The Case Study Method in Social Inquiry1 ROBERT E. STAKE University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign It is widely believed that case studies are useful in the study of human affairs because they are down-to-earth and attention-holding but that they are not a suitable basis for generalization. In this paper, I claim that case studies will often be the preferred method of re- search because they may be epistemo- logically in harmony with the reader's experience and thus to that person a natural basis for generalization. Experience. We expect an inquiry to be carried out so that certain audiences will benefit — not just to swell the archives, but to help persons toward further understandings. If the readers of our reports are the persons who popu- late our houses, schools, governments, and industries; and if we are to help them understand social problems and social programs, we must perceive and communicate (see Bohm, 1974; Schon, 1977) in a way that accommodates their present understandings.2 Those people have arrived at their understandings mostly through direct and vicarious ex- perience. And those readers who are most learned and specialized in their disci- plines are little different. Though they write and talk with special languages, their own understandings of human af- fairs are for the most part attained and amended through personal experience. I believe that it is reasonable to con- clude that one of the more effective means of adding to understanding for all readers will be by approximating through the words and illustrations of our reports, the natural experience ac- quired in ordinary personal involve- ment. At the turn of the century, German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1910) claimed that more objective and "sci- entific" studies did not do the best job of acquainting man with himself. Only from his actions, his fixed ut- terances, his effects upon others, can man learn about himself; thus he learns to know himself only by the round-about way of understanding. What we once were, how we de- veloped and became what we are, we learn from the way in which we acted, the plans which we once adopted, the way in which we made ourselves felt in our vocation, from old dead letters, from judgments on which were spoken long ago.. '. .we understand ourselves and others only when we transfer our own lived ex- perience into every kind of expres- sion of our own and other people's lives. He distinguished between the human studies and other kinds of studies. The human studies are thus founded on this relation between lived experi- ence, expression, and' understand- ing. Here for the first time we reach a quite clear criterion by which the de- limitation of the human studies can be definitively carried out. A study belongs to the human studies only if its object becomes accessible to us through the attitude which is founded on the relation between life, expres- sion, and understand.

1. The Case Study Method in Social Inquiry1
ROBERT E. STAKE
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
It is widely believed that case studies
are useful in the study of human affairs
because they are down-to-earth and
attention-holding but that they are not a
suitable basis for generalization. In this
paper, I claim that case studies will
often be the preferred method of re-
search because they may be epistemo-
logically in harmony with the reader's
experience and thus to that person a
natural basis for generalization.
Experience. We expect an inquiry to
be carried out so that certain audiences
will benefit — not just to swell the
archives, but to help persons toward
further understandings. If the readers of
our reports are the persons who popu-
late our houses, schools, governments,
and industries; and if we are to help
them understand social problems and
social programs, we must perceive and
communicate (see Bohm, 1974; Schon,
1977) in a way that accommodates their
present understandings.2 Those people
have arrived at their understandings
mostly through direct and vicarious ex-

2. perience.
And those readers who are most
learned and specialized in their disci-
plines are little different. Though they
write and talk with special languages,
their own understandings of human af-
fairs are for the most part attained and
amended through personal experience.
I believe that it is reasonable to con-
clude that one of the more effective
means of adding to understanding for
all readers will be by approximating
through the words and illustrations of
our reports, the natural experience ac-
quired in ordinary personal involve-
ment.
At the turn of the century, German
philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (1910)
claimed that more objective and "sci-
entific" studies did not do the best job
of acquainting man with himself.
Only from his actions, his fixed ut-
terances, his effects upon others, can
man learn about himself; thus he
learns to know himself only by the
round-about way of understanding.
What we once were, how we de-
veloped and became what we are, we
learn from the way in which we
acted, the plans which we once
adopted, the way in which we made
ourselves felt in our vocation, from

