Development (N=661), from when target
children were in first grade (6 years), fifth grade (10 years),
and 15 years of age. We tested a longitudinal path model
including both fathers and mothers, and found that the model
was a good fit for the data. We also found that lower attach-
ment security to fathers and a restriction ofmaternal autonomy
granting predicted which children maintained anxiety into ad-
olescence. Partner conflict explained the association between
earlier and later parental anxiety, which is a novel finding in
the literature. Together, these findings suggest that fathers play
an important long-term role in child anxiety, alongside the role
of mothers.
Keywords Anxiety . Fathers . Mothers . Partner conflict .
Attachment security . Autonomy granting
One of the most problematic and prevalent psychological dis-
orders for children and adolescents is anxiety (Albano et al.
2003 For example, research has found that children with anx-
iety disorders have difficulty with school and peers (Albano
et al. 2003) and with parent relationships (McLeod et al.
2007). Experiences in families have been found to predict
child anxiety (e.g., Bögels and Brechman-Toussaint 2006;
Kerns et al. 2011), and thus it is important to study child
anxiety within the context of the family. The extant research
has largely focused on the role of mothers in child anxiety to
the relative exclusion of fathers, despite accumulating evi-
dence and theory that fathers are likely to have a significant
impact on children’s development of internalizing symptoms
(Bögels and Phares 2008). Especially absent from the litera-
ture is knowledge about the long term role that fathers may
play in child anxiety. Although family process models are a
relatively common paradigm in the child anxiety literature,
and several models of child anxiety incorporating family pro-
cess factors have been proposed (e.g., Bögels and Perotti
2011; Bögels and Phares 2008; DeKlyen and Greenberg
2008), many studies have looked at one or two risk factors
in isolation (Vasey and Dadds 2001).More recently, multi-risk
factors models have been tested, although studies looking at
the development and maintenance of child anxiety over time
are still few in number.
Given that research combining and testing multiple risk
factors is relatively new, in addition to a lack of understanding
of the long term role of fathers, our stud ...
Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter A Longitudinal FollowDustiBuckner14
Does Parental Sexual Orientation Matter? A Longitudinal Follow-Up of
Adoptive Families With School-Age Children
Rachel H. Farr
University of Kentucky
Controversy continues to surround parenting by lesbian and gay (LG) adults and outcomes for their
children. As sexual minority parents increasingly adopt children, longitudinal research about child
development, parenting, and family relationships is crucial for informing such debates. In the psycho-
logical literature, family systems theory contends that children’s healthy development depends upon
healthy family functioning more so than family structure. From the framework of family stress theory,
it was expected that longitudinal outcomes for school-age children adopted in infancy could be distinct
among those with same-sex versus other-sex parents (N � 96 families). Similar findings were hypoth-
esized in terms of parent adjustment, couple relationships, and family functioning in comparing same-sex
and other-sex parent families. Results indicated that adjustment among children, parents, and couples, as
well as family functioning, were not different on the basis of parental sexual orientation (lesbian, gay, or
heterosexual) when children were school-age. Rather, children’s behavior problems and family func-
tioning during middle childhood were predicted by earlier child adjustment issues and parenting stress.
These findings are consistent with and extend previous literature about families headed by LG parents,
particularly those that have adopted children. The results have implications for advancing supportive
policies, practices, and laws related to adoption and parenting by sexual minority adults.
Keywords: middle childhood, parenting stress, couples, adoptive families, sexual orientation
Americans remain divided about their views on lesbian and gay
(LG) adults raising children, according to the Pew Research Center
(e.g., Daugherty & Copen, 2016). Controversy often centers on
whether children need a mother and a father for optimal develop-
ment, yet theoretical perspectives tend to emphasize the impor-
tance of high-quality parenting and family relationships, rather
than family structure (Lamb, 2012). Outcomes for children with
LG parents have been featured in legal and policy debates about
same-sex marriage and the adoption of children. How children fare
with same-sex parents was a pivotal consideration in the June 2015
Supreme Court decision about marriage equality (Obergefell v.
Hodges; e.g., American Psychological Association, 2015). Despite
debate, millions of sexual minority (i.e., nonheterosexual) adults
desire to be parents and many are already parents, including
adoptive parents (Riskind & Patterson, 2010). During recent years,
the number of adoptive LG parents has doubled (Gates, 2011).
According to 2010 Census data, same-sex couples are four times
more likely than other-sex couples to adopt children (Gates, 2013).
From data representing couples and single parents (2000 Census, ...
Another sample paperRelating Adults and ChildrenA S.docxrossskuddershamus
Another sample paper
Relating Adults and Children:
A Significant Element in Community Development
This paper is a strong paper in terms of content, however, it is wordy and could have been more effective if it had been more concise and precise. It is not written in a strong, technical style. There are many words and phrases that to not strongly contribute to the argument the writer is making.
Can you see how a phrase intended to clarify or add information is actually distracting to the reader?
Introduction
The relationships that children have with their families are instrumental to a family’s well-being and the well-being of the community. However, parents’ work and family commitments avert most of family members from being physically present and involved in activities together that promote learning and development. At the extreme, child neglect is associated with poor outcomes for children, including the development of emotional and behavior disorders (Cicchetti, Lynch, 1995). American families are not following healthy relationship standards, not providing enough support and guidance to youth, leaving their communities distant and unsociable. Time spent with parents is important for socialization, development of relationships, and learning appropriate ‘life tasks’ for young children. Healthy family relationships fuel the health of all families, building strong communities and composing a future for ourselves one generation at a time. As a civilization, it is in our best interest to make a conscious choice: to make family life a priority and apply ourselves toward improving the quantity and quality of time families spend together, and increasing overall the happiness of today’s families and communities.
This paper intends to address this concern, bring attention to its presence shown in families across America, and discuss techniques on how to promote healthy change in the lives of a family using its external and internal developmental assets to enrich specific elements of the human experience.
Statement of the Problem
For reasons that significantly vary in nature and are difficult to verify, American families are not following a healthy design. YMCA of the USA polled 1,005 parents from across the United States, investigating how much support and success they experience in raising healthy, responsible, and caring children and teenagers. Among those surveyed, 46 percent feel overwhelmed by everything, 34 percent feel unsupported by family or friends, and a staggering 52 percent feel that they are unprepared for a situation that arises, overall feeling dissatisfied with their parenting. To further dismay, in the same study, a majority (53 percent) of parents surveyed said they don’t often seek support in the vital and challenging task of raising children and teenagers. This devastating combination of dissatisfactory parenting and inability to seek help lands American.
Family Meals Buffer the Daily Emotional Risk Associated With FChereCheek752
Family Meals Buffer the Daily Emotional Risk Associated With Family
Conflict
Emma Armstrong-Carter
Stanford University
Eva H. Telzer
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Family meals have been associated with positive adolescent outcomes in cross-sectional and longitudinal
research. However, it is not known how adolescents experience family meals on a daily basis, and
whether family meals buffer stresses associated with interpersonal conflicts on the daily level. To address
this gap in the literature, adolescents (N � 396, 58% female, Mage � 14.57 years) completed diary
checklists for up to 14 days, reporting their emotions, experiences of family and peer conflict, and
whether they ate with their family that day. On days that adolescents shared a family meal, they felt
greater happiness and role fulfillment, and less burnout and distress. Moreover, family conflict was
associated with more negative emotionality only on days that adolescents did not also eat with the family.
Findings suggest that family meals buffer daily risks associated with familial conflicts. Follow-up
analyses suggest that these processes may be particularly important among older adolescents.
Keywords: adolescence, family meal, emotions, family conflict, peer conflict
During busy daily life, meals are often the only time when
family members come together to engage, and provide and receive
emotional support (Larson, Branscomb, & Wiley, 2006). Perhaps
in part because daily family meals represent a stable, routine, and
context for emotional connectedness (Goldfarb, Tarver, & Sen,
2014; Jones, 2018), family meals have been associated with many
positive outcomes across development. For example, adolescents
who more frequently eat with the family are less likely to be
overweight or underweight, have substance use problems, and
struggle with clinical depression (Fulkerson et al., 2006), and tend
to feel more emotionally close to parents and siblings (Fiese et al.,
2002) compared with their peers. The benefits associated with
family meals also extend beyond the home. Adolescents who more
frequently eat with the family tend to exhibit higher academic
performance (Eisenberg, Olson, Neumark-Sztainer, Story, & Bear-
inger, 2004), fewer antisocial behaviors (Fulkerson et al., 2006;
Prior & Limbert, 2013; Sen, 2010), and increased social compe-
tencies with peers (Fulkerson et al., 2006).
Prior research has been almost entirely cross-sectional, retro-
spective, or longitudinal, which can only tell us about average
meal eating behaviors between adolescents. This work has exam-
ined how average family meals at one time point relate to average
well-being at another time point (Goldfarb et al., 2014). To extend
prior research, it is important to clarify whether family meals are
associated with positive or negative emotions on the daily level.
Examining temporal relations at the daily level may help us to
understand the processes by which family meals promote long-
term well-bei ...
Family Processes in Child Anxiety the Long-Term Impactof Fa.docxlmelaine
Family Processes in Child Anxiety: the Long-Term Impact
of Fathers and Mothers
Kaela L. Stuart Parrigon1 & Kathryn A. Kerns1
Published online: 23 December 2015
# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Abstract The current study investigated links between parent
and child anxiety, and family process factors, over a 9 year
period. Specifically, we examined the role of partner conflict,
attachment security and parental autonomy granting in
explaining changes in child, father, and mother anxiety symp-
toms. We utilized data from the NICHD Study of Early Child
Care and Youth Development (N=661), from when target
children were in first grade (6 years), fifth grade (10 years),
and 15 years of age. We tested a longitudinal path model
including both fathers and mothers, and found that the model
was a good fit for the data. We also found that lower attach-
ment security to fathers and a restriction ofmaternal autonomy
granting predicted which children maintained anxiety into ad-
olescence. Partner conflict explained the association between
earlier and later parental anxiety, which is a novel finding in
the literature. Together, these findings suggest that fathers play
an important long-term role in child anxiety, alongside the role
of mothers.
Keywords Anxiety . Fathers . Mothers . Partner conflict .
Attachment security . Autonomy granting
One of the most problematic and prevalent psychological dis-
orders for children and adolescents is anxiety (Albano et al.
2003 For example, research has found that children with anx-
iety disorders have difficulty with school and peers (Albano
et al. 2003) and with parent relationships (McLeod et al.
2007). Experiences in families have been found to predict
child anxiety (e.g., Bögels and Brechman-Toussaint 2006;
Kerns et al. 2011), and thus it is important to study child
anxiety within the context of the family. The extant research
has largely focused on the role of mothers in child anxiety to
the relative exclusion of fathers, despite accumulating evi-
dence and theory that fathers are likely to have a significant
impact on children’s development of internalizing symptoms
(Bögels and Phares 2008). Especially absent from the litera-
ture is knowledge about the long term role that fathers may
play in child anxiety. Although family process models are a
relatively common paradigm in the child anxiety literature,
and several models of child anxiety incorporating family pro-
cess factors have been proposed (e.g., Bögels and Perotti
2011; Bögels and Phares 2008; DeKlyen and Greenberg
2008), many studies have looked at one or two risk factors
in isolation (Vasey and Dadds 2001).More recently, multi-risk
factors models have been tested, although studies looking at
the development and maintenance of child anxiety over time
are still few in number.
Given that research combining and testing multiple risk
factors is relatively new, in addition to a lack of understanding
of the long term role of fathers, our stud ...
Corinne Reczek The Ohio State UniversityAmbivalence in GayAlleneMcclendon878
Corinne Reczek The Ohio State University
Ambivalence in Gay and Lesbian Family
Relationships
Intergenerational ambivalence—the simulta-
neous presence of both positive and negative
dimensions of a parent–child tie—is a con-
cept widely used in family studies. Scholars
have clarified the measurement of psycho-
logical ambivalence, or an individual’s own
feelings of ambivalence toward others. Yet
research has yet to demonstrate whether—and,
if so, how—individuals characterize others as
ambivalent. Moreover, relatively little is known
about ambivalence in gay and lesbian families.
In the present study 60 in-depth interviews
were analyzed to identify what the author calls
perceived ambivalence in the parent, sibling,
extended kin, and “in-law” relationships of
gay and lesbian adults. Perceived ambivalence
is revealed through gay and lesbian adults’
characterizations of family members’ simulta-
neous positive and negative overt and covert
beliefs and behavior. In addition, the author
refines the concept of collective ambivalence,
wherein perceived ambivalence typifies an
entire family unit. The findings further revealed
the importance of broader sociological factors,
such as homophobia, in structuring perceived
ambivalence.
Over the past decade, intergenerational ambiva-
lence has emerged as a central concept for
Department of Sociology, 238 Townshend Hall, 1885 Neil
Avenue Mall, Columbus, OH 43202 ([email protected]).
This article was edited by Kevin M. Roy.
Key Words: ambivalence, gay and lesbian families, intergen-
erational relationships, mid- to late life, qualitative research.
understanding relationships between adult chil-
dren and their parents (Lüscher & Pillemer,
1998). Intergenerational ambivalence brings
together psychological ambivalence—the simul-
taneous experience of opposing feelings or
emotions (Bleuler, 1922)—and sociological
ambivalence—incompatible and conflicting
expectations and norms of behavior, beliefs, and
attitudes (Connidis, 2015; Merton & Barber,
1963)—to articulate how parents and adult chil-
dren experience “opposing feelings or emotions
that are due in part to countervailing expec-
tations” for how each generation should act
(Connidis & McMullin, 2002b, p. 558; Lüscher
& Pillemer, 1998). A significant body of work
demonstrates that, much like positive and neg-
ative parent–child relationships, ambivalent
intergenerational relationships are negatively
related to psychological well-being (Kiecolt,
Blieszner, & Savla, 2011; Suitor, Gilligan, &
Pillemer, 2011), which may in turn lead to stress
spillover and proliferation into other domains
of family life (Pearlin, Aneshensel, & LeBlanc,
1997).
Despite important advances in the ambiva-
lence construct, significant gaps remain. First,
the focus has been nearly entirely on indi-
vidual feelings of psychological ambivalence
toward others, with little attention to the pres-
ence and operation of sociological ambivalence
(Connidis, 2015). Second, a focus on individu ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Parental stress, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction in parents of ch...James Cook University
Lovisotto, R., Caltabiano, N., & Hajhashemi, K. (2015). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 5(10), 30-38.
Abstract: Parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a life-long developmental disorder, responded to an online survey considering their stress experience, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction. As these parents sourced different programs for their children, type of program was used to assign parents to different groups in order to consider their stress, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction. The type of programs parents used included the Applied Behaviour Analysis (n=15); Early Intervention Centre (n=13) and no formal program (n=16). Parents of children with ASD in the ABA group reported significantly lower parental stress scores, lower affective symptoms scores and higher marital satisfaction scores compared to the other two groups. These results are suggestive of the beneficial effect that an ABA program can have on the family unit.
Young Unmarried Mothers' Relationships and Their Effects on Parenting Self-Efficacy. Poster Preseted at 2010 Conference for the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR).
