the chapter number 5 in the subject EEE.

DR. M. M. DALAL
A S S O C IAT E P R O F E S SOR ,
C H E M I ST RY S E C T I ON A S H D E P T .
S C E T , S U R A T
• Types of waste
• Solid Waste
• Biodegradable and Non-
Biodegradable
• Plastics waste, Bio-Medical Waste
• E-waste- sources and
management,
• Cleaner Development Mechanism
(Montreal and Kyoto Protocol)
Waste Management & Handling

Waste
• Waste refers to any unwanted or unusable materials, substances, or by-products that are discarded after their
primary use or that are considered defective and of no use.
• It can encompass a wide range of items, including solid waste, liquid waste, and even waste heat.
• Essentially, if something is no longer needed or has lost its value from a particular perspective, it can be
classified as waste.
• Waste can be categorized in several ways, each classification offering a different perspective on its nature and
potential impact.
• Common types of waste are categorized as follows.
• By physical state
Solid Waste: Discarded solid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous materials from human society.
Examples include urban waste, agricultural waste, biomedical waste, and radioactive waste.
Liquid Waste: Wastes generated from industrial washing, flushing, or manufacturing processes, also
known as sewage. Examples include domestic washings, chemicals, and oils.
Gaseous Waste: Waste products released as gases from sources like automobiles, factories, and burning
fossil fuels, impacting the atmosphere with components like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.

Waste
• By biodegradability
• Biodegradable Waste: Waste that can naturally decompose through processes like composting and
be converted into simpler forms. Examples include food waste, paper, cardboard, and agricultural
waste.
• Non-Biodegradable Waste: Waste that doesn't decompose naturally or does so very slowly, posing
disposal challenges. Examples include plastics, metals, glass, and radioactive waste.
• By source
• Domestic Waste: Also known as household waste, it includes everyday items like food scraps,
packaging, paper, glass, metals, and plastics.
• Commercial Waste: Waste generated by commercial activities, offices, and services, such as paper,
cardboard, food waste, and cleaning waste.
• Industrial Waste: Waste produced during industrial activities like manufacturing and processing,
including chemical waste, metals, plastics, and radioactive waste.
• Medical/Clinical Waste: Wastes from healthcare facilities like hospitals and clinics, such as used
syringes, bandages, and expired medicines. This is also referred to as biomedical waste.

Waste
• By source
• Electronic Waste (E-waste): Discarded electronic devices like computers, TVs, mobile phones, and
batteries, which often contain hazardous materials.
• Construction and Demolition Waste: Debris from building sites, including concrete, wood, bricks,
and metals.
• Agricultural Waste: Waste from farming activities like crop residues, manure, and animal feed waste.
• Mining Waste: Wastes derived from mineral extraction and processing, such as rocks, soils, and
sludges.
• Hazardous Waste: Substances posing significant threats to human health or the environment due to
their toxic, flammable, or reactive nature. This can be generated from various sources, including
industries and households.
• By composition
• Paper and Cardboard: Recyclable materials from packaging, newspapers, books, and other sources.
• Glass: Recyclable materials used for packaging and construction.
• Plastics: A significant portion of waste, with varying recyclability depending on their chemical
composition.

Waste
• Beyond physical and compositional categories, waste can also be viewed from a Lean methodology
perspective, aiming to eliminate inefficiencies in processes.
• Defects: Producing defective parts or work requiring rework or scrapping.
• Overproduction/Underproduction: Making something before it's needed or producing more than is
demanded.
• Waiting: Time lost due to delays, such as waiting for materials or responses.
• Not Utilizing Talent: Losing out on employee ideas, skills, and improvements by not engaging them.
• Transportation: Unnecessary movement of people, tools, inventory, or products.
• Inventory: Excess product, materials, or work-in-progress beyond immediate needs.
• Motion: Unnecessary movement by people or equipment that doesn't add value.
• Extra Processing: Taking unnecessary steps in a process or doing more work than required.

Waste
• By composition
• Organic Waste: Food waste, garden waste, manure, and rotten meat that can decompose naturally.
• Metals: Recyclable materials found in various forms in households, commercial, and industrial
settings.

Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management refers to the supervised handling of waste material from generation
at the source through the recovery processes to disposal.
Solid waste can be classified as municipal, industrial, agricultural, medical, mining waste
and sewage sludge.