3. old dead letters, from judgments on
which were spoken long ago.. '. .we
understand ourselves and others only
when we transfer our own lived ex-
perience into every kind of expres-
sion of our own and other people's
lives.
He distinguished between the human
studies and other kinds of studies.
The human studies are thus founded
on this relation between lived experi-
ence, expression, and' understand-
ing. Here for the first time we reach a
quite clear criterion by which the de-
limitation of the human studies can
be definitively carried out. A study
belongs to the human studies only if
its object becomes accessible to us
through the attitude which is founded
on the relation between life, expres-
sion, and understanding.
Dilthey was not urging us merely to
pay more attention to humanistic values
or to put more affective variables into
our equations. He was saying that our
methods of studying human affairs
need to capitalize upon the natural
powers of people to experience and un-
derstand.
Knowledge. In statements funda-
mental to the epistemology of social
inquiry, Polanyi3 distinguished be-

4. tween propositional and tacit knowl-
edge. Propositional knowledge — the
knowledge of both reason and gossip
— was seen to be composed of all in-
terpersonally sharable statements, most
of which for most people are observa-
tions of objects and events. Tacit
knowledge may also dwell on objects
and events, but it is knowledge gained
from experience with them, experience
with propositions about them, and
rumination.
February 1978 I 5
Through reason man observes him-
self;-but he knows himself only
through consciousness. (Tolstoy,
War and Peace)
Tacit knowledge is all that is remem-
bered somehow, minus that which is
remembered in the form of words,
symbols, or other rhetorical forms. It is
that which permits us to recognize
faces, to comprehend metaphors, and
to "know ourselves.'' Tacit knowledge
includes a multitude of unexpressible
associations which give rise to new
meanings, new ideas, and new applica-
tions of the old. Polanyi recognized that
each person, expert or novice, has great
stores of tacit knowledge with which to
build new understandings.

5. It is a common belief that these ordi-
nary understandings, both new and old,
are merely the pieces from which
mighty explanations are made. And
that explanation is the grandest of un-
derstandings. But explanation and un-
derstanding are perhaps not so inti-
mately interwoven.
Practically every explanation, be it
causal or teleological or of some
other kind, can be said to further our
understanding, of things. But "un-
derstanding ".-also has a psychologi-
cal ring which "explanation" has
not. This psychological feature was
emphasized by several of the
nineteenth-century antipositivist
methodologists, perhaps most force-
fully by Simmel who thought that
understanding as a method charac-
teristic of the humanities is a form of
empathy or re-creation in the mind of
the scholar of the mental atmosphere,
the thoughts and feelings and motiva-
tions, of the objects of his study.
. . . Understanding is also connected
with intentionality in a way that ex-
planation is not. One understands the
aims and purposes of an agent, the
meaning of a sign or symbol, and the
significance of a social institution or
religious rite. This intentionalistic
. . . dimension of understanding has

6. - come to play a prominent role in
more recent methodological discus-
sion. (Von Wright, 1971)
Explanation belongs more to proposi-
tional knowledge, understanding more
to tacit.
Philosophers of the positivist school,
Carl Hempel and Karl Popper particu-
larly, have posited that propositional
statements of lawful relationship are
the closest approximations of Truth —
whether we are talking about physical
matter or human. They would have us
speak of attributes and constructs, such
as energy and mass or work-ethic and
masculinity, and the relationships
among them. Antipositivists such as
Dilthey, Von Wright, and William
Dray have claimed that Truth in the
fields of human affairs is better approx-
imated by statements that are rich with
the sense of human encounter: To speak
not of underlying attributes, objective
observables, and universal forces, but
of perceptions and understanding that
come from immersion in and holistic
regard for the phenomena.
In American research circles most
methodologists have been of positivis-
tic persuasion. The more episodic, sub-
jective procedures, common to the case
study, have been considered weaker

7. than the experimental or correlational
studies for explaining things.
When explanation, propositional
knowledge, and law are the aims of an
inquiry, the case study will often be at a
disadvantage. When the aims are un-
derstanding, extension of experience,
and increase in conviction in that which
is known, the disadvantage disappears.
Generalizations. The scientist and
the humanist scholar alike search for
laws that tell of order in their disci-
plines. But so do all other persons look.
for, regularity and system in their ex-
perience. Predictable covariation is to
be found in all phenomena. In 1620
Francis Bacon said:
There are and can be only two ways
of searching and discovering truth.
The one flies from the senses and
particulars to the most general ax-
ioms. . . this is now the fashion. The
other derives axioms from the senses
and particulars, rising by a gradual
and unbroken ascent, so that it ar-
rives at the most general axioms last
of all. This is the true way, but as yet
untried.
He claimed that Truth lies in the most
general of axioms, a far and labored
trek from experience.4