Sibling Birth Spacing Influence on Extroversion, Introversion and Aggressiven...inventionjournals
Sibling spacing refers to the birth interval between consecutive children in the family. The family is the basic unit of socialization. Family interactions and other dynamics such as birth order and sibling spacing shape the personality of children. This study investigated the relationship between sibling birth spacing and, extroversion and introversion characteristics of adolescents in Nairobi, Kenya. The study adopted mixed methods research paradigm with the correlation design. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select three schools for the study sample and participants. From each of the three schools, twenty five students were selected to make a total sample of 75 participants. The data collection instruments for the study were standardized questionnaires and observation guides. Data was collected and analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and Analysis of Variance. The study concluded that close sibling spacing tends to produce extraverted and highly aggressive children while wide sibling spacing tends to produce introverted and less aggressive children. The study further found that the only children, ranked highest in introversion and, lowest in aggressiveness and extraversion. The study recommended that sibling spacing knowledge should be used by school career guidance masters as locally available method of predicting personality.
Psychological Review
1995, Vol. 102, No. 3,458-489
Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0033-295X/95/S3.00
Where Is the Child's Environment? A Group Socialization
Theory of Development
Judith Rich Harris
Middletown, New Jersey
Do parents have any important long-term effects on the development of their child's personality?
This article examines the evidence and concludes that the answer is no. A new theory of development
is proposed: that socialization is context-specific and that outside-the-home socialization takes place
in the peer groups of childhood and adolescence. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic rela-
tionships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of
children's personality characteristics. The universality of children's groups explains why develop-
ment is not derailed by the wide variations in parental behavior found within and between societies.
In 1983, after many dozens of pages spent reviewing the liter-
ature on the effects parents have on children, Eleanor Maccoby
and John Martin paused for a critical overview of the field of
socialization research. They questioned the size and robustness
of the effects they had just summarized; they wondered whether
the number of significant correlations was greater than that ex-
pected by chance. They cited other research indicating that bi-
ological or adoptive siblings do not develop similar personalities
as a result of being reared in the same household. This was their
conclusion:
These findings imply strongly that there is very little impact of the
physical environment that parents provide for children and very
little impact of parental characteristics that must be essentially the
same for all children in a family . . . Indeed, the implications are
either that parental behaviors have no effect, or that the only
effective aspects of parenting must vary greatly from one child to
another within the same family. (Maccoby & Martin, 1983, p. 82)
Since 1983, many developmental psychologists have focused
on the second of Maccoby and Martin's two possible implica-
tions, "that the only effective aspects of parenting must vary
greatly from one child to another." The other possibility, "that
parental behaviors have no effect," has never been considered as
a serious alternative.
This article examines both alternatives. I begin by showing
why "must vary greatly from one child to another" cannot ex-
plain the results that puzzled Maccoby and Martin. Then I con-
sider the possibility "that parental behaviors have no effect."
The conclusion reached is that, within the range of families that
have been studied, parental behaviors have no effect on the psy-
chological characteristics their children will have as adults. To
I thank the following people, who do not necessarily agree with the
views presented here, for their helpful comments on earlier versions of
this work: William A. Corsaro, Judith L. Gibbons, Charles ...
Please provide answer, write program in Prolog for the following.docxcherry686017
Please provide answer, write program in Prolog for the following rules and facts.
RULES:
Use the rules on "When to Seek Medical Attention" from
carona virus
Watch for symptoms
People with COVID-19 have had a wide range of symptoms reported - ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness.
These symptoms may appear
2-14 days after exposure to the virus:
Fever
Cough
Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
Chills
Repeated shaking with chills
Muscle pain
Headache
Sore throat
New loss of taste or smell
When to Seek Medical Attention
If you develop any of these
emergency warning signs*
for COVID-19 get
medical attention immediately:
Trouble breathing
Persistent pain or pressure in the chest
New confusion or inability to arouse
Bluish lips or face
*This list is not all inclusive. Please consult your medical provider for any other symptoms that are severe or concerning to you.
FACTS
John has Fever, Cough and Trouble breathing
Amanda has Fever, Cough and Sore throat
.
Please provide references for your original postings in APA form.docxcherry686017
Please provide references for your original postings in APA format. 300 Words with proper references.
What do you think is the best combination of the types of authentication? Is that type of authentication appropriate for all types of access?
Some have made the argument that using WEP presents more security issues than if all traffic were in the clear. What do you think?
.
More Related Content
Similar to The Effect of Family Communication Patterns on AdoptedAdoles.docx
Corinne Reczek The Ohio State UniversityAmbivalence in GayAlleneMcclendon878
Corinne Reczek The Ohio State University
Ambivalence in Gay and Lesbian Family
Relationships
Intergenerational ambivalence—the simulta-
neous presence of both positive and negative
dimensions of a parent–child tie—is a con-
cept widely used in family studies. Scholars
have clarified the measurement of psycho-
logical ambivalence, or an individual’s own
feelings of ambivalence toward others. Yet
research has yet to demonstrate whether—and,
if so, how—individuals characterize others as
ambivalent. Moreover, relatively little is known
about ambivalence in gay and lesbian families.
In the present study 60 in-depth interviews
were analyzed to identify what the author calls
perceived ambivalence in the parent, sibling,
extended kin, and “in-law” relationships of
gay and lesbian adults. Perceived ambivalence
is revealed through gay and lesbian adults’
characterizations of family members’ simulta-
neous positive and negative overt and covert
beliefs and behavior. In addition, the author
refines the concept of collective ambivalence,
wherein perceived ambivalence typifies an
entire family unit. The findings further revealed
the importance of broader sociological factors,
such as homophobia, in structuring perceived
ambivalence.
Over the past decade, intergenerational ambiva-
lence has emerged as a central concept for
Department of Sociology, 238 Townshend Hall, 1885 Neil
Avenue Mall, Columbus, OH 43202 ([email protected]).
This article was edited by Kevin M. Roy.
Key Words: ambivalence, gay and lesbian families, intergen-
erational relationships, mid- to late life, qualitative research.
understanding relationships between adult chil-
dren and their parents (Lüscher & Pillemer,
1998). Intergenerational ambivalence brings
together psychological ambivalence—the simul-
taneous experience of opposing feelings or
emotions (Bleuler, 1922)—and sociological
ambivalence—incompatible and conflicting
expectations and norms of behavior, beliefs, and
attitudes (Connidis, 2015; Merton & Barber,
1963)—to articulate how parents and adult chil-
dren experience “opposing feelings or emotions
that are due in part to countervailing expec-
tations” for how each generation should act
(Connidis & McMullin, 2002b, p. 558; Lüscher
& Pillemer, 1998). A significant body of work
demonstrates that, much like positive and neg-
ative parent–child relationships, ambivalent
intergenerational relationships are negatively
related to psychological well-being (Kiecolt,
Blieszner, & Savla, 2011; Suitor, Gilligan, &
Pillemer, 2011), which may in turn lead to stress
spillover and proliferation into other domains
of family life (Pearlin, Aneshensel, & LeBlanc,
1997).
Despite important advances in the ambiva-
lence construct, significant gaps remain. First,
the focus has been nearly entirely on indi-
vidual feelings of psychological ambivalence
toward others, with little attention to the pres-
ence and operation of sociological ambivalence
(Connidis, 2015). Second, a focus on individu ...
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Parental stress, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction in parents of ch...James Cook University
Lovisotto, R., Caltabiano, N., & Hajhashemi, K. (2015). International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 5(10), 30-38.
Abstract: Parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), a life-long developmental disorder, responded to an online survey considering their stress experience, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction. As these parents sourced different programs for their children, type of program was used to assign parents to different groups in order to consider their stress, affective symptoms and marital satisfaction. The type of programs parents used included the Applied Behaviour Analysis (n=15); Early Intervention Centre (n=13) and no formal program (n=16). Parents of children with ASD in the ABA group reported significantly lower parental stress scores, lower affective symptoms scores and higher marital satisfaction scores compared to the other two groups. These results are suggestive of the beneficial effect that an ABA program can have on the family unit.
Young Unmarried Mothers' Relationships and Their Effects on Parenting Self-Efficacy. Poster Preseted at 2010 Conference for the National Council on Family Relations (NCFR).
Sibling Birth Spacing Influence on Extroversion, Introversion and Aggressiven...inventionjournals
Sibling spacing refers to the birth interval between consecutive children in the family. The family is the basic unit of socialization. Family interactions and other dynamics such as birth order and sibling spacing shape the personality of children. This study investigated the relationship between sibling birth spacing and, extroversion and introversion characteristics of adolescents in Nairobi, Kenya. The study adopted mixed methods research paradigm with the correlation design. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select three schools for the study sample and participants. From each of the three schools, twenty five students were selected to make a total sample of 75 participants. The data collection instruments for the study were standardized questionnaires and observation guides. Data was collected and analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and Analysis of Variance. The study concluded that close sibling spacing tends to produce extraverted and highly aggressive children while wide sibling spacing tends to produce introverted and less aggressive children. The study further found that the only children, ranked highest in introversion and, lowest in aggressiveness and extraversion. The study recommended that sibling spacing knowledge should be used by school career guidance masters as locally available method of predicting personality.
Psychological Review
1995, Vol. 102, No. 3,458-489
Copyright 1995 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
0033-295X/95/S3.00
Where Is the Child's Environment? A Group Socialization
Theory of Development
Judith Rich Harris
Middletown, New Jersey
Do parents have any important long-term effects on the development of their child's personality?
This article examines the evidence and concludes that the answer is no. A new theory of development
is proposed: that socialization is context-specific and that outside-the-home socialization takes place
in the peer groups of childhood and adolescence. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic rela-
tionships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of
children's personality characteristics. The universality of children's groups explains why develop-
ment is not derailed by the wide variations in parental behavior found within and between societies.
In 1983, after many dozens of pages spent reviewing the liter-
ature on the effects parents have on children, Eleanor Maccoby
and John Martin paused for a critical overview of the field of
socialization research. They questioned the size and robustness
of the effects they had just summarized; they wondered whether
the number of significant correlations was greater than that ex-
pected by chance. They cited other research indicating that bi-
ological or adoptive siblings do not develop similar personalities
as a result of being reared in the same household. This was their
conclusion:
These findings imply strongly that there is very little impact of the
physical environment that parents provide for children and very
little impact of parental characteristics that must be essentially the
same for all children in a family . . . Indeed, the implications are
either that parental behaviors have no effect, or that the only
effective aspects of parenting must vary greatly from one child to
another within the same family. (Maccoby & Martin, 1983, p. 82)
Since 1983, many developmental psychologists have focused
on the second of Maccoby and Martin's two possible implica-
tions, "that the only effective aspects of parenting must vary
greatly from one child to another." The other possibility, "that
parental behaviors have no effect," has never been considered as
a serious alternative.
This article examines both alternatives. I begin by showing
why "must vary greatly from one child to another" cannot ex-
plain the results that puzzled Maccoby and Martin. Then I con-
sider the possibility "that parental behaviors have no effect."
The conclusion reached is that, within the range of families that
have been studied, parental behaviors have no effect on the psy-
chological characteristics their children will have as adults. To
I thank the following people, who do not necessarily agree with the
views presented here, for their helpful comments on earlier versions of
this work: William A. Corsaro, Judith L. Gibbons, Charles ...
Similar to The Effect of Family Communication Patterns on AdoptedAdoles.docx (20)
Please provide answer, write program in Prolog for the following.docxcherry686017
Please provide answer, write program in Prolog for the following rules and facts.
RULES:
Use the rules on "When to Seek Medical Attention" from
carona virus
Watch for symptoms
People with COVID-19 have had a wide range of symptoms reported - ranging from mild symptoms to severe illness.
These symptoms may appear
2-14 days after exposure to the virus:
Fever
Cough
Shortness of breath or difficulty breathing
Chills
Repeated shaking with chills
Muscle pain
Headache
Sore throat
New loss of taste or smell
When to Seek Medical Attention
If you develop any of these
emergency warning signs*
for COVID-19 get
medical attention immediately:
Trouble breathing
Persistent pain or pressure in the chest
New confusion or inability to arouse
Bluish lips or face
*This list is not all inclusive. Please consult your medical provider for any other symptoms that are severe or concerning to you.
FACTS
John has Fever, Cough and Trouble breathing
Amanda has Fever, Cough and Sore throat
.
Please provide references for your original postings in APA form.docxcherry686017
Please provide references for your original postings in APA format. 300 Words with proper references.
What do you think is the best combination of the types of authentication? Is that type of authentication appropriate for all types of access?
Some have made the argument that using WEP presents more security issues than if all traffic were in the clear. What do you think?
.
Please provide reference in APARequired FormatTitle Page AP.docxcherry686017
Please provide reference in APA
Required Format:
Title Page APA Format
Introduction
Concept of Systems Thinking (
Level 1 APA Heading
)
Difference Between Systems Thinking and Silo Thinking
(Level 1 APA Heading)
Applying Systems Thinking in My Work Environment
(Level 1 APA Heading)
Conclusion
1. Explain and discuss the concept of systems thinking.
2. Explain and give an example of the difference between silo thinking and systems thinking
3. Provide one example of where you could apply systems thinking that would positively affect your current work environment.
.
Please post here your chosen topic and information about why y.docxcherry686017
Please post here your chosen topic and information about why you chose it. Note: it must be a NON-INFECTIOUS agent (with few exceptions and it cannot be what you chose for discussion 2), so it cannot be caused by an organism. Please review the syllabus for more details.
A reminder from the syllabus:
The disease or disorder should not be a common disease that has already addressed in our course. With rare exception, it should not be an infectious disease (caused by an infectious organism).
Common diseases should be AVOIDED, including coronary artery disease, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, diabetes, AIDS, hypo- and hyper-thyroidism, hypertension, psoriasis, sleep apnea, Lyme’s Disease, sinusitis, allergic rhinitis, mononucleosis, asthma, urinary tract infections, many STDs (check with your instructor), irritable bowel disease, strep throat, MRSA, polio, tuberculosis, Lockjaw, anorexia nervosa, autism, Down syndrome, and many cancers (check with your instructor).
The information you present should include sufficient detail to demonstrate that you have completed some preliminary research and should present a clear rationale for your choice.
If you're struggling with ideas, think of something you or someone you know may be dealing with. Or perhaps take a look at webMD and see if you find something interesting. Or watch a medical show, like The Good Doctor.
Please change your Title of your discussion post to the name of the disease.
.
Please pick your favorite article from Ms Magazine and do a one.docxcherry686017
Please pick your favorite article from
Ms Magazine
and do a one page (double spaced) write up of how it relates to what you have learned so far in this class
( something under one of these topics: what women's studies \ What is sex ? what is Gender \ secrets of masculinity and Femininity \ theories about the construction of gender \ intersectionality)
.
Please provide discussion of the following1. Weyerhaeuser made .docxcherry686017
Please provide discussion of the following:
1. Weyerhaeuser made a one-year commitment to help their employees living in New Orleans who were victims of Katrina. What types of assistance was provided under this commitment and what impact did it have on the lives of those most affected?