Sources of wastes
Waste from homes (Domestic waste):
Waste from shops:
Biomedical waste:
Construction/demolition waste:
Industrial waste: packaging material, organic waste, acid, alkalis, metals,
radioactive wastes, fly ash, scrap metal, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wool, oils,
paints, tars, dyes, batteries etc.

Biodegradable Waste
Biodegradable wastes:
Biodegradable waste refers to organic materials that can be broken down into simpler,
harmless substances by natural processes and microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi,
over a relatively short period of time.
This natural decomposition allows the waste to return to the ecosystem and enrich the soil,
making it a valuable resource when managed properly.
Common Examples:
Biodegradable waste primarily originates from plant and animal sources and is commonly
found in household and agricultural waste streams.

Category Examples
Food Waste Leftover food, fruit and vegetable peels, coffee grounds, tea
leaves, eggshells, meat scraps.
Garden/Yard Waste Grass clippings, leaves, flowers, tree branches, weeds, sawdust,
wood chips
Paper Products Paper, cardboard, newspapers, napkins, paper bags (unless
Chemically treated)
Animal & Human Waste Livestock manure, sewage sludge, human waste, slaughterhouse
waste
Natural Fabrics Cotton and linen cloth (if not mixed with synthetic fibers or
chemical dyes)
Biodegradable Waste

Management and Benefits:
Proper management of biodegradable waste is crucial for environmental sustainability.
Composting: This is an effective and simple aerobic process (with oxygen) that converts
organic waste into nutrient-rich compost (humus) for agricultural and gardening use,
reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers.
Anaerobic Digestion: In the absence of oxygen, this process breaks down biodegradable
materials in a sealed reactor to produce biogas (a renewable energy source primarily
composed of methane) and a nutrient-rich digestate that can be used as bio fertilizer.
Effective management reduces the strain on landfills, minimizes harmful greenhouse gas
emissions (especially methane, a potent greenhouse gas produced when organic waste
decomposes in unmanaged landfills), and creates valuable resources like organic manure and
bioenergy.
Biodegradable Waste

Non-biodegradable wastes:
Non-biodegradable waste refers to materials that cannot be broken down or decomposed by
natural biological processes and microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi.
These materials are often synthetic compounds created in factories and resist natural
degradation, remaining in the environment for an extremely long time, often hundreds or
thousands of years.
Common Examples:
Non-biodegradable waste is a major source of pollution and includes many everyday items.
Plastics: Plastic bags, bottles, containers, packaging, and single-use items like straws and
cutlery.
Metals: Aluminum cans, iron products, batteries, and other metal scraps.
Glass: Glass bottles and jars can remain intact for a million years in a landfill.
Non Biodegradable Waste

Common Examples:
Synthetic Materials: Synthetic fabrics like polyester and nylon, rubber tires, and Styrofoam (expanded
polystyrene).
Electronic Waste (e-waste): Discarded computers, smartphones, and batteries, which often contain
toxic substances like lead and mercury.
Hazardous Materials: Certain toxic chemicals, paints, and pesticides.
Environmental Impact
The persistence of non-biodegradable waste poses significant threats to the environment and human
health.
Pollution and Accumulation
Harm to Wildlife
Contamination
Air Pollution

Management:
Because natural decomposition is not an option, managing non-biodegradable waste relies
heavily on human intervention and sustainable practices.
Recycling: Many non-biodegradable materials, such as metals, glass, and certain plastics, can
be processed into new products, reducing the need for raw materials and minimizing landfill
waste.
Reduce and Reuse: Minimizing the use of single-use non-biodegradable items and finding
ways to reuse existing items are crucial steps in waste management.
Proper Disposal: Segregating waste into appropriate bins ensures it is handled correctly,
preventing environmental contamination.
Waste-to-Energy: Non-recyclable waste can sometimes be used in controlled incineration
processes to generate energy, though emissions must be strictly managed.

Steps For SWM
Different steps in solid waste management are
a) Collection
b) Transportation
c) Storage
d) Segregation
e) Processing
f) Disposal

Process of Solid Waste Management
Solid waste management (SWM) is a systematic process encompassing various activities to handle waste
from its generation to final disposal.
Following stages are involved:
• Waste Generation and On-Site Handling:
• Waste is generated from various sources, including households, commercial establishments,
industries, and agricultural activities.
• The first step in effective management involves minimizing waste at the source and segregating it
into different categories: biodegradable, recyclable, and hazardous.
• This segregation is vital for enabling efficient recycling and recovery efforts.
• Collection :
• Waste is gathered from its various sources using methods like curb side pickup or drop-off points,
employing specialized vehicles or containers.
• Transfer and Transport: Collected waste is transported to designated transfer stations or processing
facilities. Transfer stations act as intermediate hubs where waste from smaller collection vehicles can
be consolidated into larger vehicles for more efficient transport to distant treatment or disposal sites.