8. Another point of view holds that
Truth lies in particulars. William Blake
offered these intemperate words:
To generalize is to be an idiot. To
particularize is the lone distinction of
merit. General knowledges are those
that idiots possess.
Generalization may not be all that de-
spicable, but particularization does de-
serve praise. To know particulars fleet-
ingly of course is to know next to noth-
ing. What becomes useful understand-
ing is a full and thorough knowledge of
the particular, recognizing it also in
new and foreign contexts.
That knowledge is a form of
generalization too, not scientific induc-
tion but naturalistic generalization,
arrived at by recognizing the
similarities of objects and issues in and
out of context and by sensing the
natural covariations of happenings. To
generalize this way is to be both intui-
tive and empirical, and not idiotic.
Naturalistic generalizations develop
within a person as a product of experi-
ence. They derive from the tacit knowl-
edge of how things are, why they are,
how people feel about them, and how
these things are likely to be later or in
other places with which this person is
familiar. They seldom take the form of

9. predictions but lead regularly to expec-
tation. They guide action, in fact they
are inseparable from action (Kemmis,
1974). These generalizations may be-
come verbalized, passing of course
from tacit knowledge to propositional;
but they have not yet passed the empiri-
cal and logical tests that characterize
formal (scholarly, scientific) generali-
zations.
Sociologist Howard Becker5 spoke
of an irreducible conflict between
sociological perspective and the per-
spective of everyday life. Which is
superior? It depends on the circum-
stance, of course. For publishing in the
sociological journals, the scientific
perspective is better; but for reporting
to lay audiences and for studying lay
problems, the lay perspective will often
be superior. And frequently that
everyday-life perspective will be
superior for discourse among scholars
for they too often share among them-
selves more of ordinary experience
than of special conceptualization. The
special is often too special. It is foolish
to presume that a more scholarly report
will be the more effective.
The other generalizations, i.e.,
rationalistic, propositional, law-like
generalizations, can be useful for un-
derstanding a particular situation. And
they can be hurtful. Obviously, bad

10. laws foster misunderstandings. And
abstract statements of law distract at-
tention from direct experience. Good
generalizations aid the understanding
6 ER
of general conditions, but good
generalizations can lead one to see
phenomena more simplistically than
one should.
I t is the legitimate aim of many scho-
larly studies to discover or validate
laws. But the aim of the practical arts is
to get things done. The better generali-
zations often are those more parochial,
those more personal. In fields such as
education and social work, where few
laws have been validated and where
. inquiry can be directed toward gather-
ing information that has use other than
for the cultivation of laws, a persistent
attention to laws is pedantic.
Cases. The object (target) of a social
inquiry is seldom an individual person
or enterprise. Unfortunately, it is such
single objects that are usually thought
of as "cases." A case is often thought
of as a constituent member of a target
population. And since single members
poorly represent whole populations,

11. the case study is seen to be a poor basis
for generalization.
Often, however, the situation is one
in which there is need for generaliza-
tion about that particular case or
generalization to a similar case rather
than generalization to a population of
cases. Then the demands for typicality
and representativeness yield to needs
for assurance that the target case is
properly described. As readers recog-
nize essential similarities to cases of
interest to them, they establish the basis
for naturalistic generalization.
The case need not be a person or
enterprise. It can be whatever
"bounded system" (to use Louis
Smith's term) is of interest. An institu-
tion, a program, a responsibility, a col-
lection, or a population can be the case.
This is not to trivialize the notion of
"case" but to note the generality of the
case study method in preparation for
noting its distinctiveness.
It is distinctive in the first place by
giving great prominence to what is and
what is not "the case" — the bound-
aries are kept in focus. What is happen-
ing and deemed important within those
boundaries (the emic) is considered
vital and usually determines what the
study is about, as contrasted with other
kinds of studies where hypotheses or