2. Please research and provide an overview of a company that provided assistance to the one of our more recent, natural events.
.
Please provide a summary of the key learning from the chapter. The .docxcherry686017
Please provide a summary of the key learning from the chapter. The summary is expected to be a simple write up, can be free form, and should include:
Brief
description in written form of the concepts that you have learned form reading the chapter.
If you wish (but not mandatory) and
if applicable
, you can cite examples that may illustrate some of the concepts. Examples can be from your our work, academia, experience, other organizations, etc.
There is
No Need
to summarize any of the formulas, graphs, tables, workflows, etc.
Summary should be
concise
and should fit on
No More Than One Page
.
Summary can entered in Canvas, posted or emailed as a document file typed in Microsoft Word, Powerpoint, or any other media that you choose.
.
Please pay close attention to the highlighted areas Please answe.docxcherry686017
Please pay close attention to the highlighted areas
Please answer all questions that are highlighted in red
Please write two full and complete pages
Cite your sources
Please use more of your own words than other authors
The job of the Supreme Court is to apply the Constitution, not to make public policy. That means that if they're doing their job, the specific outcomes of the decision shouldn't be a factor in their decision. That's why, sometimes, bad guys go free because the police violated a rule that protects all of us in we're accused of wrongdoing. Free speech can also be troublesome. It sounds a lot better in theory than it sometimes turns out in practice.
Find a Supreme Court case called Elonis v. United States (Links to an external site.).
What can you say and not say on social media? Where does your freedom of speech end and become a specific threat to another person?
Read about the case and write a 2 - 5 page essay telling your reader what the case was about, what the court majority decided and why. If you were a Supreme Court Justice, what would your decision have been and why?
Submit in Word. Cite your sources.
Resources
The SCOTUS blog is always a great place to start: http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/elonis-v-united-states/ (Links to an external site.)
The Cornell Law School also: https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/13-983 (Links to an external site.)
As always, the New York Times is a great resource for Supreme Court cases: http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/02/us/supreme-court-rules-in-anthony-elonis-online-threats-case.html (Links to an external site.)
.
Please pay attention to the topicZero Plagiarisfive referenc.docxcherry686017
Please pay attention to the topic
Zero Plagiaris
five references
Post
an explanation of whether psychotherapy has a biological basis. Explain how culture, religion, and socioeconomics might influence one’s perspective of the value of psychotherapy treatments. Support your rationale with evidence-based literature.
Wheeler, K. (Eds.). (2014).
Psychotherapy for the advanced practice psychiatric nurse: A how-to guide for evidence-based practice
(2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company
.
PLEASE OPEN THE ATTACH MENTWhen a dietary supplement is consid.docxcherry686017
PLEASE OPEN THE ATTACH MENT
When a dietary supplement is considered food and when is it considered a drug? Describe in detail why and when someone would need to take a dietary supplement. Is monitoring your nutritional intake important? Why or Why not? Please provide examples in paragraph form. What is your perception of a healthy diet, why and what does it consist of?
.
Please make sure that it is your own work and not copy and paste. Wa.docxcherry686017
Please make sure that it is your own work and not copy and paste. Watch out for grammar errors and spelling errors. Use the APA format.
Book Refernce: Robbins, S. P., & Judge, T. A. (2019).
Organizational behavior
(18th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
How do you distinguish between attitudes and moods? What is one example that supports your position? As you address the question, you are to consider how outside sources might be used to support your position.
.
please no plagiarism, 5 pages and fallow the rubic Quantitat.docxcherry686017
please no plagiarism, 5 pages and fallow the rubic
Quantitative Research Design. Rigor and Validity in Quantitative Research.
Title Page: Title of article, journal information and your name and date
1 point
Your score
Abstract: Brief summary of article (1-2 paragraphs)
1 points
The Problem: (2 or 3 paragraphs)
Is the problem clearly stated?
Is the problem practically important?
What is the purpose of the study?
What is the hypothesis?
Are the key terms defined?
3 points
Review of Literature: (1 -2 paragraphs)
Are the cited sources pertinent to the study?
Is the review too broad or too narrow?
Are the references recent?
Is there any evidence of bias?
2 points
Design and Procedures: (3-4 paragraphs)
What research methodology was used?
Was it a replica study or an original study?
What measurement tools were used?
How were the procedures structures?
Was a pilot study conducted?
What are the variables?
How was sampling performed?
3 points
Data analysis and Presentation: (1 - 2 paragraphs)
2 points
How was data analyzed?
Did findings support the hypothesis and purpose?
Were weaknesses and problems discussed?
Conclusions and Implications: (2-3 paragraphs)
3 points
Are the conclusions of the study related to the original purpose?
Were the implications discussed?
Whom the results and conclusions will affect?
What recommendations were made at the conclusion?
What is your overall assessment of the study and the article?
Total
15 points
(100%)
Grade
.
Please make sure to follow the below.Please note that this is .docxcherry686017
Please make sure to follow the below.
Please note that this is a formal writing, all references (peer-reviewed) mostly must be cited appropriately within the text.
Clearly avoid plagiarism.
The paper should have a minimum of 10 pages, 1.5 spacing and Times New Roman font.
A minimum of 5 peer review references must be provided.
Reference style is APA.
.
Please make revision in the prospectus checklist assignment base.docxcherry686017
Please make revision in the prospectus checklist assignment based on my professor feedback. For now, she wants to only focus on (1) the problem statement, (2) the practice focus question, (3) the social change.
I’m also attaching a copy of the previous prospectus draft which the professor returned to me with her feedback. Also, I included an outline of the project in the file section (see attached file).
Include as many scholarly references (at least 10) as needed and cite often.
APA format required.
Due on Sunday 10/06/19 by 12pm America/New York time.
.
Please note research can NOT be on organization related to minors, i.docxcherry686017
Please note research can NOT be on organization related to minors, incarcerated individuals or mental health co morbidities. Research a selected local, national, or global nonprofit organization or government agency to determine how it contributes to public health and safety improvements, promotes equal opportunity, and improves the quality of life within the community. Submit your findings in a 3-5 page report.
As you begin to prepare this assessment, it would be an excellent choice to complete the Nonprofit Organizations and Community Health activity. Complete this activity to gain insight into promoting equal opportunity and improving the quality of life in a community. The information gained from completing this activity will help you succeed with the assessment.
Professional Context
Many organizations work to better local and global communities' quality of life and promote health and safety in times of crisis. As public health and safety advocates, nurses must be cognizant of how such organizations help certain populations. As change agents, nurses must be aware of factors that impact the organization and the services that it offers. Familiarity with these organizations enables the nurse to offer assistance as a volunteer and source of referral.
This assessment provides an opportunity for you gain insight into the mission, vision, and operations of a community services organization of interest.
Demonstration of Proficiency
By successfully completing this assessment, you will demonstrate your proficiency in the following course competencies and assessment criteria:
Competency 1: Analyze health risks and health care needs among distinct populations.
Explain how an organization’s work impacts the health and/or safety needs of a local community.
Competency 2: Propose health promotion strategies to improve the health of populations.
Explain how an organization’s mission and vision enable it to contribute to public health and safety improvements.
Competency 3: Evaluate health policies, based on their ability to achieve desired outcomes.
Assess the impact of funding sources, policy, and legislation on an organization’s provision of services.
Competency 4: Integrate principles of social justice in community health interventions.
Evaluate an organization’s ability to promote equal opportunity and improve the quality of life within a community.
Competency 5: Apply professional, scholarly communication strategies to lead health promotion and improve population health.
Write clearly and concisely in a logically coherent and appropriate form and style.
Note:
Complete the assessments in this course in the order in which they are presented.
Preparation
Assume you are interested in expanding your role as a nurse and are considering working in an area where you can help to promote equal opportunity and improve the quality of life within the local or global community. You are aware of the work .
please no plagiarism our class uses Turnitin You are expected to pr.docxcherry686017
please no plagiarism our class uses Turnitin You are expected to provide supporting details for your responses; that support may come from the points covered in the readings and additional external research all source must be cited and listed (
appropriately cited
) in APA
.
Please know that the score is just a ball-park and d.docxcherry686017
Please know that the score is just a ball-park and doesn't represent a grade that would be equivalent to a final paper. I suggest reviewing this as well as the prompt / student samples again.
Hi, this has potential -- the evidence is apparent. Remember this is
Summary, not….lists, and it must be clear where the evidence is from via source attribution.
company name / job -- title?
source?
I have not idea where this evidence is from
oh, boy - -this is way off. making a list is not part of the assignment / summary is with source attribution
I don't mind a table or chart but where is it from and what is the purpose of it.
I'm not seeing a government source
Field Research Project
ORIGINALITY REPORT
12%
SIMILARITY INDEX
5%
INTERNET SOURCES
0%
PUBLICATIONS
9%
STUDENT PAPERS
PRIMARY SOURCES
(
1
) (
3
)Submitted to Florida International University
Student Paper %
www.l3harris.com
(
2
) (
3
) (
3
) (
2
%
)Internet Source %
Submitted to Embry Riddle Aeronautical University
(
1
)Student Paper
Submitted to Florida Institute of Technology
(
4
)Student Paper %
www.electricalengineer.com
(
5
) (
1
)Internet Source %
www.wsj.com
(
6
) (
7
) (
1
) (
1
%
)Internet Source %
Submitted to Southern State Community College
Student Paper
Exclude quotes On Exclude bibliography On
Exclude matches < 5 words
Field Research Project
GRADEMARK REPORT
FINAL GRADE
8/10
GENERAL COMMENTS
Instructor
PAGE 1
Text Comment. Please know that the score is just a ball-park and doesn't represent a grade that would be equivalent to a final paper. I suggest reviewing this as well as the prompt / student examples again.
Text Comment. Eisa, this has potential -- the evidence is apparent. Remember this is summary, not...lists, and it must be clear where the evidence is from via source attribution.
PAGE 2
Text Comment. company name / job -- title?
Text Comment. source?
Text Comment. I have not idea where this evidence is from
Text Comment. oh, boy - -this is way off. making a list is not part of the assignment / summary is with source attribution
PAGE 3
Text Comment. I don't mind a table or chart but where is it from and what is the purpose of it.
PAGE 4
PAGE 5
PAGE 6
Text Comment. I'm not seeing a government source
PAGE 7
RUBRIC: 305 REVISED RESEARCH
RESEARCH (30%)
0 / 100
0 / 100
Level of sources' quality, relevance & usefulness in helping to target future resume, and cover letter or graduate school statement.
AMAZING (100)
EXCELLENT (95)
PRETTY GOOD (90)
GOOD (85)
BETTER THAN ADEQUATE (80)
ADEQUATE (75)
MUCH REVISION NEEDED
(70)
INADEQUATE (65)
NO PASSION (60)
DOCUMENTATION (30%) 0 / 100
Level of proficiency in providing accurate & consistent quote and reference attribution, both within written text and in source listing at end.
AMAZING (100)
EXCELLENT (95)
PRETTY GOOD (90)
GOOD (85)
BETTER THAN ADEQUATE
(80)
ADEQUATE (75)
MUCH REV.
Please note that the Reflections must have 1. MLA format-.docxcherry686017
Please note that the Reflections must have:
1. MLA format-look up the link if you are not sure
2. Single spaced the entire assignment or page
3. One page only
4. Times New Roman, font 12
5. Quotations with page numbers
6. Point and Explanations do not have the author's name in it.
Be careful. I will deduct a point for each error. If you don't single space your writing, I will not read it.
.
Please make sure you talk about the following (IMO)internati.docxcherry686017
Please make sure you talk about the following
* (IMO)international maritime law institute
* historical background
* Concept of Maritime law
*The principle provision of modern law
* Territorial seas
* Contiguous zone
.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Effect of Family Communication Patterns on AdoptedAdoles.docx
1. The Effect of Family Communication Patterns on Adopted
Adolescent Adjustment
Martha A. Rueter and
Department of Family Social Science, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985
Buford Avenue, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108 ([email protected])
Ascan F. Koerner
Department of Communication Studies, 244 Ford Hall, 224
Church St. S.E., University of Minnesota,
Minneapolis MN 55455
Abstract
Adoption and family communication both affect adolescent
adjustment. We proposed that adoption
status and family communication interact such that adopted
adolescents in families with certain
communication patterns are at greater risk for adjustment
problems. We tested this hypothesis using
a community-based sample of 384 adoptive and 208
nonadoptive families. Adolescents in these
families were, on average, 16 years of age. The results
supported our hypothesis. Adopted adolescents
were at significantly greater risk for adjustment problems
compared to nonadopted adolescents in
families that emphasized conformity orientation without
conversation orientation and in families that
emphasized neither conformity nor conversation orientation.
Adolescents in families emphasizing
conversation orientation were at lower risk for adjustment
problems, regardless of adoption status.
2. Keywords
adjustment; adolescents; adoption; family communication
patterns
Recent changes in the modern family have led researchers to
pay closer attention to the growing
complexity of family structures, such as step-families, families
formed through assisted
reproduction, and adoptive families. Recent reviews attest to
particular interest in adoptive
families and in adopted child adjustment (cf. Bimmel, Juffer,
van IJzendoorn, & Bakermans-
Kranenburg, 2003; Juffer & van IJzendoorn, 2005; Lee, 2003;
O’Brien & Zamostny, 2003;
van IJ-zendoorn, Juffer, & Klein Poelhuis, 2005). These reviews
compared adopted,
nonadopted, domestically adopted, and internationally adopted
youth on several adjustment
dimensions, including internalizing and externalizing problems,
attachment to parents, and
academic achievement. Overall, these reviews reported that
most adopted children and
adolescents were well adjusted. A small but notable group,
however, experienced significant
behavioral or mental health problems. It is this group that may
account for mean differences
in adjustment that often are observed in studies comparing
adopted to biological children
(Bimmel et al.; Brand & Brinich, 1999).
Differences in adjustment for this small group have generally
been attributed to a number of
factors unique to adopted children. For example, relative to
nonadoptees, adopted children
have more likely experienced early childhood adversity that can
3. result in developmental delays
Correspondence to: Ascan F. Koerner.
This article was edited by Cheryl Buehler.
NIH Public Access
Author Manuscript
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
Published in final edited form as:
J Marriage Fam. 2008 August ; 70(3): 715–727.
doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00516.x.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
4. IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
and negatively affect early childhood attachment to parents
(Haugaard & Hazan, 2003). Also,
the identity development process can be particularly challenging
for adopted youth, who may
look and act differently from their parents and siblings and who
may be trying to come to terms
with limited information about their birth parents and cultural
origins (Brodzinsky, Schechter,
& Henig, 1992; Lee, 2003). In regard to mental health
outcomes, there also might be differences
in parental thresholds for making treatment referrals, with
adoptive parents more likely than
nonadoptive parents to refer children for mental health or
behavioral problems (Juffer &
IJzendoorn, 2005).