• Processing and Recovery: This stage involves treating the waste through different methods to extract
value and reduce the amount of waste requiring final disposal. Common methods include:
• Recycling: Separating and processing recyclable materials like paper, plastic, glass, and metals to
create new products.
• Composting: Decomposing organic waste materials like food scraps and yard waste into nutrient-rich
compost for soil amendment.
• Waste-to-Energy (WtE): Utilizing waste as a fuel source through processes like incineration or
anaerobic digestion to generate electricity or heat. This includes co-processing, where organizations
use combustion to turn waste into energy and raw materials.
• Other treatments: Depending on the type of waste, physical treatment like mechanical separation,
chemical treatment to neutralize toxicity, and biological treatment using microorganisms to break
down organic matter are employed.

• Disposal: The final stage of solid waste management involves handling waste that cannot be recovered or
recycled safely and responsibly. Common disposal methods include:
• Landfilling: Waste is deposited in specially engineered landfills with liners and gas management
systems to minimize environmental impacts.
• Incineration: Waste is burned at high temperatures to reduce its volume, according to Enter climate
and Study Smarter UK. While this process can also be used to generate energy, according to BYJU'S
notes that it may release toxic emissions if not controlled properly.
• The hierarchy of waste management prioritizes these stages, with prevention and reduction being the
most desirable options, followed by reuse, recycling, recovery, and finally, disposal as a last resort.

Sanitary landfill:
It is designed greatly to reduce or eliminate the risk that waste disposal may pose to the
public health and environment quality.
In sanitary landfill, garbage is spread out in a thin layers.
It is then covered with mud or clay or plastic and then compacted.
Next layer of waste is spread on top of it followed by another layer of soil.
Suitable precaution should be taken so that underground water table is not contaminated.
When landfill is full it is covered with clay, sand, gravel and top soil to prevent seepage of
water.

Advantages and disadvantages
Segregation not required.
Simple and economical.
When landfill is complete , it can be reclaimed, built on or used as parks or farming land.
Landfills can pollute water, the air, and also the soil.
It can decrease in soil fertility.
Improperly constructed landfill can pollute underground water.
Landfill can attract animals and insects like rats, mosquitoes, cockroaches, etc.
It can also cause sickness in communities.
Anaerobic decomposition produces methane, which is a 20 times more dangerous gas than
carbon dioxide.

Incineration:
Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process.
Commonly used when waste contain hazardous material and organic content.
So it is a combustion of waste in presence of oxygen.
Waste heated at high temperature in incinerator and after that it is converted into
CO2, water vapor and ash.
It significantly reduces volume of the waste, harmless and reduce transportation
costs.

Incineration

Advantages:
It requires minimum land
It can be operated in any weather
The volume of wastes are reduced to about 25%
Disadvantages:
It is expensive to build and operate
High energy requirement
Cause significant air pollution due to burning of wastes. Foul smell also
produced.

Pyrolysis and Gasification: it is a process which decompose waste by heating it to high
temperatures and low amounts of oxygen. Gasification uses a low oxygen environment while
pyrolysis allows no oxygen.
Composting: it is a controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter by the action of
micro organisms and small invertebrates.
Waste are dumped into earthen trenches and covered with Earth.
Organic matter such as dead and dry leaves and twigs decomposed by worms and insects and
finally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to make dark rich soil like material called
compost.
Most widely used composting is vermicomposting using earthworms.