12. issues previously targeted by the inves-
tigators (the etic) usually determine the
content of the study.
Case studies can be used to test
hypotheses, particularly to examine a
single exception that shows the
hypothesis to be false. Case studies can
be highly statistical; institutional re-
search and vocational counseling case
studies often are. But in the social sci-
ence literature, most case studies fea-
ture: descriptions that are complex,
holistic, and involving a myriad of not
highly isolated variables;, data that are
likely to be gathered at least partly by
personalistic observation; and a writing
style that is informal, perhaps narra-
tive, possibly with verbatim quotation,
illustration, and even allusion and
metaphor. Comparisons are implicit
rather than explicit. Themes and
hypotheses may be important, but they
remain subordinate to the understand-
ing of the case.6
Although case studies have been
used by anthropologists, psychoana-
lysts, and many others as a method of
exploration preliminary to theory
development,7 the characteristics of the
method are usually more suited to ex-
pansionist than reductionist pursuits.
Theory building is the search for es-
sences, pervasive and determining in-
gredients, and the makings of laws.

13. The case study, however, proliferates
rather than narrows. One is left with
more to pay attention to rather than
less. The case study attends to the
idiosyncratic more than to the
pervasive.8 The fact that it has been
useful in theory building does not mean
that that is its best use.
Its best use appears to me to be for
adding to existing experience and
humanistic understanding. Its charac-
teristics match the "readinesses" peo-
ple have for added experience. As Von
Wright and others stressed, intentional-
ity and empathy are central to the com-
prehension of social problems, but so
also is information that is holistic and
episodic. The discourse of persons
struggling to increase their understand-
ing of social matters features and so-
licits these qualities. And these qual-
ities match nicely the characteristics of
the case study.9
The study of human problems is the
work of scientists, novelists, jour-
nalists, everybody of course — but
especially historians. The historian
Howard Butterfield (1951) recognized
the centrality of experiential data and
said:
. . . the only understanding we ever
reach in history is but a refinement,

14. more or less subtle and sensitive, of
the difficult—and sometimes decep-
tive — process of imagining oneself
in another person's place.
Case studies are likely to continue to
be popular because of their style and to
be useful for exploration for those who
search for explanatory laws. And,
moreover, because of the universality
and importance of experiential under-
standing, and because of their com-
patability with such understanding,
case studies can be expected to con-
tinue to have an epistemological advan-
tage over other inquiry methods as a
basis for naturalistic generalization.
Unlike Bacon's "true way" of discov-
ering Truth, this method has been tried
and found to be a direct and satisfying
way of adding to experience and im-
proving understanding.
Notes
1Written at the Centre for Applied Research in
Education, University of East Anglia, as part of
an assignment for the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Paris.
2 In this paper I am writing about the formal
inquiry to be done by people, on or off the cam-
pus, who are subject to greater rewards for scho-
larly work and knowledge production and to less-
er rewards for professional support and problem
solving. In the USA there are few civil service or

15. applied research agencies which validate their
inquiries according to its service value more than
to its "internal and external validities," as de-
fined by Campbell and Stanley (1966). I see it as
unfortunately necessary to overstate the distinc-
tion between academic research and practical in-
quiry as a step toward improving and legitimizing
inquiries that are needed for understanding and
problem solving but which are unlikely to pro-
duce vouchsafed generalizations.
3I am indebted to statements by Harry Broudy
(1972) and Andrew Ortony (1975) for helping me
understand the educational relevance of the writ-
ing of Polanyi.
4But he noted that at least before 1620 that was
not the way humans reached understanding.
5Howard Becker(1964). Important ideas about
the special use of case study as precursor to
theoretical study are found in his "Problems of
Inference and Proof in Participant Observation,"
(1958).
6This is not to say that all case studies are as
described here. Medical "write-ups" for exam-
ple are very different. But these characteristics
are commonly expected and little different than
those specified by Louis Smith (1973), for exam-
ple, to be: credible, holistic, particularistic, indi-
vidualizable, process-oriented, ego-involving,
and blending of behavioral and phenomenologi-
cal methodologies.
7In Julian Simon, (1969), for example.