These factors, however, do not fully explain the adjustment
difficulties observed in some
adopted children. First, they do not apply uniformly to all
adoptive families nor to all adopted
children in the small group with adjustment problems. Second,
the external factors described
above suggest fairly direct cause-effect relationships. Such
simplistic associations are unlikely
5. to represent the complex causal processes that underlie adopted
children’s adjustment
problems. To better understand adjustment among adopted
children, we need a more thorough
understanding of the complex underlying processes as they
occur in most, if not all, adoptive
families.
Adolescent Adjustment and Family Communication
In general population studies, more than three decades of
research has established a strong
association between parent-child interactions and adolescent
adjustment (Reiss, 2000;
Steinberg, 2001). Research on parent-child communication has
consistently demonstrated that
parent-child interactions characterized by open communication,
warm and supportive
behavior, and firm, consistent enforcement of developmentally
appropriate expectations
positively influence child adjustment. Hostile, angry, and
conflictual interactions, on the other
hand, are associated with poorer adjustment. Various labels
have been employed to describe
these different types of parenting, including Baumrind’s (1971)
authoritarian, authoritative,
permissive, and neglecting parenting, Burleson, Delia, and
Applegate’s (1995) person-versus
position-centered parenting, and Koerner and Fitzpatrick’s
(2002b) conversation orientation
and conformity orientation.
Drawing from this overwhelming evidence, we expect that
parent-child interaction plays a
similarly relevant role in adopted children’s adjustment. We
argue that family interaction is a
proximate influence on child and adolescent adjustment,
6. regardless of adoption status. Further,
family structure and the factors already identified as associated
with adopted children’s
adjustment are, compared to family interaction, more distal
factors whose impact on adjustment
is moderated by family interaction. That is, adoption and its
correlates define a particular
context that interacts with family interaction processes to
determine child adjustment.
Family Communication Patterns Theory
A theoretical framework that expands upon existing theories
(e.g., Baumrind, 1971; Burleson
et al., 1995; Reiss, 1981) to provide a stronger explanation of
the association between family
interactions and child adjustment in complex families like
adoptive families is Koerner and
Fitzpatrick’s (2002a, 2002b, 2004b, 2006) Family
Communication Patterns Theory (FCPT).
FCPT is based on the fundamental insight that creating a shared
social reality is central to
family functioning. Shared reality exists when family members’
cognitions about an object are
accurate, congruent, and in agreement. Sharing social reality
with others makes understanding
and being understood easier, leading to more efficiency and
coordination and fewer
misunderstandings and conflict. Consequently, families that
share social reality should
communicate with one another more accurately and with less
conflict, supporting child
adjustment.
Rueter and Koerner Page 2
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
8. According to FCP Theory, families create a shared reality
through two processes, conversation
orientation and conformity orientation. Conversation orientation
is characterized by frequent,
spontaneous, unconstrained interactions that allow family
members to codiscover the meaning
of symbols and objects. This orientation encourages all family
members to participate in
defining social reality. Conformity orientation is characterized
by uniformity of beliefs and
attitudes. Family interactions focus on maintaining harmonious
relationships that reflect
obedience to parents, often manifest in pressure to agree and
maintain the family hierarchy.
This orientation allows family members in authority roles (i.e.,
parents) to define social reality.
Theoretically orthogonal, these two orientations define four
family types: consensual,
pluralistic, protective, and laissez-faire. Consensual families are
high in both conformity and
conversation orientation. Communication in consensual families
reflects a tension between
exploring ideas through open communicative exchanges and a
pressure to agree in support of
the existing family hierarchy. Pluralistic families are low in
conformity orientation and high
in conversation orientation. Family communication is
characterized as open and unrestrained,
focusing on producing independent ideas and fostering
communication competence in
children. Protective families are high in conformity orientation
and low in conversation
orientation. Communication in these families functions to
maintain obedience and enforce
family norms; little value is placed on the exchange of ideas or
9. the development of
communication skills. Laissez-faire families are low in both
conversation orientation and
conformity orientation. Family members do not often engage
each other in conversation, and
they place little value on communication or the maintenance of
a family unit.
Sharing Reality in Complex Families
The concept of a shared reality among family members is not
new. Others describe similar
concepts using similar terms. Reiss (1981) described shared
reality as a family paradigm
guiding how members respond to challenges from the external
world and Eccles et al.
(1993) used stage-environment fit theory to explain the
importance of compatibility between
parental control attempts and adolescents’ growing desire for
autonomy. Deater-Deckard and
Petrill (2004) used dyadic mutuality to describe synchronized,
mutually warm, and responsive
parent-child interactions and Grotevant, Wrobel, van Dulmen,
and McRoy (2001), referring
specifically to adoptive families, used parent-child
compatibility or goodness of fit to refer to
the similarity between parental expectations and actual or
perceived child behavior. The
connection between these conceptualizations of shared reality
and FCP Theory is that in each
case, increased shared reality is expected to relate to improved
family functioning or child
adjustment or both.
Several sources suggest that, compared to genetically related
families, sharing social reality is
likely to be more challenging in adoptive families (Brodzinsky,
10. Lang, & Smith, 1995; Deater-
Deckard & Petrill, 2004; Grotevant et al., 2001). Among the
possible reasons for the added
challenge is that the cognitive processes involved in perceiving
the social world are at least
partially a function of genetic predispositions. Research
supporting this contention has shown
medium to large effects of genetics on attitudes ranging from
taste for sweets, preferences for
leisure activities, endorsement of moral and ethical positions,
and political attitudes (Alford,
Funk, & Hibbing, 2005; Olson, Vernon, Harris, & Jang, 2001;
Tesser, 1993). Abrahamson,
Baker, and Caspi (2002) have shown that these effects are not
limited to adults. They reported
significant genetic effects on political attitudes in children as
young as 12 years old.
This research suggests that although genetically related family
members can sometimes rely
on similar cognitive processes to achieve a shared reality,
genetically unrelated family
members must rely on other processes. We and others
(Brodzinsky et al., 1995; Grotevant et
al., 2001; Stein & Hoopes, 1985) suggest that how family
members communicate with one
Rueter and Koerner Page 3
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
12. To date, studies of adoptive family communication mostly have
examined adoption-specific
communication (e.g., parents talking with an adopted child
about his or her adoption;
Brodzinsky, 2006; Wrobel, Kohler, Grotevant, & McRoy, 2003)
or examined the direct effect
of adoption status on family communication. Direct-effect
studies have compared various
aspects of communication (e.g., levels of conflict, amount of
verbal interaction) across adoptive
and nonadoptive families (Lansford, Ceballo, Abby, & Stewart,
2001; Lanz, Ifrate, Rosnati,
& Scabini, 1999; Rosnati, & Marta; 1997). For the most part,
these studies reported few
differences in communication on the basis of adoption status.
In contrast to direct-effect studies, the FCPT suggests that
adoption status and communication
pattern interact to influence child adjustment. On the basis of
research of parent-child
communication in the general population (Baumrind, 1971;
Burleson et al., 1995; Koerner &
Fitzpatrick, 2004; Steinberg, 2001), we expect that family
communication patterns directly
affect child adjustment. On the basis of the greater challenges to
creating a shared reality among
adoptive family members, we also expect that in adoptive
families the effects of family
communication on adjustment will be amplified in specific
ways. The purpose of the current
study, then, was to test the application of the FCP Theory to
explain adolescent adjustment
among adopted adolescents. To accomplish this, we tested a
series of hypotheses:
H1: Adopted children will have more adjustment problems than
13. nonadopted children.
H2: Adoption status is not associated with a family’s FCP.
H3: FCP is associated with child adjustment.
H3a: Consensual families will experience the fewest, Laissez-
Faire families the most, and Protective and Pluralistic
families a moderate level of child adjustment problems.
H4: Adoption status and FCP interact to influence child
adjustment.
H4a: FCPs that favor conversation orientation (Consensual and
Pluralistic) will have similar levels of adjustment
problems across adoptive and nonadoptive families.
H4b: FCPs that favor control over conversation (Protective) or
use neither orientation (Laissez-Faire) will show more
child adjustment problems in adoptive families relative to
nonadoptive families.
Method
Sample
Participants were 592 families recruited to a longitudinal
research project designed to
investigate sibling influences on adolescent drug and alcohol
use (McGue et al., 2007). All
study families included two parents, the target child (referred to
as the adolescent; M age =
16.01 years, SD = 1.44), and a younger sibling (referred to as
the sibling; M age = 13.69 years,
SD = 1.57) who was within 5 years of the adolescent’s age. In
284 families, both children were
adopted, in 100 families, the adolescent was adopted and the
14. sibling was biologically related
to the parents, and in 208 families both children were
biologically related to the parents.
Adoptive families were identified through records from three
large adoption agencies (600 and
700 placements each year). Biological families were identified
using state birth records.
Researchers located 90% of the identified adoptive families and
85% of the identified
biological families. Once located, a parent in each family was
interviewed to establish study
eligibility. In addition to the children’s age requirement, study
eligibility was limited to families
Rueter and Koerner Page 4
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
15. A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
living within driving distance of the research lab and to children
with no physical or mental
handicap that would preclude completing the day-long intake
assessment, and all adopted
children had to have been placed for adoption prior to 2 years of
age (M = 4.7 months, SD =
3.4 months).
Participating were 63% of the eligible adoptive families and
57% of the eligible biological
families. To determine the representativeness of participating
families, a brief phone interview
assessing parents’ education, occupational status, marital status,
and the number of parent-
reported behavioral disorders in the participating children was
administered to 73% of
nonparticipating but eligible families. Results showed that the
study sample is generally
16. representative of the population of eligible families from which
it was drawn and is not
markedly different from families with parents living with two or
more children in the
metropolitan region where the university is located (McGue et
al., 2007).
Procedures
Participating family members visited the research lab to
complete informed consent forms,
self-report surveys, two 5-minute videotaped family
interactions, and the revised Diagnostic
Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA-R) (Welner,
Reich, Herjanic, Jung, & Amado,
1987). Self-report surveys were independently completed by
each family member. Among
other things, these surveys assessed adolescent externalizing
behavior and family and
individual demographic characteristics. The videotaped family
interactions were designed to
elicit family interactions, including conversation and control
behaviors. Videotaping took place
in a room decorated to look like a living room or dining room,
with family members seated
around a dining table. Although the video camera was
inconspicuously placed in a bookcase,
family members were aware that they were being videotaped. A
trained interviewer explained
the tasks to the family members, but left the room for
videotaping. For the first task, families
were presented with a novel object, a Rorschach inkblot, and
asked to come to a consensus
about what the inkblot resembled. For the second task, families
were presented with a moral
dilemma (Kohlberg, 1981). In the story, a man whose wife has
been diagnosed with a fatal
17. disease but cannot afford to buy the only drug that can save her
life. Families were asked to
decide (a) whether the man should steal the drug for his wife
and (b) whether he should also
steal the drug for a stranger in need.
Trained interviewers administered the DICA-R (Welner et al.,
1987) to the adolescents and
their mothers. The DICA-R had been modified to include
additional questions and probes
necessary for complete coverage of DSM-IV childhood
disorders. Adolescents’ symptoms
were reported by themselves and by their mothers. All interview
data were reviewed by at least
two individuals with advanced clinical training who were blind
to other family members’
symptoms and diagnoses. These reviewers coded every symptom
and diagnostic criterion. A
symptom was considered present if either the adolescent or the
mother reported it. Kappa co-
efficients for disorders are as follows: Attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD, .77),
Conduct Disorder (CD, .80), and Oppositional Defiant Disorder
(ODD, .73).
During their visit, the adolescents also nominated teachers to
provide information about the
child’s behavior at school. Nominated teachers were mailed a
rating form, and teacher reports
were received for 69% of the adolescents. Participants were
compensated for their travel
expenses and given a modest honorarium as compensation for
their time.
Measures
FCP—A family’s communication pattern is determined by
18. observing the extent to which the
family relies on conversation orientation and conformity
orientation to create a shared reality.
We used Latent Class Analysis to estimate each family’s most
likely communication pattern
Rueter and Koerner Page 5
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
19. A
A
uthor M
anuscript
(see Analysis Plan, below). The measures used to assess
conversation orientation and
conformity orientation, which are described below, were used as
indicators of a FCP latent
factor.
Trained observers viewed the two family interaction tasks and
globally rated 12 family
interaction characteristics using the Sibling Interaction and
Behavior Study Rating Scales,
adapted from the Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales (Melby
et al., 1998). Each family
member’s behavior toward each of the other family members
was rated using a scale ranging
from 1 (not at all characteristic of the person) to 9 (mainly
characteristic of the person). Before
viewing study videotapes, observers received 100 hours of
training and were required to pass
written and observation examinations. Trained observers
attended biweekly coder meetings
for ongoing training and to prevent “rater drift.” Observer
reliability was assessed by randomly
assigning 25% of all tapes to be rated by a second observer, and
then comparing the primary
and secondary ratings using intraclass correlations (Shrout &
Fleiss, 1979; Suen & Ary,
1989). Intraclass correlations for scales used in this study
20. ranged from .5 to .8, a level of
reliability considered acceptable for these types of data (Kenny,
1991; Mitchell, 1979).
The present study used three observational scales to assess
conversation orientation,
Communication, Listening, and Warmth. Because observers
rated a family member’s behavior
toward each of the other three family members, every family
member received three scores for
each scale. For example, using the Communication scale,
observers rated the mother’s ability
to clearly and appropriately express her own point of view,
needs, and desires when speaking
to the father, to the adolescent, and to the sibling. Family
members who expressed their views
in a manner that encouraged conversation with other family
members received higher scores
than those who did not. The Listening scale assessed the extent
to which a family member
verbally or nonverbally or both verbally and nonverbally
attended to each of the other family
members when the other member was speaking. Here again,
each family member received
three Listening scores. The Warmth scale assessed each family
member’s verbal and nonverbal
expressions of caring, concern, and support toward each of the
other family members, for a
total of three Warmth ratings per family member. The Control
scale was used to assess
conformity orientation. This scale measured the extent to which
a family member attempted
or succeeded in controlling or influencing the attitudes,
behavior, and interactions of other
family members.
21. Adolescent externalizing behavior—Adolescent adjustment
problems were
operationalized as externalizing behavior in a variety of
contexts including general
delinquency, symptoms of behavioral disorders, conflictual
relations with parents, and trouble
at school. To obtain this broad assessment of adolescent
externalizing behavior, we used five
measures derived from multiple information that were combined
as a latent factor with five
indicators. Because we were primarily interested in the small
subset of adolescents who
experience significant adjustment problems as compared to
adolescents who experience
relatively few problems, we used Latent Class Analysis (see
Analysis Plan) to identify two
groups differing in externalizing characteristics.
For the first indicator, we used the Delinquent Behavior
Inventory (DBI; Gibson, 1967). This
self-report questionnaire contains a list of 36 behaviors. For
each behavior, adolescents
reported if they had never (1), once (2), or more than once (3)
engaged in the behavior. Example
DBI items included “smashing, slashing, or damaging things,”
“cutting classes at school,”
“stealing things,” and “using any kind of weapon in a fight.”
DBI responses were summed to
create a self-report externalizing behavior measure (α = .89).