Best option Worst option
Reduce waste
Reuse
Recycle/compost
Incineration
Landfill

Plastic Waste Management
Plastic products have become an integral part of our daily life as a result of which the polymer is produced at a massive
scale worldwide.
On an average, production of plastic globally crosses 150 Million tonnes per year.
Its broad range of application is in packaging films, wrapping materials, shopping and garbage bags, fluid containers,
clothing, toys, household and industrial products, and building materials.
It is estimated that approximately 70% of plastic packaging products are converted into plastic waste in a short span.
Approximately 9.4 million TPA plastic waste is generated in the country which amounts to 26,000 TPD.
Of this, about 60% is recycled, most of it by the informal sector.
While the recycling rate in India is considerably higher than the global average of 20% , there is still over 9,400 tonnes of
plastic waste which is either landfilled or ends up polluting streams or groundwater resources.
Once plastic is discarded after its utility is over, it is known as plastic waste.
It is a fact that plastic waste never degrades, and remain on landscape for several years.
Mostly, plastic waste is recyclable but recycled products are more harmful to the environment as this contains additives
and colors.
The recycling of a virgin plastic material can be done 2-3 times only, because after every recycling, the plastic material
deteriorates due to thermal pressure and its life span is reduced. Hence recycling is not a safe and permanent solution for
plastic waste disposal.

Harmful Effects of Plastics:
Plastic is versatile, lightweight, flexible, moisture resistant, strong, and relatively inexpensive.
Our tremendous attraction to plastic, coupled with an undeniable behavioural propensity of increasingly over-consuming,
discarding, littering and thus polluting, has become a combination of lethal nature.
Natural organisms have a very difficult time breaking down the synthetic chemical bonds in plastic, creating the tremendous
problem of the material’s persistence.
A very small amount of total plastic production (less than 10%) is effectively recycled; the remaining plastic is sent to landfills,
where it is destined to remain entombed in limbo for hundreds of thousands of years, or to incinerators, where its toxic
compounds are spewed throughout the atmosphere to be accumulated in biotic forms throughout the surrounding
ecosystems

• Groundwater and soil pollution
• Pollution in Oceans
Plastics are made from oil with a highly polluting production process. Plastics just do not dissolve; they break down into
micro-particles that circulate in the environment. A single water bottle can take up to 1000 years to break down.
Asia is the world leader in plastic pollution. The Philippines alone dumped over 1 billion pounds of plastics into our oceans.
That is over 118,000 trucks worth. In 30 Years there is likely to be more plastic in our oceans than fish.
83% of our drinking water contains plastic. Studies show that consuming plastic could lead to cancer, effects on hormone
levels, and heart damage. Plastics have been found in the blood of even new born babies.
Over 600 marine species are affected by plastics. Nearly 45000 marine animals have ingested plastics and 80% were injured
or killed. Plastics can pierce animals from inside or cause starvation, entanglement, loss of body parts and suffocation.
As plastics travel with ocean currents, an island of trash called the “Great pacific Garbage Patch” has been created. There
are now many islands of trash in our seas.
Dangerous for human life:
Burning of plastic results into formation of a class of flame retardants called as Halogens.
Collectively, these harmful chemicals are known to cause the following severe health problems: cancer, endometriosis,
neurological damage, endocrine disruption, birth defects and child developmental disorders, reproductive damage,
immune damage, asthma, and multiple organ damage

In 2024, India generated approximately 9.3 million tonnes of plastic waste annually, according to a study published
in the journal Nature, (which amounts to 26,000 tonnes of waste per day), and out of this approximately 5.6 Million tonnes
per annum plastic waste is recycled (i.e. 15,600 tonnes of waste per day) and 3.8 Million tonnes per annum plastic waste is
left uncollected or littered (9,400 tonnes of waste per day) .
This makes India a significant contributor to global plastic pollution, with roughly one-fifth of the world's plastic waste
emissions.
Out of the 60% of recycled plastic 70% is recycled at registered facilities, 20% is recycled by Unorganized Sector, 10% of the
plastic is recycled at home.

3.1 Types of Plastics
The Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI) introduced its resin identification coding system in 1988 at the urging of
recyclers around the country.
The seven types of plastic include:
1. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PETE or PET)
2. High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
3. Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
4. Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE)
5. Polypropylene (PP)
6. Polystyrene or Styrofoam (PS)
7. Miscellaneous plastics (includes: polycarbonate, polylactide, acrylic,
acrylonitrile butadiene, styrene, fiberglass, and nylon)

Plastics are generally categorized into two types
• Thermoplastics: Thermoplastics or Thermo-softening plastics are the plastics which soften on heating and
can be moulded into desired shape such as PET, HDPE, LDPE, PP, PVC, PS etc.
• Thermosets: Thermoset or thermosetting plastics strengthen on heating, but cannot be remoulded or recycled
such as Sheet Moulding Compounds (SMC), Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Bakelite etc. are the examples of
the same.
Nowadays, an alternate to petro-based plastic carry bags/films has been introduced i.e. compostable plastics
(100% bio-based)carry-bags/films conforming IS/ISO: 17088.
Plastic Waste Management (PWM Rules), 2016
The Government of India notified Plastic Waste Management (PWM) Rules, 2016 on 18thMarch, 2016,
superseding Plastic Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 2011. These rules were further amended and
named as ‘Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2018. These rules shall apply to every Waste
Generator, Local Body, Gram Panchayat, Manufacturer, Importer, Producer and Brand Owner.