16. 8Barry Mac Donald and Rob Walker have made
the strongest case I know for using idiosyncratic
instances to create understanding of more general
matters, as in "Case Study and the Social
Philosophy of Educational Research" (1975).
9 It would be of interest to get empirical data on
the perceived utility of case studies. It can be
February 1978 7
presumed, I fear, that some respondents, having
heard objections to the case study method from
such authorities as Julian Stanley and Donald
Campbell and thinking more of political value
than informational value, would underrate their
utility for understanding and generalization.
References
Bacon, Sir Frances. Novum Organum. 1620.
Becker, Howard S. Problems in the publica-
tion Held studies. In Arthur J. Vidich, Joseph
Bensman, and Maurice R. Stein (Eds.)
Reflections on Community Studies. New York:
John Wiley, 1964, p. 273.
Becker, Howard S. Problems of inference and
proof in participant observation. American
Sociological Review, 1958, 59, 652-660.
Blake, William. Annotations to Sir Joshua

17. Reynold's "Disclosures" 1808.
Bohm, David. Science as perception — com-
munication. In F. Suppe (Ed.), The Structure of
Scientific Theories. Urbana: Univ. III. Press,
1974.
Broudy, Harry S. The life uses of schooling as
a field for research. In L. G. Thomas (Ed.),
Philosophical redirection of educational re-
search. 71st Yearbook of NSSE, Part I, Chapter
DC, 1972.
Butterfield, Sir Herbert. History and human
relations. London: Collins, 1951..
Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C.
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for
research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966.
Dilthey, Wilhelm. The construction of the his-
torical world of the human studies (Der Auf-
bauder Welt in den Geisteswissenschaften.
1910) Gesammelte Schriften I-VII Leipzig: B. G.
Teubner, 1914-1927.
Dray, William H. Laws and explanation in
history. Oxford Univ. Press, 1957.
Ham pel, Carl G. The function of general laws
in history. Journal of Philosophy, 39, 1942.
Kemmis, Stephen. An ecological perspective
on innovation. Urbana: Univ. of III. College of
Education, 1974. (mimeo)
. Mac Donald, Barry, and Walker, Rob. Case

18. study and the social philosophy of educational
research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 5,
No. 1, 1975.
Ortony, Andrew. Knowledge, language and
thinking. Urbana: Univ. of III. College of Educa-
tion, 1975. (mimeo)
Polanyi, Michael. Personal knowledge. New
York: Harper & Row, 1958.
Popper, Karl. The poverty of historicism.
London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957.
Schon, Donald A. Metaphor and the social
conscience. Paper delivered at the Conference on
Metaphor and Thought, Univ. of III., September
1977.
Simon, Julian L. Basic research methods in
social science: The art of empirical investigation.
New York: Random House, 1969.
Smith, Louis. An aesthetic education work-
shop for administrators: Some implications for a
theory of case studies. Paper presented at AERA
Chicago, 1974.
Tolstoy, Leo. War and Peace. 1869.
Von Wright, Georg Henrik. Explanation and
understanding. London: Routledge & Kegan
Paul, 1971.

19. Research for Action1
GERARD PIEL
Publisher, Scientific American
I n the pecking order of academia,
pure research out-ranks applied. Re-
search into education must fall, there-
fore, into the second or lower class. Not
a discipline in its own right — I hope, at
least, it does not pretend to such status
— education research is the object of
the attentions of the established disci-
plines: psychology in all its varieties,
sociology, anthropology, demography,
statistics and, nowadays, economics.
Because our universities are depart-
mentalized by discipline and the
scholar's career in each department
turns on contribution to its parochial
interests, it is not surprising that much
education research is addressed to the
archives of the disciplines and not to the
improvement of education.
The notion that there are two ways to
do science, and the unequal distribution
of rewards between them, thus together
work a disservice to education and,
more often than not, to the disciplines
as well. This outcome we must deplore.
Education is the route to salvation for a
secular society. It should be carried on
with deeper understanding and with
nagging concern for its improvement.

20. To this end there is but one way to do
research, and that is to do it well.
Having now used the value-laden
word "well," I must declare my bias. I
should do so because, in addition, I
shall comment here about the biases of
others. My romance is with education
in the 18th Century sense of this enter-
prise. By education, society promotes
the perfectibility of the individual. It is
the mission of our schools not to shape
the citizen to the uses of society, but to
nurture citizens capable of shaping soc-
iety to better purposes. My test of the
worth of a piece of education research,
therefore, is whether it promotes or
hinders that enterprise. If it is done well •
by that criterion, then research for ac-
tion will also, by definition, pass mus-
ter in the discipline that has been
brought to bear upon the illumination
and improvement of education.
It is difficult to do social science
well, whether pure or applied, in a cul-
ture as dominated as ours is by the
pragmatic successes of the natural sci-
ences. The social sciences did not re-
tain for long the innocent confidence
with which they were launched in the
19th Century by Auguste Comte. The
Founder placed them at the pinnacle of
the scientific endeavor. In our country,
social scientists began to be elected to