Symptom counts obtained from the ADHD, CD, and ODD
sections of the DICA-R (Welner
et al., 1987) were used to create an externalizing symptoms
measure (range = 0 – 28 symptoms).
Rueter and Koerner Page 6
22. J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
23. As described above, adolescents and mothers completed the
DICA-R. A symptom was
considered present if either the adolescent or the mother
reported it.
Trained observers rated adolescent behavior toward each parent,
as described above, to create
the third and fourth externalizing behavior measures. Using the
hostility scale, observers
assessed the extent to which the adolescent’s behavior toward
the mother and toward the father
was characterized by conflict, anger, defiance, and contempt.
Teacher ratings of adolescent in-class behavior were used to
create the final externalizing
measure. Using a 67-item behavior checklist adapted from the
Conners’ Teacher Rating Scale
(Conners, 1969) and the Rutter Child Scale B (Rutter, 1967),
teachers compared the adolescent
to the average student and rated how characteristic a behavior
was of the adolescent (1 = not
at all characteristic to 4 = very much characteristic). Example
checklist items included “is
defiant,” “has difficulty concentrating on school-work,” “is
often truant,” “initiates physical
fights,” and “obeys the rules” (reverse coded). Responses were
summed (α = .97, Spearman-
Brown interteacher reliability = .82).
Analysis Plan
Testing our study hypotheses required that we develop two
categorical latent variables, the
FCP variable and the Adolescent Externalizing Behavior
variable, and examine associations
24. between these two variables and adoption status. Both
categorical latent variables were created
through Latent Class Analysis (LCA) performed using the
statistical program Mplus 4.21
(Muthén & Muthén, 1998 – 2006).
The FCP LCA model was created using a second-order latent
factor structure. A set of 16 first-
order latent factors, each with three indicators, served as
indicators of the second order FCP
latent factor. The 16 first-order latent factors assessed each
family members’ interaction with
the three other family members for the three conversation
orientation measures and the one
control orientation measure (4 family members × 4 measures).
For example, the mother’s
Communication factor assessed her communication to the other
family members and was
indicated by the observer ratings of her communication to the
father, to the adolescent, and to
the sibling. The adolescent’s and the sibling’s gender were
entered as covariates of the FCP
latent factor.
The adolescent’s Externalizing Behavior latent factor had five
observed variables as indicators:
(1) self-reported delinquency, (2) externalizing disorder
symptoms, (3) observed hostility to
the mother, (4) observed hostility to the father, and (5) teacher
ratings. The adolescent’s age
and gender were entered as covariates of the Externalizing
Behavior latent factor.
We had hypothesized the presence of four FCP and two
Externalizing Behavior classes. To be
confident that these were the most likely number of classes, we
25. tested LCA models that had
fewer and more classes than the hypothesized number. Because
no single criterion is yet
accepted for deciding the most likely number of classes within a
population, we used a
combination of theoretical and statistical criteria. First, we
relied upon theory to provide the
starting point for our model tests. Thus, to create the FCP
variable, we tested models specifying
one, two, three, four, and five classes. For the Externalizing
Behavior variable, we tested one,
two, and three classes. Statistical criteria included the Bayesian
information criterion (BIC;
Hagenaars & McCutcheon, 2002) and the Lo-Mendell-Rubin
adjusted LRT (LMR; Lo,
Mendell, & Rubin, 2001). The BIC is a measure of model fit
based on the −2 log likelihood
statistic with a penalty for small samples and increasing
parameters. A large decrease in the
BIC value when the number of classes is increased indicates an
improved fit for the model
specifying the additional class. The LMR tests the null
hypothesis that reverting to a model
with one less class than specified would improve model fit. A
statistically significant LMR
Rueter and Koerner Page 7
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
26. A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
suggests that this hypothesis can be rejected and that the model
being tested produced a
significant improvement in model fit relative to a model with
one less class. We also considered
class sizes and model convergence. Models that produced
classes with few or no members or
that did not converge were rejected.
27. For each of our study hypotheses, we estimated the probability
that an adolescent would be
placed in the high externalizing subgroup on the basis of family
communication patterns or
adoption status or both. All probabilities were calculated as
posterior probabilities, and all
analytical models were run as mixture models using Mplus 4.21
(Muthén & Muthén, 1998 –
2006). The following provides a description of how we tested
each of the study hypotheses.
Testing H1 required that we regress the two-class Externalizing
Behavior latent variable on
adoption status and two covariates, adolescent’s age and sex
using logistic regression. H1
would be supported if adopted adolescents had significantly
greater odds of being placed in
the high externalizing subgroup relative to nonadopted
adolescents.
To test H2, we estimated the proportion of adoptive and
nonadoptive families for each FCP
class and statistically compared the adoptive and nonadoptive
pairs of proportions using
Fisher’s exact tests. H2 would be supported if the tests showed
that adoptive and nonadoptive
families were distributed similarly across family communication
patterns. Additionally, we
regressed the FCP latent variable on adoption status and two
covariates, adolescent and sibling
gender, using multinomial logistic regression with the Laissez
Faire family communication
pattern as the reference group. H2 would be supported by this
test if adoptive and nonadoptive
families had even odds of placement within each family
28. communication pattern.
Testing H3 required that we estimate the proportion of
adolescents in the high versus the low
externalizing subgroups for each family communication pattern.
Proportions were compared
statistically using Chi Square and Fisher’s exact test. H3 would
be supported if Consensual
families had the smallest proportion of adolescents placed
within the high externalizing
subgroup, the Protective and Pluralistic families had similar,
midlevel proportions, and the
Laissez Faire families had the largest proportion of adolescents
placed in the high externalizing
subgroup.
To test H4, we estimated the models used to test H3 two more
times, once using the sample of
adoptive families and a second time using the sample of
nonadoptive families. Thus, we
obtained the proportion of adopted and nonadopted adolescents
estimated to be in the high
externalizing subgroup for each family communication pattern.
Proportions were statistically
compared using Fisher’s exact test. H4 would be supported if
adoptive Laissez Faire and
Protective families had significantly higher proportions than
nonadoptive Laissez Faire and
Protective families and adoptive and nonadoptive Consensual
and Pluralistic families had
similar proportions.
Missing Values Analyses
Data from 592 families were available for these analyses, 318 of
which had complete data on
all study variables. Almost all missing data were due to missing
29. teacher reports or fathers who
did not participate in the observation tasks. As noted above,
31% of the teacher externalizing
behavior ratings were missing. Also, in 23% of the families,
fathers did not participate in the
observational tasks. All other study variables had no more than
3% missing data.
Current research indicates that when missing data are unrelated
to the study outcome (i.e.,
missing at random), recovering missing data using a reliable
estimation procedure is preferable
to case deletion (Schafer & Graham, 2002). For each
externalizing behavior measure, we
compared mean values for adolescents whose father did and did
not participate in the
Rueter and Koerner Page 8
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
30. A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
observational tasks or who did and did not have teacher report
data. T test results showed no
statistically significant differences on the basis of father
participation. Adolescents without
teacher report data, however, did report significantly higher
externalizing behavior (t = 3.14,
p = .002) and externalizing symptoms (t = 4.15, p < .00). To
examine the possibility that our
results could be biased by missing data, we tested each study
hypothesis with and without
listwise deletion of missing data. For every hypothesis, the
pattern of findings was similar,
although the smaller sample produced fewer statistically
significant results.
Mplus handles missing data by adjusting model parameter
31. estimates using full-information
maximum-likelihood estimation (FIML; Muthén & Shedden,
1999; Schafer & Graham,
2002). To obtain reliable estimates, Mplus requires that the
proportion of available data for
each study variable and between each pair of variables be at
least .10. These proportions were
all above .53 and the majority were above .97. Therefore, we
used the FIML option to deal
with missing data.
Results
Estimating FCP Classes and Externalizing Behavior Classes
LCA results produced the strongest support for the four-class
FCP model. The pattern of decline
in the BIC statistic supported the four-class model over either
the three- or five-class model.
The class sizes estimated by the four-class model (Consensual =
6.7%, Pluralistic = 31.8%,
Protective = 21.9%, Laissez Faire = 39.6%) were the most
evenly distributed of all models
tested, and most importantly, the patterns of family behavior
estimated by the four-class model
varied in theoretically expected ways. We rejected the five-class
LCA model because it
estimated a class containing just 1% of the families and
produced a relatively small drop in the
BIC (four- to five-class BIC change = 68.02) and a statistically
insignificant LMR (LMR =
182.85, p = .14). The two-class model was also rejected because
the relative decrease in the
BIC statistic from the one- to the two-class model (BIC change
= 1441.21) and the LMR statistic
(LMR = 952.55, p = .008) supported the presence of more than
two classes. The three-class
32. model produced a good fit (two-to three-class BIC change =
258.94, LMR = 376.76, p = .002).
But three problems with this model led us to reject it. First, the
mean family behaviors produced
by this model showed few interpretable patterns. Second, the
model produced an uneven class
distribution of two quite large classes and one small class.
Finally, the BIC declines
substantially from the three- to the four-class model (three- to
four-class BIC change = 122.69),
suggesting the possibility of a fourth class.
Evidence of the extent to which the four-class model estimated
the expected family
communication patterns is presented in Figure 1. Each bar in
Figure 1 represents one family
member’s mean factor score. The first bar in every set depicts
the mother’s mean factor score.
Thus, the left-most white bar represents the Control factor score
mean of .38 estimated for
mothers placed within the Protective family communication
pattern. The second bar in every
set depicts the father’s mean. The third bar is the adolescent’s
mean, and final bar in every set
is the sibling’s mean factor score. (Standard errors and t values
for the scores presented in
Figure 1 are available upon request from the first author.)
As shown in Figure 1, Consensual families had two parents who
were relatively high on control
behavior and all family members tended to engage in high levels
of communication, listening,
and warmth. No one in the typical Pluralistic family showed
high control, and members
engaged in moderate levels of communication and listening and
relatively little warmth.
33. Protective families had one controlling parent and engaged in
relatively little communication
and moderate levels of listening and warmth. Finally, Laissez-
Faire families consistently
engaged in the lowest levels of all measured behaviors.
Rueter and Koerner Page 9
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
34. A
A
uthor M
anuscript
LCA estimation of adolescent externalizing behavior subgroups
showed that a two-class model
fit the data best (one-class BIC = 15709.66, two-class BIC =
12610.97, three-class BIC =
12454.54; two-class LMR = 529.37, p < .00, three-class LMR =
240.15, p = .17). The two-class
model placed 79.9% of the adolescents in the low externalizing
behavior subgroup and 20.1%
in the high externalizing subgroup.
Hypothesis Testing
Logistic regression results showed that adopted adolescents
were more likely to be placed in
the high externalizing subgroup relative to nonadopted
adolescents (odds ratio (OR) = 3.21,
95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.75 – 5.90), supporting H1.
Adolescents’ gender and age also
predicted externalizing subgroup placement. Boys (OR = 5.68,
CI = 3.07 – 10.51) and older
adolescents (β = 0.320, CI = 0.15 – 0.49) were most likely to be
placed in the high externalizing
subgroup.
Proportions of adoptive and nonadoptive families within each
FCP were quite similar
(Consensual: adoptive = 6.7%, nonadoptive = 3.8%; Pluralistic:
adoptive = 31.3%, nonadoptive
35. = 30.0%; Protective: adoptive = 20.5%, nonadoptive = 26.0%;
Laissez Faire: adoptive = 41.1%,
nonadoptive = 40.4%), supporting H2. Statistical comparisons
using Fisher’s Exact tests found
no statistically significant differences between the proportions
of adoptive and nonadoptive
families within each FCP. Also, multinomial logistic regression
results using Laissez-Faire as
the comparison showed that adoptive and nonadoptive families
had even odds of placement in
each family communication pattern (Consensual OR = 1.64,
95% CI = 0.70 – 3.84; Pluralistic
OR = 1.07, 95% CI = 0.66 – 1.72: Protective OR = 0.76, 95% CI
= 0.46 – 1.25).
Across family communication patterns, proportions of
adolescents in the high externalizing
subgroup supported H3 (Consensual = 1.1, Pluralistic = 16.0,
Protective = 13.4, Laissez Faire
= 21.3; χ2 = 150.76, p < .01). Fisher Exact tests showed that the
proportion of high externalizing
adolescents estimated for Laissez-Faire families was
significantly larger than the proportion
for Pluralistic families (p = .04). The was no difference in
proportions for Pluralistic and
Protective families (p = .11). Small cell size (only one
Consensual family adolescent was placed
in the high externalizing subgroup) precluded comparing
Protective and Consensual families.
Proportions of adopted and nonadopted adolescents within each
FCP in the high externalizing
subgroup followed the expected pattern (Consensual: adoptive =
2.6%, nonadoptive = 0.0%;
Pluralistic: adoptive = 16.7%, nonadoptive = 12.3%; Protective:
adoptive = 18.5%,
36. nonadoptive = 4.1%; Laissez Faire: adoptive = 26.9%,
nonadoptive = 7.8%), supporting H4.
The nearly 5:1 difference in proportions for adoptive and
nonadoptive adolescents in Protective
families was statistically significant (p = .047), as was the 3:1
ratio for Laissez Faire (p = .005).
Proportions of adoptive and nonadoptive adolescents in
Pluralistic families were similar (p = .
36). Small cell size precluded comparing proportions in
Consensual families.
Discussion
On the basis of what is known about associations between
family communication and
adolescent adjustment from existing studies (Steinberg, 2001),
much of what we report here
is not unexpected. Our goal, however, was to apply the FCP
Theory, which suggests that
creating shared social reality among family members plays a
central role in adolescent
adjustment, to furthering our understanding of adopted
adolescent adjustment. Our results
support the FCP Theory and indicate that existing theories
based largely on families with
genetically related parents and children may not completely
apply to complex families, like
adoptive families.
Rueter and Koerner Page 10
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
37. -P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
As others have reported, we found that adoption status is
associated with adolescent adjustment
(Bimmel et al., 2003; Juffer & van IJzendoorn, 2005; Keyes,
Sharma, Elkins, Iacono, McGue,
2007; Lee, 2003; O’Brien & Zamostny, 2003; van IJzendoorn et
38. al., 2005). We also replicated
early research showing that family communication patterns
directly relate to adolescent
adjustment such that children in families that emphasized a
combination of conversation and
conformity were least likely to have adjustment problems
(Steinberg, 2001). Our findings go
beyond previous work to show that adoption status and family
communication patterns interact
in important ways and better explain adopted adolescent
adjustment. Specifically, adoptive
families that emphasized conformity over conversation
orientation (i.e., protective families)
or that used neither conformity nor conversation orientation
(i.e., laissez-faire families) either
failed to mitigate the risks of adoption associated with
adolescent adjustment or even amplified
them. Adoptive families high in conversation orientation (i.e.,
consensual and pluralistic
families) appeared to mitigate those risks to the extent that their
risk for child adjustment
problems was statistically undifferentiated from nonadoptive
families.