Salient Features of PWM Rules:
• Carry bags made of virgin or recycled plastic, shall not be less than fifty microns in thickness.
• Waste Generators including institutional generators, event organizers shall not litter the plastic waste,
shall segregate waste and handover to authorized agency and shall pay user fee as prescribed by ULB
and spot fine in case of violation.
• Local Bodies shall encourage use of plastic waste for road construction or energy recovery or waste to oil or co-
processing in cement kilns etc.

Biomedical Waste management
Biomedical waste is defined as any solid or liquid waste that is generated in the diagnosis,
treatment or immunization of human beings or animals.
Testing of biomedical waste including all type of wastes produced by hospitals, clinics,
laboratories and other medical and research facilities
Examples of biomedical waste includes discarded blood, unwanted microbiological cultures
and stocks, identifiable body parts, needles, other human or animal tissue, used bandages
and dressings, discarded gloves

Segregation, Packaging, Transportation and Storage
Biomedical waste shall not be mixed with
other waste.
Waste shall be segregated into containers at
the point of generation and container shall
be labeled.
If the container is transported from the
premises where biomedical waste is
generated to any waste treatment facility
outside the premises, the container shall that
information.

No untreated biomedical waste shall kept stored beyond 48 hours.
The municipal body of the area shall continue to pick up and transport segregated non
biomedical waste generated in the hospitals and nursing homes, as well as duly treated
biomedical wastes for disposal at municipal dump site.

E-Waste and Management
E-waste is termed as electronic products that have become unwanted, non-working and have essentially
reached at the end of their useful life.
Electronic devices become obsolete due to,
Advancement in technology
Change in fashion, style and status
Nearing the end of their useful life
India generates an estimated 1.70 million TPA (tonnes per million) of e-waste comprising mobiles, laptops and
other electronic devices.
Causes
Advancement in technology:
Increase in population:
Human mentality:

Effects of E-waste on health
Sources of e-waste Constituent Health effects
Solder in printed circuit
boards, glass panels and
gasket in computer monitors
Lead Damage to nervous and blood
systems. Kidney damage.
Affects brain development.
Relays and switches, printed
circuits boards
Mercury Neural damage. Damage to
brain.
Front panel of cathode ray
tubes
Barium Muscle weakness. Damage to
heart, liver and skin.
Mother board Beryllium Lung cancer, skin disease such
as warts.

Management of e-waste
Steps involved in management of e-waste:
Collection Sorting processing repairing recycling dismantling
components recovery residual
Main principle of e-waste management is reduce, reuse and recycle.
Usually sanitary landfills or incineration is done of residual disposal of e-waste.

Responsibilities of Government
Government should set up regulatory agencies.
Government should provide an adequate system of laws and controls.
Government should encourage research into development and production of less hazardous
equipment.
Responsibilities and role of industries
Generators should take responsibilities to determine the output characteristics of wastes.
All involved person should be properly qualified and trained in handling e-waste in industries.
Companies should adopt waste minimization techniques.

Responsibilities of the citizen
Reuse
Donating electronic devices to school, non-profit organizations, and lower-income
families.
E-waste should never be disposed with garbage and other house hold wastes.
E-waste should be collected at a separate site and they should be sent for various
processes like Reuse, Recycling and Donating.

• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a key instrument established under the Kyoto Protocol to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
• It facilitates cooperation between industrialized countries (known as Annex I countries) and developing
countries (non-Annex I countries) to achieve greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions and promote
sustainable development.
• The CDM operates in the following manner:
• Industrialized countries with emission reduction commitments can invest in projects that reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries.
• These projects generate Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, with each credit representing a
reduction of one tonne of CO2 equivalent.
• Industrialized countries can use these CERs to fulfil part of their emission reduction targets under the
Kyoto Protocol.
• The CDM promotes sustainable development in developing countries by stimulating investments in
cleaner technologies and practices. Examples include rural electrification projects using solar panels or
energy-efficient boiler installations.
Cleaner Development Mechanism

Key objectives of the CDM
•Contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gases and the prevention of climate change.
•Facilitate sustainable development in developing countries by encouraging environmentally friendly projects.
•Assist industrialized countries in meeting their emission reduction targets by providing flexibility and cost-
effective reduction opportunities.
•Promote the transfer of clean, less polluting technologies to developing countries.