21. the National Academy of Sciences only
a little more than a decade ago; they are
still defending their status as scientists.
The second class citizenship of so-
cial scientists causes them to try to
make social research look as much as
possible like the work of the physical
and biological sciences. The extreme
case is given by the distinguished
8 ER
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Using case studies in research
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https://doi.org/10.1108/01409170210782990
Using Case Studies in Research
by Jennifer Rowley
Introduction
Case study as a research strategy often emerges as an obvious
option for stu-
dents and other new researchers who are seeking to undertake a

25. modest scale
research project based on their workplace or the comparison of
a limited
number of organisations. The most challenging aspect of the
application of
case study research in this context is to lift the investigation
from a descrip-
tive account of ‘what happens’ to a piece of research that can
lay claim to be-
ing a worthwhile, if modest addition to knowledge. This article
draws
heavily on established textbooks on case study research and
related areas,
such as Yin, 1994, Hamel et al., 1993, Eaton, 1992, Gomm,
2000, Perry,
1998, and Saunders et al., 2000 but seeks to distil key aspects
of case study
research in such a way as to encourage new researchers to
grapple with and
apply some of the key principles of this research approach. The
article ex-
plains when case study research can be used, research design,
data collec-
tion, and data analysis, and finally offers suggestions for
drawing on the
evidence in writing up a report or dissertation.
When to use Case Studies
Case studies as a research method or strategy have traditionally
been viewed
as lacking rigour and objectivity when compared with other
social research
methods. This is one of the major reasons for being extra
careful to articulate
research design, and implementation. On the other hand, despite

26. this scepti-
cism about case studies, they are widely used because they may
offer in-
sights that might not be achieved with other approaches. Case
studies have
often been viewed as a useful tool for the preliminary,
exploratory stage of a
research project, as a basis for the development of the ‘more
structured’
tools that are necessary in surveys and experiments. For
example, Eisen-
hardt (1989) says that case studies are:
Particularly well suited to new research areas or research areas
for
which existing theory seems inadequate. This type of work is
highly
complementary to incremental theory building from normal
science
research. The former is useful in early stages of research on a
topic or
when a fresh perspective is needed, whilst the latter is useful in
later
stages of knowledge (pp.548-549).
This is however a somewhat narrow conception of the
application of
case study research. As discussed below case studies are useful
in providing
answers to ‘How?’ and ‘Why?’ questions, and in this role can be
used for ex-
ploratory, descriptive or explanatory research.
16 Management Research News
Biographical Note

27. Professor Jennifer
Rowley can be
contacted at the School
of Management and
Social Sciences, Edge
Hill College of Higher
Education, Ormskirk,
Lancashire, England
L39 4QP.
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The first stage is to decide whether case studies can be useful
for a spe-
cific kind of investigation. There are three factors that

29. determine the best re-
search methodology:
• The types of questions to be answered
• The extent of control over behavioural events, and
• The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical
events.
The issue of types of research question is the most significant in
deter-
mining the most appropriate approach. Figure 1 (based on Yin,
1994, p.6)
summarises the different kinds of research questions and
methods that are
most appropriate. Who, what and where questions can be
investigated
through documents, archival analysis, surveys and interviews.
Case studies
are one approach that supports deeper and more detailed
investigation of the
type that is normally necessary to answer how and why
questions.
Case study research is also good for contemporary events when
the rele-
vant behaviour cannot be manipulated. Typically case study
research uses a
variety of evidence from different sources, such as documents,
artefacts, in-
terviews and observation, and this goes beyond the range of
sources of evi-
dence that might be available in historical study.
In summary then, case study research is useful when:

30. A how or why question is being asked about a contemporary set
of
events over which the investigator has little or no control. (Yin,
1994, p.9)
In contrast to surveys, typically the number of units studies in a
case
study is many less than in a survey, but the extent of detail
available for each
case should be greater. As compared with an experiment, the
case study re-
searcher has much less control over the variables, than if an
experiment were
used to investigate a situation. In a survey data may be
collected from a
number of organisations in order to generalise to all other
organisations of
the same type. In contrast in a comparative case study across a
number of dif-
ferent organisations, the objective is to compare or replicate the
organisa-
tions studied with each other in a systematic way, in the
exploration of
different research issues.
Volume 25 Number 1 2002 17
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Figure 1: Choosing a Research Strategy

31. Strategy Form of research question
Experiment
Survey
Archival analysis
History
Case study
How, why
Who, what, where, how many, how much
Who, what, where, how many, how much
How, why
How, why
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What is case study reseach? Yin (1994) p.13 defines a case
study thus:
A case study is an empirical inquiry that:
• Investigates a contemporary phenomena within its real life
context, especially when
• The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not
clearly
evident.
This statement emphasises that an important strength of case
studies is
the ability to undertake an investigation into a phenomenon in
its context; it
is not necessary to replicate the phenomenon in a laboratory or
experimental
setting in order to better understand the phenomena. Thus case
studies are a
valuable way of looking at the world around us. On the other
hand, it is im-
portant not to confuse case studies with ethnographic and other
strictly
qualitative research paradigms. Case study research can be
based on any mix
of quantitative and qualitative approaches. Typically, it uses
multiple data

34. sources including two or more of: direct detailed observations,
interviews,
and documents. In addition, case studies can involve single or
multiple cases
as discussed in the next section on research design.
Research Design
Research design often seems to be something of a mystery to
new research-
ers, and the proneness of research philosophers to engage in
sophisticated
debates using terminology that is inaccessible to the novice
does not help.
On the basis that it is necessary to grasp the basics, and
undertake some re-
search before arriving at the position where some of these
debates start to
have some meaning, this section takes a very practical approach
to research
design. For those that need a health warning, this section takes
a positivist
and deductive approach to case study design. It urges the
definition of ques-
tions and propositions in advance of data collection. This is in
contrast to al-
ternatives such as the grounded theory or inductive approach, in
which
questions, insights, propositions, and pictures emerge from the
data collec-
tion. The authors are of the opinion that the positivist approach
provides a
firmer foundation for understanding and managing issues such
as validity
and reliability, and for structuring data collection and analysis,
and is there-

35. fore a more straightforward process for the new researcher.
A research design is the logic that links the data to be collected
and the
conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions of a study; it
ensures coher-
ence. Another way of viewing a research design is to see it as
an action plan
for getting from the questions to conclusions. It should ensure
that there is a
clear view of what is to be achieved by the case study. This
involves defining
the basic components of the investigation, such as research
questions and
propositions, appreciating how validity and reliability can be
established,
and selecting a case study design.
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Components of research design
A research design has the following components:
• The study’s questions
• The study’s propositions
• The study’s units of analysis
• The logic linking the data to the propositions
• The criteria for interpreting findings.
The previous section has already explored the nature of research
ques-
tions. Starting with clearly formulated questions is useful for all
research
projects. Formulating research questions is never easy. Theory
as embodied
in the literature of a discipline is important in pointing towards
appropriate
research questions. Both practitioners and other researchers can
generate

38. questions that are of general interest, and that therefore might
be fully ex-
plored in the context of the proposed case study. Sometimes
with exploratory
research the questions may have yet to be formulated; in this
case the purpose
of the research still needs to be defined.
Descriptive and explanatory studies need propositions. Research
ques-
tions need to be translated into propositions. The researcher has
to make a
speculation, on the basis of the literature and any other earlier
evidence as to
what they expect the findings of the research to be. The data
collection and
analysis can then be structured in order to support or refute the
research
propositions.
The unit of analysis is the basis for the case. It may be an
individual per-
son (such as a business leader, or someone who has had an
experience of in-
terest), or an event, (such as a decision, a programme, an
implementation
process or organisational change), or an organisation or team or
department
within the organisation. It can sometimes be difficult to identify
the bounda-
ries of the unit of analysis. A key issue is that the case study
should only ask
questions about the unit of analysis, and any sub-units; sources
of evidence
and the evidence gathered are determined by the boundaries that
define the