This does not mean that conversation orientation is universally
positive for adolescent
outcomes. Our results demonstrate that communication without
control from parents leads to
poor child adjustment, regardless of adoption status. We
estimated that 16.7% of adopted
adolescent and 12.3% of nonadopted adolescents stemming from
Pluralistic families were in
the externalizing group, which for nonadopted adolescents was
the highest proportion. Only
when conversation orientation was paired with parental control
in the form of conformity
39. orientation was conversation orientation associated with
superior outcomes.
Family communication patterns that placed adoptive families at
particular risk for adolescent
adjustment problems were the Protective and Laissez-Faire
types. It is no surprise that these
communication patterns are associated with adolescent
adjustment problems. What we report
that is new is that adoption status and family communication
patterns interact such that adopted
children in these families were at substantially greater risk for
adjustment problems relative to
nonadopted children. In fact, more than a quarter of adopted
adolescents in Laissez-Faire
families fell into the high externalizing subgroup compared to
only 8% of the nonadopted
adolescents. This suggests that adopted children may be much
more sensitive to the parental
indifference and neglect typical of Laissez-Faire families than
nonadopted children. We also
found that controlling parenting without communication is much
more detrimental to adopted
children than to nonadopted children. Adopted children in
Protective families were at almost
five times the risk of being placed in the high externalizing
group compared to nonadopted
children in Protective families.
Theory-Based Explanation of Results
We proposed that the interaction between adoption status and
family communication pattern
occurs because adoptive families face more challenges to
creating a shared reality than
nonadoptive families. According to FCP Theory, the existence
of a shared reality means more
40. accurate communication and fewer misunderstandings and
conflict, reducing the risk of child
adjustment problems (Koerner & Fitzpatrick, 2004, 2006).
Genetically related family members
likely share a sense of belonging based on physical appearance,
blood ties, and shared social
attitudes or cognitions based in genetic inheritance
(Abrahamson et al., 2002; Alford et al.,
2005; Olson et al., 2001; Tesser, 1993). All these shared
characteristics facilitate their ability
to create a shared reality, even in the absence of conversation.
Adoptive families typically do
not share these advantages.
In Protective families, where the parent(s) dictate the social
reality, we speculate that
nonadopted adolescents likely share at least some of their
parents’ cognitions. Therefore, they
might accept their parents’ regulatory messages, even if they
are offered without much
opportunity for discussion. Adopted adolescents probably have
cognitive processes that differ
Rueter and Koerner Page 11
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
41. anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
from their parents. Therefore, adopted adolescents in Protective
families may find their parents’
regulatory messages more difficult to accept. As a result, they
are either less compliant or more
likely to experience negative psychological consequences from
their interactions with their
parents, which are expressed in externalizing behaviors.
In Laissez-Faire families, where social reality is neither
dictated nor discussed, rebellion
42. against parental authority might play a lesser role in putting
adopted adolescents at increased
risk. The salient factor in Laissez-Faire families is the absence
of shared reality. We propose
that challenges to developing a sense of identity faced by
adopted adolescents (Bimmel et al.,
2003; Grotevant et al., 2001) are exacerbated in the absence of a
shared reality. For adopted
adolescents, questions about “who am I” can be complicated by
limited information about birth
parents and differences between themselves and adoptive family
members. In nonadoptive
Laissez-Faire families, genetically based similarities afford at
least a minimal sense of shared
reality, providing a foundation from which to answer questions
about one’s identity.
Limitations and Future Directions
Although they are based on theory, these arguments are yet to
be fully tested. For example, we
theorize that similarities among family members based on
genetic relatedness is the most likely
explanation for the interaction between adoption status and
family communication pattern. We
did not, however, measure cognitive processes. Conducting
research that directly assesses how
family members perceive their environments, and in particular,
how children perceive their
parents’ regulatory messages will be an important next step in
our research program. Also, this
study used cross-sectional data. Therefore, it is possible that the
observed family
communication patterns developed in response to or in
coincidence with child adjustment
problems. Future, longitudinal tests of this theory are needed to
understand better the complex
43. processes proposed here.
Methodological strengths include using innovative methods for
studying adoptive families and
their communication. For example, this is the first study we
know of that used observational
data and latent cluster analysis to determining family
communication patterns, as identified by
the FCP Theory. All previous studies have used self-reports
only (Koerner & Fitzpatrick,
2004, 2006). Also, rather than using mean adjustment scores to
assess adolescent adjustment,
we took serious the often repeated claim that only a small group
of adopted children experiences
adjustment problems and focused on predicting membership in
that subgroup.
There are limits to the generalizability of this study’s findings.
For example, we focused on
families with adolescent children. Family communication
patterns may operate differently
among families with younger or older children. As noted above,
longitudinal investigations
are needed. Also, as is characteristic of adoptive families, the
families in our sample were more
educated and had higher incomes than the general population.
They also were from the
Midwestern United States and the parents were predominantly
Caucasian with European
ancestry. Future studies that include, for example, stepfamilies
will need to test the
generalizability of our findings to families with more varied
socioeconomic, regional, ethnic,
and racial backgrounds.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate an
44. interaction between adoption status
and family communication patterns. According to our theory,
this interaction occurs as a
function of parent-child genetic relatedness. This study is just a
first step in fully testing this
theory. If replicated through future studies, however, our
theoretical model could also apply
to other complex families in which parents and children are
genetically unrelated such as step-
or blended families and families formed through assisted
reproduction. Thus, this study
represents an initial step in what could potentially be a much
wider field of study.
Rueter and Koerner Page 12
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
45. uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by grants from the National
Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA11886) and
the National Institute on Mental Health (MH066140).
References
Abrahamson AC, Baker LA, Caspi A. Rebellious teens? Genetic
and environmental influences on the
social attitudes of adolescents. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 2002;83:1392–1408.
[PubMed: 12500820]
Alford JR, Funk CL, Hibbing JR. Are political orientations
genetically transmitted? American Political
Science Review 2005;99:153–167.
Baumrind D. Current patterns of parental authority.
Developmental Psychology 1971;4:1–103.
46. Bimmel N, Juffer F, van IJzendoorn MH, Bakermans-
Kranenburg MJ. Problem behavior of
internationally adopted adolescents: A review and meta-
analysis. Harvard Review of Psychiatry
2003;11:64–77. [PubMed: 12868507]
Brand AE, Brinich PM. Behavior problems and mental health
contacts in adopted, foster, and nonadopted
children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
1999;40:1221–1229. [PubMed: 10604400]
Brodzinsky, D.; Lang, R.; Smith, D. Parenting adopted children.
In: Bornstein, M., editor. Handbook of
parenting: Vol. 3. Status and social conditions of parenting.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1995. p. 209-232.
Brodzinsky DM. Family structural openness and communication
openness as predictors in the adjustment
of adopted children. Adoption Quarterly 2006;9:1–18.
Brodzinsky, DM.; Schechter, MD.; Henig, RM. Being adopted:
The lifelong search for self. New York:
Doubleday; 1992.
Burleson, BR.; Delia, JG.; Applegate, JL. The socialization of
person-centered communication: Parents’
contributions to their children’s social-cognitive and
communication skills. In: Fitzpatrick, MA.;
Vangelisti, A., editors. Explaining family interactions.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1995. p. 34-76.
Conners, CK. Conner’s Teacher Rating Scale. Iowa City, IA:
University of Iowa; 1969.
Deater-Deckard K, Petrill SA. Parent –child dyadic mutuality
and child behavior problems: An
47. investigation of gene – environment processes. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry
2004;45:1171–1179. [PubMed: 15257673]
Eccles JS, Midgley C, Wigfield A, Buchanan CM, Rueman D,
Flanagan C, et al. Development during
adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young
adolescents’ experiences in schools and
in families. American Psychologist 1993;48:90–101. [PubMed:
8442578]
Gibson HB. Self-reported delinquency among school boys, and
their attitudes to the police. British Journal
of Social and Clinical Psychology 1967;6:168–173. [PubMed:
6077466]
Grotevant HD, Wrobel GM, van Dulmen MH, McRoy RG. The
emergence of psychosocial engagement
in adopted adolescents: The family as context over time. Journal
of Adolescent Research
2001;16:469–490.
Hagenaars, J.; McCutcheon, A., editors. Applied latent class
analysis models. New York: Cambridge
University Press; 2002.
Haugaard JJ, Hazan C. Adoption as a natural experiment.
Development and Psychopathology
2003;15:909–926. [PubMed: 14984132]
Juffer F, van IJzendoorn MH. Behavior problems and mental
health referrals of international adoptees:
A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association
2005;293:2501–2515. [PubMed:
15914751]
48. Kenny DA. A general model of consensus and accuracy in
interpersonal perception. Psychological
Review 1991;98:155–163. [PubMed: 2047511]
Keyes MA, Sharma A, Elkins IJ, Iacono WG, McGue M. The
mental health of US adolescents adopted
in infancy. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine
2007;161:419–425. [PubMed: 17404147]
Koerner AF, Fitzpatrick MA. Toward a theory of family
communication. Communication Theory 2002a;
12:70–91.
Rueter and Koerner Page 13
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
49. uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
Koerner AF, Fitzpatrick MA. Understanding family
communication patterns and family functioning: The
roles of conversation orientation and conformity orientation.
Communication Yearbook 2002b;
26:37–69.
Koerner, AF.; Fitzpatrick, MA. Communication in intact
families. In: Vangelisti, A., editor. Handbook
of family communication. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum; 2004. p. 177-
195.
Koerner, AF.; Fitzpatrick, MA. Family communication patterns
theory: A social cognitive approach. In:
Braithwaite, DO.; Baxter, LA., editors. Engaging theories in
family communication: Multiple
perspectives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 2006. p. 50-65.
Kohlberg, L. Essays on moral development, Vol. I: The
philosophy of moral development. New York:
50. Harper & Row; 1981.
Lansford JE, Ceballo R, Abbey A, Stewart AJ. Does family
structure matter? A comparison of adoptive,
two-parent biological, single-mother, stepfather, and stepmother
households. Journal of Marriage
and family 2001;63:840–851.
Lanz M, Ifrate R, Rosnati R, Scabini E. Parent-child
communication and adolescent self-esteem in
separated, intercountry adopted, and intact non-adoptive
families. Journal of Adolescence
1999;22:785–794. [PubMed: 10579890]
Lee RM. The transracial adoption paradox: History, research,
and counseling implications of cultural
socialization. The Counseling Psychologist 2003;31:711–744.
[PubMed: 18458794]
Lo Y, Mendell NR, Rubin DB. Testing the number of
components in normal mixture. Biometrika
2001;88:767–778.
McGue M, Keyes M, Sharma A, Elkins I, Legrand L, Johnson
W. The environments of adopted and non-
adopted youth: Evidence on range restriction from the Sibling
Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS).
Behavior Genetics 2007;37:449–462. [PubMed: 17279339]
Melby, JN.; Conger, RD.; Book, R.; Rueter, M.; Lucy, L.;
Repinski, D. The Iowa Family Interaction
Rating Scales. Vol. 5. Ames, IA: Institute for Social and
Behavioral Research, Iowa State University;
1998. Unpublished manuscript
Mitchell SK. Interobserver agreement, reliability, and
51. generalizability of data collected in observational
studies. Psychological Bulletin 1979;86:376–390.
Muthén, B.; Muthén, L. Mplus version 4.2. Los Angeles, CA:
Muthen & Muthen; 1998–2006.
Muthén B, Shedden K. Finite mixture modeling with mixture
outcomes using the EM algorithm.
Biometrics 1999;55:463–469. [PubMed: 11318201]
O’Brien KM, Zamastny KP. Understanding adoptive families:
An integrative review of empirical
research and future directions for counseling psychology. The
Counseling Psychologist
2003;31:679–710.
Olson JM, Vernon PA, Harris A, Jang KL. The heritability of
attitudes: A study of twins. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 2001;80:845–860. [PubMed:
11414369]
Reiss, D. The family’s construction of reality. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press; 1981.
Reiss, D. The relationship code: Deciphering genetic and social
influences on adolescent development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 2000.
Rosnati R, Marta E. Parent – child relationships as a protective
factor in preventing adolescents’
psychosocial risk in inter-racial adoptive and non-adoptive
families. Journal of Adolescence
1997;20:617–631. [PubMed: 9417795]
Rutter MA. Children’s behavior questionnaire for completion by
teachers: Preliminary findings. Journal
52. of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 1967;8:1–11. [PubMed:
6033260]
Schafer JL, Graham JW. Missing data: Our view of the state of
the art. Psychological Methods
2002;7:147–177. [PubMed: 12090408]
Shrout PE, Fleiss JL. Intraclass correlations: Uses in assessing
rater reliability. Psychological Bulletin
1979;86:420–428. [PubMed: 18839484]
Steinberg L. We know these things: Parent-adolescent
relationships in retrospect and prospect. Journal
of Research on Adolescence 2001;11:1–19.
Stein, LM.; Hoopes, JL. Identity formation in the adopted
adolescent: The Delaware family study. New
York: Child Welfare League of America; 1985.
Suen, KK.; Ary, D. Analyzing quantitative behavioral
observation data. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1989.
Rueter and Koerner Page 14
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
53. anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
Tesser A. The importance of heritability in psychological
research: The case of attitudes. Psychological
Review 1993;100:129–142. [PubMed: 8426878]
van IJzendoorn MH, Juffer F, Klein Poelhuis CW. Adoption and
cognitive development: A meta-analytic
comparison of adopted and nonadopted children’s IQ and school
performance. Psychological Bulletin
2005;131:301–316. [PubMed: 15740423]
Welner Z, Reich W, Herjanic B, Jung K, Amado H. Reliability,
54. validity, and parent-child agreement
studies of the Diagnostic Interview for Children and
Adolescents (DICA). Journal of the Academy
of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1987;26:649–653.
Wrobel GM, Kohler JK, Grotevant HD, McRoy RG. The family
adoption communication model (FAC):
Identifying pathways of adoption-related communication.
Adoption Quarterly 2003;7:53–84.
Rueter and Koerner Page 15
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
55. N
IH
-P
A
A
uthor M
anuscript
Figure 1.
Graphical Presentation of Mean Factor Scores for the First-
Order Factor Indicators of the
Family Communication Patterns Latent Variable.
Note: First bar in every set: mother’s mean factor score. Second
bar: father’s mean factor score.
Third bar: adolescent’s mean factor score. Fourth bar: sibling’s
mean factor score. Bars rising
above 0 represent behavior levels above the overall mean. Bars
falling below 0 represent
behavior levels below the overall mean.
Rueter and Koerner Page 16
J Marriage Fam. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2009
August 1.
N
IH
-P
A
57. Problem statement
Neither implicit nor explicit reference is made to the topic or
purpose of the paper. No rationale discussed, missing thesis,
missing preview.
Readers are aware of the overall problem, challenge, or topic of
the paper. Vague rationale, thesis and preview.
The topic is introduced, and groundwork is laid as to the
direction of the paper. Rationale discussed, clear thesis and
preview.
Body:
Flow of the review
The body appears to have no direction, with subtopics appearing
disjointed.
There is a basic flow from one section to the next, but not all
sections or paragraphs follow in a natural or logical order.