Montreal & Kyoto Protocol
The Montreal Protocol and the Kyoto Protocol are two significant international environmental agreements,
but they address different environmental issues. The Montreal Protocol focuses on protecting the ozone layer
by phasing out ozone-depleting substances, while the Kyoto Protocol aims to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions to mitigate climate change.
Montreal Protocol:
Objective:
To phase out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS).
Focus:
Protecting the stratospheric ozone layer, which shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
Success:
Highly successful, with widespread ratification and a clear path to ozone layer recovery.
Key Features:
Includes provisions for technology transfer and financial assistance to developing countries.
Impact:
Reduced the risk of skin cancer, cataracts, and other health problems, and is also helping to reduce global
warming.

Kyoto Protocol:
Objective:
To reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change.
Focus:
Reducing emissions of six key greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
Success:
Mixed, with some countries meeting their targets while others did not, and major emitters like the US not
participating initially.
Key Features:
Established mechanisms like emissions trading and the Clean Development Mechanism to help countries meet
their targets.
Impact:
While it had some impact on emissions reductions, its overall effectiveness has been debated.

Key Differences:
Target Substances:
Montreal Protocol focuses on ODS (Ozone Depleting Substance), while Kyoto Protocol focuses on greenhouse
gases.
Geographic Scope:
The Montreal Protocol has achieved near-universal ratification, while the Kyoto Protocol faced challenges with
participation from some major emitters.
Success Rate:
The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as a success story, while the Kyoto Protocol's success is more
nuanced.
Relationship to Climate Change:
The Montreal Protocol indirectly helps with climate change by phasing out some greenhouse gases, but its
primary focus is on ozone depletion. The Kyoto Protocol directly addresses climate change by setting emission
reduction targets.
In essence: The Montreal Protocol is a story of remarkable international cooperation and success in addressing a
specific environmental threat. The Kyoto Protocol, while ambitious, faced greater challenges in achieving its
goals and has been superseded by the Paris Agreement.

CDM projects in India
• India has actively participated in the CDM, with the second-largest number of registered projects globally
under the Kyoto Protocol.
• The energy sector dominates India's CDM registrations, with renewable energy alone contributing
significantly to the country's potential for generating CERs.
Identification of the Project
This is the initial phase, and it entails conducting research to find a notion that has the capability to cut
greenhouse gas emissions.
Approval From the Government
After the notion has been recognized, it is proposed to the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate
Change for approval by the Indian government.

Development of the Project
Research is being conducted to establish a baseline against which the shift in emissions will be monitored in
accordance with the Kyoto Protocol.
Authentication
The CDM Administrative Entity appoints an impartial body to verify the results of the preliminary
identification survey.
Registration Process
Formal approval by the governing council transforms the selected project into a CDM project, granting it all
the financial and legal amenities provided by the Kyoto Protocol.
Tracking
Following registration, variations in greenhouse gas emissions are tracked over time, and appropriate
improvements to the project’s execution are made.
Verification
A team of specialists verifies all of the data and results before sending them to be certified.
Operating Details of Cleaner Development Mechanism in India

The future of the CDM
With the advent of the Paris Agreement, there's a shift towards nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for
all countries. However, the principles of the CDM, promoting international cooperation for climate action and
sustainable development, are likely to continue to influence the development of new market mechanisms under
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. The experiences and lessons learned from the CDM will be crucial in shaping
the design and implementation of future mechanisms to effectively address global climate change.
Article 6 of the Paris Agreement establishes a framework for international cooperation to achieve climate
change mitigation targets, primarily through carbon markets and non-market approaches.
Criticism and challenges
Despite its successes, the CDM has faced criticism and challenges. Concerns have been raised regarding the
"additionality" of some projects, meaning they might have happened even without CDM support, potentially
leading to the generation of spurious credits. There have also been concerns about the uneven geographical
distribution of projects, with a majority concentrated in a few developing countries like China and India,
according to the Earth Journalism Network. Additionally, the CDM market has experienced price volatility and
deflation, impacting the viability of some projects.

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