The body is well organized with ideas building from general to
specific conclusions or is arranged topically. Transitions tie
sections and adjacent paragraphs together. Section headers are
used throughout.
Coverage of content
Major sections of pertinent content have been omitted or greatly
run-on. The topic is of little significance to everyday
communication.
All major sections of the pertinent content are included, but not
covered in as much depth, or as explicit, as expected.
Significance to everyday communication is questionable.
The appropriate content in consideration is covered in depth
without being redundant. Sources are cited when specific
statements are made. Significance to everyday communication is
evident.
Proposal of future study
A research question or hypothesis is provided but there is no
reference to why this study is needed.
The limitations of the existing research are addressed and
inform the research question or hypothesis proposed.
The limitations of the existing research are addressed and
58. inform the research question or hypothesis proposed. In
addition, it is suggested how answering this question or testing
this hypothesis will add to the entire body of literature on this
topic.
Clarity of writing and writing technique
It is hard to know what the writer is trying to express. Writing
is convoluted. Misspelled words, incorrect grammar, and
improper punctuation are evident.
Writing is generally clear, but unnecessary words are
occasionally used. Meaning is sometimes hidden. Paragraph or
sentence structure is too repetitive. Few (3) spelling, grammar,
or punctuation errors are made.
Writing is crisp, clear, and succinct. The writer incorporates the
active voice when appropriate and supports and develops all
main points with research. No spelling, grammar, or punctuation
errors are made.
Conclusion:
A synthesis of ideas and application to everyday communication
There is no indication the author tried to synthesize the
information or make a conclusion based on the literature under
review.
The author provides concluding remarks that show an analysis
and synthesis of ideas occurred. Some of the conclusions,
however, were not supported in the body of the report.
The author was able to make succinct and precise conclusions
based on the review. Insights into the problem are appropriate.
Conclusions and the application are strongly supported in the
review.
Citations/References:
Proper APA format
Citation for the article did not follow APA format and was
missing essential information.
Citation for the article did follow APA format; however; a few
(2) errors in essential information were evident. All sources
were recent and mostly focused on communication.
Citation for the article did follow APA format. Essential
59. information was accurate and complete. All sources were recent
and focused on communication.
Criteria and Qualities
Comments
Introducing the idea:
Problem statement
Body:
Flow of the review
Coverage of content
Proposal of future study
Clarity of writing and writing technique
Conclusion:
A synthesis of ideas and application to everyday communication
Citations/References:
Proper APA format
Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
Elizabeth L. Angeli
60. State University
Author Note
Elizabeth L. Angeli, Department of Psychology, State
University.
Elizabeth Angeli is now at Department of English, Purdue
University.
This research was supported in part by a grant from the Sample
Grant
Program.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Elizabeth
Angeli, Department of English, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN 55555.
Contact: [email protected]
The running
head cannot
exceed 50
characters,
including spaces
and
punctuation.
The running
head’s title
should be in
capital letters.
The running
61. head should be
flush left, and
page numbers
should be flush
right. On the
title page, the
running head
should include
the words
“Running head.”
For pages
following the
title page,
repeat the
running head in
all caps without
“Running head.”
The title
should be
centered on
the page,
typed in 12-
point Times
New Roman
Font. It
should not be
bolded,
underlined, or
italicized.
The author’s
name and
institution
should be
double-
62. spaced and
centered.
The running
head is a
shortened
version of the
paper’s full title,
and it is used to
help readers
identify the
titles for
published
articles (even if
your paper is
not intended for
publication, your
paper should
still have a
running head).
The title
should
summarize
the paper’s
main idea and
identify the
variables
under
discussion
and the
relationship
between
them.
63. Green text boxes
contain explanations
of APA style
guidelines.
Blue boxes contain
directions for writing
and citing in APA
style.
Running head: VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE
COMMUNICATION 1
The author note should appear on printed articles and identifies
each author’s
department and institution affiliation and any changes in
affiliation, contains
acknowledgements and any financial support received, and
provides contact
information. For more information, see the APA manual, 2.03,
page 24-25.
Note: An author note is optional for students writing class
papers, theses, and
dissertations..
An author note should appear as follows:
First paragraph: Complete departmental and institutional
affiliation
Second paragraph: Changes in affiliation (if any)
Third paragraph: Acknowledgments, funding sources, special
circumstances
Fourth paragraph: Contact information (mailing address and e-
mail)
64. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
2
Abstract
This paper explores four published articles that report on results
from research conducted
on online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet) relationships and
their relationship to
computer-mediated communication (CMC). The articles,
however, vary in their
definitions and uses of CMC. Butler and Kraut (2002) suggest
that face-to-face (FtF)
interactions are more effective than CMC, defined and used as
“email,” in creating
feelings of closeness or intimacy. Other articles define CMC
differently and, therefore,
offer different results. This paper examines Cummings, Butler,
and Kraut’s (2002)
research in relation to three other research articles to suggest
that all forms of CMC
should be studied in order to fully understand how CMC
influences online and offline
65. relationships.
Keywords: computer-mediated communication, face-to-face
communication
The
abstract
should be
between
150-250
words.
Abbre-
viations and
acronyms
used in the
paper
should be
defined in
the
abstract.
The
abstract is
a brief
summary of
the paper,
allowing
readers to
quickly
review the
main points
and
purpose of
the paper.
66. The word
“Abstract”
should be
centered
and typed
in 12 point
Times New
Roman. Do
not indent
the first
line of the
abstract
paragraph.
All other
paragraphs
in the
paper
should be
indented.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
3
Varying Definitions of Online Communication and
Their Effects on Relationship Research
Numerous studies have been conducted on various facets of
67. Internet relationships,
focusing on the levels of intimacy, closeness, different
communication modalities, and
the frequency of use of computer-mediated communication
(CMC). However,
contradictory results are suggested within this research because
only certain aspects of
CMC are investigated, for example, email only. Cummings,
Butler, and Kraut (2002)
suggest that face-to-face (FtF) interactions are more effective
than CMC (read: email) in
creating feelings of closeness or intimacy, while other studies
suggest the opposite. To
understand how both online (Internet) and offline (non-Internet)
relationships are affected
by CMC, all forms of CMC should be studied. This paper
examines Cummings et al.’s
research against other CMC research to propose that additional
research be conducted to
better understand how online communication affects
relationships.
Literature Review
In Cummings et al.’s (2002) summary article reviewing three
empirical studies on
68. online social relationships, it was found that CMC, especially
email, was less effective
than FtF contact in creating and maintaining close social
relationships. Two of the three
reviewed studies focusing on communication in non-Internet
and Internet relationships
mediated by FtF, phone, or email modalities found that the
frequency of each modality’s
use was significantly linked to the strength of the particular
relationship (Cummings et
al., 2002). The strength of the relationship was predicted best
by FtF and phone
In-text
citations
that are
direct
quotes
should
include the
author’s/
authors’
name/s,
the
publication
year, and
page
number/s.
If you are
para-
70. because
APA users
are
concerned
with the
date of the
article (the
more
current the
better).
The title of
the paper is
centered
and not
bolded.
The introduc-
tion presents
the problem
that the
paper
addresses.
See the OWL
resources on
introduc-
tions:
http://owl.en
glish.purdue.e
du/owl/resou
rce/724/01/
The title
should be
centered on
71. the page,
typed in 12-
point Times
New Roman
Font. It
should not be
bolded,
underlined, or
italicized.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
4
communication, as participants rated email as an inferior means
of maintaining personal
relationships as compared to FtF and phone contacts (Cummings
et al., 2002).
Cummings et al. (2002) reviewed an additional study conducted
in 1999 by the
HomeNet project (see Appendix A for more information on the
HomeNet project). In
this project, Kraut, Mukhopadhyay, Szczypula, Kiesler, and
Scherlis (1999) compared
the value of using CMC and non-CMC to maintain relationships
with partners. They
found that participants corresponded less frequently with their
72. Internet partner (5.2 times
per month) than with their non-Internet partner (7.2 times per
month) (as cited in
Cummings et al., 2002). This difference does not seem
significant, as it is only two times
less per month. However, in additional self-report surveys,
participants responded
feeling more distant, or less intimate, towards their Internet
partner than their non-
Internet partner. This finding may be attributed to participants’
beliefs that email is an
inferior mode of personal relationship communication.
Intimacy is necessary in the creation and maintenance of
relationships, as it is
defined as the sharing of a person’s innermost being with
another person, i.e., self-
disclosure (Hu, Wood, Smith, & Westbrook, 2004).
Relationships are facilitated by the
reciprocal self-disclosing between partners, regardless of non-
CMC or CMC. Cummings
et al.’s (2002) reviewed results contradict other studies that
research the connection
between intimacy and relationships through CMC.
73. Hu et al. (2004) studied the relationship between the frequency
of Instant
Messenger (IM) use and the degree of perceived intimacy
among friends. The use of IM
instead of email as a CMC modality was studied because IM
supports a non-professional
Use an
appendix to
provide
brief
content
that
supplement
s your
paper but is
not directly
related to
your text.
If you are
including an
appendix,
refer to it
in the body
of your
paper.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
74. 5
environment favoring intimate exchanges (Hu et al., 2004).
Their results suggest that a
positive relationship exists between the frequency of IM use and
intimacy, demonstrating
that participants feel closer to their Internet partner as time
progresses through this CMC
modality.
Similarly, Underwood and Findlay (2004) studied the effect of
Internet
relationships on primary, specifically non-Internet relationships
and the perceived
intimacy of both. In this study, self-disclosure, or intimacy,
was measured in terms of
shared secrets through the discussion of personal problems.
Participants reported a
significantly higher level of self-disclosure in their Internet
relationship as compared to
their primary relationship. In contrast, the participants’ primary
relationships were
reported as highly self-disclosed in the past, but the current
level of disclosure was
perceived to be lower (Underwood & Findlay, 2004). This
75. result suggests participants
turned to the Internet in order to fulfill the need for intimacy in
their lives.
In further support of this finding, Tidwell and Walther (2002)
hypothesized CMC
participants employ deeper self-disclosures than FtF
participants in order to overcome the
limitations of CMC, e.g., the reliance on nonverbal cues. It was
found that CMC partners
engaged in more frequent intimate questions and disclosures
than FtF partners in order to
overcome the barriers of CMC. In their 2002 study, Tidwell
and Walther measured the
perception of a relationship’s intimacy by the partner of each
participant in both the CMC
and FtF conditions. The researchers found that the participants’
partners stated their
CMC partner was more effective in employing more intimate
exchanges than their FtF
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
6
76. partner, and both participants and their partners rated their
CMC relationship as more
intimate than their FtF relationship.
Discussion
In 2002, Cummings et al. stated that the evidence from their
research conflicted
with other data examining the effectiveness of online social
relationships. This statement
is supported by the aforementioned discussion of other research.
There may be a few
possible theoretical explanations for these discrepancies.
Limitations of These Studies
The discrepancies identified may result from a number of
limitations found in the
materials reviewed by Cummings et al. These limitations can
result from technological
constraints, demographic factors, or issues of modality. Each of
these limitations will be
examined in further detail below.
Technological limitations. First, one reviewed study by
Cummings et al. (2002)
examined only email correspondence for their CMC modality.
Therefore, the study is
77. limited to only one mode of communication among other
alternatives, e.g., IM as studied
by Hu et al. (2004). Because of its many personalized features,
IM provides more
personal CMC. For example, it is in real time without delay,
voice-chat and video
features are available for many IM programs, and text boxes can
be personalized with the
user’s picture, favorite colors and text, and a wide variety of
emoticons, e.g., :). These
options allow for both an increase in self-expression and the
ability to overcompensate
for the barriers of CMC through customizable features, as stated
in Tidwell and Walther
Because all
research
has its
limitations,
it is
important
to discuss
the
limitations
of articles
under
examination
.
78. A Level 2
heading
should be
flush with
the left
margin,
bolded, and
title case.
A Level 1
heading
should be
centered,
bolded, and
uppercase
and lower
case (also
referred to
as title
case).
A Level 3
heading
should
indented
0.5” from
the left
margin,
bolded, and
lower case
(except for
the first
word). Text
should
follow
79. immediately
after. If you
use more
than three
levels of
headings,
consult
section 3.02
of the APA
manual
(6th ed.) or
the OWL
resource on
APA
headings:
http://owl.en
glish.purdue.
edu/owl/reso
urce/560/16
/
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
7
(2002). Self-disclosure and intimacy may result from IM’s
individualized features,
which are not as personalized in email correspondence.
Demographic limitations. In addition to the limitations of email,
Cummings et
80. al. (2002) reviewed studies that focused on international bank
employees and college
students (see Appendix B for demographic information). It is
possible the participants’
CMC through email was used primarily for business,
professional, and school matters
and not for relationship creation or maintenance. In this case,
personal self-disclosure
and intimacy levels are expected to be lower for non-
relationship interactions, as this
communication is primarily between boss and employee or
student and professor.
Intimacy is not required, or even desired, for these professional
relationships.
Modality limitations. Instead of professional correspondence,
however,
Cummings et al.’s (2002) review of the HomeNet project
focused on already established
relationships and CMC’s effect on relationship maintenance.
The HomeNet researchers’
sole dependence on email communication as CMC may have
contributed to the lower
levels of intimacy and closeness among Internet relationships as
compared to non-
81. Internet relationships (as cited in Cummings et al., 2002). The
barriers of non-personal
communication in email could be a factor in this project, and
this could lead to less
intimacy among these Internet partners. If alternate modalities
of CMC were studied in
both already established and professional relationships, perhaps
these results would have
resembled those of the previously mentioned research.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
8
Conclusions and Future Study
In order to gain a complete understanding of CMC’s true effect
on both online
and offline relationships, it is necessary to conduct a study that
examines all aspects of
CMC. This includes, but is not limited to, email, IM, voice-
chat, video-chat, online
82. journals and diaries, online social groups with message boards,
and chat rooms. The
effects on relationships of each modality may be different, and
this is demonstrated by
the discrepancies in intimacy between email and IM
correspondence. As each mode of
communication becomes more prevalent in individuals’ lives, it
is important to examine
the impact of all modes of CMC on online and offline
relationship formation,
maintenance, and even termination.
The
conclusion
restates
the
problem
the paper
addresses
and can
offer areas
for further
research.
See the
OWL
resource on
conclu-
sions:
http://owl.
english.pur
83. due.edu/ow
l/resource/
724/04/
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
9
References
Cummings, J. N., Butler, B., & Kraut, R. (2002). The quality of
online social
relationships. Communications of the ACM, 45(7), 103-108.
Hu, Y., Wood, J. F., Smith, V., & Westbrook, N. (2004).
Friendships through IM:
Examining the relationship between instant messaging and
intimacy. Journal of
Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 38-48.
Tidwell, L. C., & Walther, J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated
communication effects on
disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting
to know one
another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28,
317-348.
84. Underwood, H., & Findlay, B. (2004). Internet relationships and
their impact on primary
relationships. Behaviour Change, 21(2), 127-140.
Start the reference list on a new page, center the title
“References,” and
alphabetize the entries. Do not underline or italicize the title.
Double-space all
entries. Every source mentioned in the paper should have an
entry.
VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
10
Appendix A
The HomeNet Project
Started at Carnegie Mellon University in 1995, the HomeNet
research project has
involved a number of studies intended to look at home Internet
usage. Researchers began
this project because the Internet was originally designed as a
tool for scientific and
85. corporate use. Home usage of the Internet was an unexpected
phenomenon worthy of
extended study.
Each of HomeNet’s studies has explored a different facet of
home Internet usage,
such as chatting, playing games, or reading the news. Within the
past few years, the
explosion of social networking has also proven to be an area
deserving of additional
research. Refer to Table A1 for a more detailed description of
HomeNet studies.
Table A1
Description of HomeNet Studies by Year
Year
of
Study
Contents
of
Study
1995-‐1996
93 families in Pittsburgh involved in school
or community organizations
1997-‐1999
25 families with home businesses
86. 1998-‐1999
151 Pittsburgh households
2000-‐2002
National survey
Begin each
appendix
on a new
page., with
the word
appendix in
the top
center. Use
an
identifying
capital
letter (e.g.,
Appendix
A,
Appendix B,
etc.) if you
have more
than one
appendix. If
you are
referring to
more than
one
appendix in
your text,
use the
plural
87. appendices
(APA only).
The first
paragraph
of the
appendix
should flush
with the
left margin.
Additional
paragraphs
should be
indented.
Label tables
and figures
in the
appendix as
you would
in the text
of your
manuscript,
using the
letter A
before the
number to
clarify that
the table or
figure
belongs to
the
appendix.
88. VARYING DEFINITIONS OF ONLINE COMMUNICATION
11
Appendix B
Demographic Information for Cummings et al. (2002)’s Review
If an
appendix
consists
entirely of
a table or
figure, the
title of the
table or
figure
should
serve as
the title of
the
appendix.
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalC
ode=hjfc20
Download by: [University of San Francisco] Date: 02 November
2015, At: 20:38
Journal of Family Communication
89. ISSN: 1526-7431 (Print) 1532-7698 (Online) Journal homepage:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjfc20
Discussions About Racial and Ethnic Differences
in Internationally Adoptive Families: Links With
Family Engagement, Warmth, & Control
Kayla N. Anderson, Martha A. Rueter & Richard M. Lee
To cite this article: Kayla N. Anderson, Martha A. Rueter &
Richard M. Lee (2015) Discussions
About Racial and Ethnic Differences in Internationally
Adoptive Families: Links With Family
Engagement, Warmth, & Control, Journal of Family
Communication, 15:4, 289-308, DOI:
10.1080/15267431.2015.1076420
To link to this article:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15267431.2015.1076420
Published online: 02 Oct 2015.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 27
View related articles
View Crossmark data
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalC
ode=hjfc20
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hjfc20
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.108
0/15267431.2015.1076420
91. racial and ethnic differences occur.
This study examined associations between observed family
communication constructs, including
engagement, warmth, and control, and how adoptive families
discuss racial and ethnic differences
using a sample of families with adolescent-aged children
adopted internationally from South Korea
(N = 111 families, 222 adolescents). Using data collected during
mid-adolescence and again during
late adolescence, higher levels of maternal control and positive
adolescent engagement were inde-
pendently associated with a greater likelihood that family
members acknowledged the importance
of racial and ethnic differences and constructed a multiracial
and/or multi-ethnic family identity.
Adolescent engagement was also related to a greater likelihood
that family members disagreed about
the importance of racial and ethnic differences, and did not
build a cohesive identity about differences.
Most international adoptions in the United States involve a
White parent and a child from another
country who is a U.S. racial and ethnic minority. Nine of ten
internationally adoptive parents are
White, whereas 8 of 10 children are from Asia, Latin America,
or Africa (U.S. Department of
Health & Human Services, 2013). It is not surprising then that
more than 80% of international
adoptions are considered transracial. The majority of
internationally adopted children are from
Asia (59%; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
2013). In 2009, for instance, more
than 105,000 children adopted from Asian countries were living
in U.S. adoptive homes with
White parents (Krieder & Raleigh, 2011).
92. In particular, South Korea is the largest overall international
adoption sending country into
the United States, with more than 110,000 Korean children
adopted into American families
since the program’s inception (Selman, 2012). Compared to
domestic adoption, higher transracial
placement rates into White families (U.S. Department of Health
& Human Services, 2013) have
Correspondence should be addressed to Kayla N. Anderson,
Department of Family Social Science, University of
Minnesota, 290 McNeal Hall, 1985 Buford Avenue, St. Paul,
MN 55108. E-mail: [email protected]
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
[
U
ni
ve
rs
it
y
of
S
94. 290 ANDERSON ET AL.
culminated in researchers calling for examination of race and
ethnicity issues in internationally
adoptive families (Galvin, 2003). This suggests attention is
warranted to understand families with
White parents and children adopted internationally from South
Korea, the most populous group
of internationally adoptive families.
How adoptive families discursively engage with racial and
ethnic differences may build a fam-
ily identity around this topic (Galvin, 2003, 2006a), and
promoting adopted children’s racial and
ethnic heritage is important for their adjustment (Johnston,
Swim, Saltsman, Deater-Deckard, &
Petrill, 2007; Lee, 2003; Mohanty, Keokse, & Sales, 2006). Yet,
there is little research about
which communication behaviors promote adoptive families’
race and ethnicity discussions. This
study examines how family communication (engagement,
warmth, control)—when children are
in mid-adolescence—contributes to how South Korean
internationally adoptive families with
White parents discuss race and ethnicity when children are in
later adolescence.
Addressing Race and Ethnicity Within International, Transracial
Adoptive Families
Galvin (2006a, 2006b) suggests nonbiological families are
“discourse dependent,” and construct
their family identity through internal communication and
management of boundaries with those
outside of the family. Attention has been given in recent years
to understanding how interna-
95. tionally adoptive families discuss adoptive family experiences
(Ballard & Ballard, 2011; Colaner
& Kranstuber, 2010; Harrigan, 2010) and manage boundaries in
response to outsiders’ com-
ments about their often visibly different family form (Docan-
Morgan, 2010; Suter, 2008; Suter &
Ballard, 2009; Suter, Reyes, & Ballard, 2011a, 2011b).
In addition to family discussions about adoption and external
boundary management, the
need to examine how international, transracial adoptive families
internally engage with racial
and ethnic differences has been stressed. Cultural socialization
frameworks indicate racial and
ethnic minority families, including adoptive families with racial
and ethnic minority children,
improve children’s heritage awareness and discrimination
defenses by promoting knowledge of
and pride in the child’s background through activities and
discussions related to cultural his-
tory (Hughes et al., 2006). Galvin’s (2003, 2006a) discourse-
dependency suggests discussions
about race and ethnicity in transracial adoptive families
strengthen the family’s racial and ethnic
identity. However, the practice of engaging with race and
ethnicity is complicated in transracial
adoptive families because predominantly White parents must
seek out ways to connect with and
discuss their child’s differing racial and ethnic heritage (Lee,
Grotevant, Hellerstedt, Gunnar, &
the MIAP Team, 2006). Compared to same-race ethnic minority
families, transracial adoptive
families have limited cultural resources to teach the child about
his/her heritage due to a lack of
shared racial, ethnic, or national origin heritage, a greater
likelihood of living in a racially White
96. community, and parents’ limited experiences with
discrimination (Shiao & Tuan, 2008).
Historically, research has focused on how international,
transracial adoptive families engage
in racial and ethnic activities (e.g., culture camps) instead of
discussions about race and ethnic-
ity (c.f., Carstens & Juliá, 2000; Vonk, Lee, & Crolley-Simic,
2010). However, activities and
discussions are distinct aspects of supporting racial and ethnic
differences (Kim, Reichwald,
& Lee, 2013). Recent communication research is filling gaps in
how adoptive families discur-
sively construct internal family identities about race and
ethnicity (e.g., Docan-Morgan, 2011;
Gao & Womack, 2013; Harrigan, 2009; Harrigan & Braithwaite,
2010; Suter, 2012). Adoptive
parents appear to walk the tenuous line between promoting
adoptive family similarities and
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
[
U
ni
ve
98. 15
FAMILY COMMUNICATION AND RACE & ETHNICITY 291
acknowledging the child’s birth heritage (e.g., Harrigan, 2009;
Suter, 2012). Adoptees, however,
tend to avoid race and ethnicity discussions with parents
because parents’ responses during such
discussions are often viewed as unhelpful (Docan-Morgan,
2011; Samuels, 2009).
Despite the increased focus on race and ethnicity discussions in
international, transracial adop-
tive families (e.g., Docan-Morgan, 2011; Harrigan, 2009), little
research has examined real-time
conversations about adoptive families’ racial and ethnic
differences. Most research has examined
parents’ (e.g., Harrigan & Braithwaite, 2010) or adolescents’
(e.g., Samuels, 2009) self-reports of
their families’ race and ethnicity discussions. However, parents
and adolescents tend to perceive
their conversations about race and ethnicity differently, and
adoptive parents may over-report
their engagement with racial and ethnic issues (Kim et al.,
2013). Capturing real-time discus-
sions about how international, transracial, adoptive families
discuss racial and ethnic differences
within their families as a whole provides additional insight into
how families engage with and
identify as multiracial and/or multi-ethnic families, if they do at
all.
99. Acknowledging Differences Framework: Discussions About
Racial and Ethnic
Differences
To understand how international, transracial adoptive families
discuss race and ethnicity, schol-
ars have emphasized the importance of whether or not families
acknowledge racial and ethnic
differences (Kim et al., 2013; Kirk, 1984; Lee, 2003; Shiao &
Tuan, 2008). In acknowledgment
of differences, all family members agree that the adopted
child’s racial and ethnic heritage is a
vital component of the family and discuss acting in ways that
support the adopted child’s racial
and ethnic background. These families transform from seeing
themselves as a same-race fam-
ily with similar ethnic or cultural experiences to a multiracial
and/or multi-ethnic family that
embraces diverse heritages. This framework suggests families
acknowledging differences cannot
ask adopted children to learn about their heritage without
familial engagement in learning about
the child’s birth culture; doing so isolates adopted children
from the family.
This framework also suggests two forms of discussion where
families do not universally agree
that racial and ethnic differences are important for the family
identity (Kim et al., 2013; Kirk,
1984; Shiao & Tuan, 2008). In rejection of differences, families
take a color-blind approach to
conversations about racial and ethnic differences by indicating
these differences are not relevant
to the family, and end any conversation about the importance of
their racial and ethnic diversity.
Families who reject differences may also have discussions that
100. diminish the importance of the
adopted child’s birth heritage. Finally, some families have
discrepant views of differences, or
disagreements, during their conversations about the importance
of racial and ethnic differences
and do not build a cohesive family identity about their
differences. In families with discrepant
views of differences, at least one family member may discuss
how the family actively supports
the child’s ethnic and racial heritage as an entire family.
However, another member may suggest
the family’s racial and ethnic differences are not salient life
experiences.
How Families Discuss Racial and Ethnic Differences: Family
Communication as a
Pathway
Family communication may be one avenue influencing how
international, transracial adoptive
families discuss racial and ethnic differences, and the identities
that are created. Theory on
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
by
[
U
102. r
20
15
292 ANDERSON ET AL.
adoption-related communication (see the Family Adoption
Communication Model; Wrobel,
Kohler, Grotevant, & McRoy, 2003) suggests the general family
communication climate builds
an atmosphere that may influence how adoption is discussed.
This theory suggests parents’ warm,
empathetic behaviors may facilitate a climate where the family
and child are encouraged to
discuss adoption questions. Or, closed communication
environments may not encourage future
discussion of adoption-related issues because family members
perceive this conversation to be
off-limits for discussion (Wrobel et al., 2003). These ideas are
mirrored in family communica-
tion theories (e.g., Family Communication Patterns Theory
(FCPT); Koerner & Fitzpatrick, 2004,
2006), which suggest family communication behaviors create an
environment that regulates what
topics are discussed in families, who discusses topics, and
which family members wield decision-
making power. The goal of these communication behaviors is to
create shared family realities, or
cohesive family identities, about specific topics (Koerner &
Fitzpatrick, 2004, 2006).
103. Family communication and adoption theories (Burleson, Delia,
& Applegate, 1995; Grotevant,
Wrobel, van Dulmen, & McRoy, 2001; Koerner & Fitzpatrick,
2004, 2006) cite warm, conver-
sational engagement and control as vital in creating the
environment that alters how sensitive
conversations occur in families. Thus, three family
communication behaviors—engagement,
warmth, and control—may be related to how families discuss
the importance of their racial and
ethnic differences and the adopted child’s heritage. These three
communication behaviors may
also be related to whether families reach agreement about the
importance (e.g., acknowledge) or
unimportance (e.g., rejection) of racial and ethnic differences.
Studies exploring the relationship between family
communication and how adoptive families
discuss racial and ethnic differences are scarce and restricted by
conceptual limitations. For exam-
ple, parent-child engagement in cultural activities about the
adoptees’ heritage has been linked
to relationship quality (Yoon, 2000, 2004). Qualitative
assessments of content during racial and
ethnic differences discussions suggest communication may vary
based on how families discuss
racial and ethnic differences (Kim et al., 2013). Links between
family communication and how
families discuss racial and ethnic differences have not been
explicitly examined; however, these
studies provide initial support for the possibility that
communication behaviors are related to how
adoptive families discuss racial and ethnic differences.
Family Communication: Differences Across Family Members
104. Our study was informed by research indicating communication
behaviors vary across fam-
ily members. Individual family members’ communication
behaviors may each individually
contribute to the family environment, teaching family members
what topics are appropriate to
discuss and providing family members with the skills to broach
sensitive topics (Burleson et al.,
1995). Adolescents may discuss distinct topics with each parent
(Noller & Bagi, 1985) and com-
municate more with mothers than fathers (Noller & Callan,
1990; Steinberg & Silk, 2002). Family
members also relate differently to one another in systemic
settings when more than just a parent-
child dyad is present (Doherty & Beaton, 2004). Parents and
adolescents also have different
perceptions of their communication quality with one another
(Laursen & Collins, 2004; Rosnati,
Iafrate, & Scabini, 2007). This suggests each family member’s
communication behavior must be
examined using observational data in settings that include more
than just a parent-child dyad.
This study takes this approach to explore which family
members’ communication behaviors are
important for how families discuss racial and ethnic differences
and build multiracial and/or
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d
106. ov
em
be
r
20
15
FAMILY COMMUNICATION AND RACE & ETHNICITY 293
multi-ethnic family identities. Based on theory and research
described previously, we propose
the following hypothesis:
H1: Engagement, warmth, and control will vary across
categories of how families discuss racial and
ethnic differences: acknowledgment, rejection, or discrepant
views of differences.
To test this hypothesis, observed family communication
behaviors for mothers, fathers, and
children in South Korean international, transracial adoptive
families were assessed in mid-
adolescence and compared with the three discussion categories
assessed in late-adolescence.
METHOD
Participants
Participants were a subset of families drawn from the Sibling