39. unit of analysis.
Selecting the unit of analysis, or the case is crucial. Case
selection must
be determined by the research purpose, questions, propositions
and theoreti-
cal context, but there will also be other constraints that impact
on case selec-
tion. These include accessibility (whether the data needed can
be collected
from the case individual or organisation), resources (whether
resources are
available to support travel and other data collection and analysis
costs), and
time available (if time is limited, it may be easier to analyse a
small business
rather than a large business, or to identify a unit of analysis
within a large or-
ganisation, rather than seek to study the organisation in its
entirety.
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Finally, it is necessary to decide what data is necessary in order
to sup-
port or demolish the propositions, and to reflect on the criteria
for interpret-
ing the findings. These issues are explored in more detail later
in the article.
Generalisation, Validity and Reliability
These three concepts establish the basis on which other
researchers should
regard a piece of research as knowledge that can be assimilated
into the
knowledge base of a field of study. It is therefore important to
demonstrate
that these issues have been fully considered.
Generalisation of the case study so that it contributes to theory
is im-
portant. Generalisation can only be performed if the case study
design has

42. been appropriately informed by theory, and can therefore be
seen to add to
the established theory. The method of generalisation for case
studies is not
statistical generalisation, but analytical generalisation in which
a previously
developed theory is used as a template with which to compare
the empirical
results of the case study. If two or more cases are shown to
support the same
theory, replication can be claimed. In analytic generalisation,
each case is
viewed as an experiment, and not a case within an experiment.
The greater
the number of case studies that show replication the greater the
rigour with
which a theory has been established.
Four tests have been widely used to establish the quality of
empirical
social research:
1. Construct validity - establishing correct operational measures
for
the concepts being studied. This is concerned with exposing and
reducing subjectivity, by linking data collection questions and
measures to research questions and propositions.
2. Internal validity (for explanatory or causal studies only, and
not
for descriptive or exploratory studies) establishing a causal
relationship whereby certain conditions are shown to lead to
other
conditions, as distinguished from spurious relationships.
3. External validity: establishing the domain to which a study’s

43. findings can be generalised. Generalisation is based on
replication
logic as discussed above.
4. Reliability: demonstrating that the operations of a study -
such as
the data collection produced can be repeated with the same
results.
This is achieved through thorough documentation of procedures
and appropriate recording keeping.
Many of the approaches for ensuring validity and reliability are
dis-
cussed further below in the sections on data collection and
analysis.
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Case Study Designs
As summarised in Figure 3 case study designs can be
categorised along
two dimensions, reflecting whether the number of case studies
contributing
to the design, and the number of units in each case study
respectively.
The differentiation between single case and multiple case
designs needs
to be clearly made. A single case design is akin to a single
experiment. Single
case studies are appropriate when the case is special (in relation
to estab-
lished theory) for some reason. This might arise when the case
provides a
critical test to a well-established theory, or where the case is
extreme, unique,
or has something special to reveal. Single case studies are also
used as a pre-
liminary or pilot in multiple case studies.
Multiple case designs are preferred. On the basis of the
replication logic
discussed above, multiple cases can be regarded as equivalent to

46. multiple ex-
periments. The more cases that can be marshalled to establish or
refute a the-
ory, the more robust are the research outcomes. A frequent
question is how
many cases should be included in a multiple case study. There
is no simple
answer to this question. Cases need to be carefully selected so
that they either
produce similar results (literal replication), or produce
contrasting results but
for predictable reasons (theoretical replication). Typically
within say six to
Volume 25 Number 1 2002 21
Using
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Figure 2: Checking Case Study Design
Tests Case Study tactic Phase of re-
search in which
tactic occurs
Construct validity
Internal validity
External validity

47. Reliability
Use multiple sources of evidence
Establish chain of evidence
Have key informants review draft case study
report
Do pattern matching
Do explanation building
Do time series analysis
Use replication logic in multiple case studies
Use case study protocol
Develop case study database
Data collection
Data collection
Composition
Data analysis
Data analysis
Data analysis
Research design
Data collection

48. Data collection
Figure 3: Case Study Designs
Single Case Designs Multiple Case Designs
Holistic (single unit of analysis)
Embedded (multiple units of analysis)
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
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50. )
ten cases, a few cases might be used to achieve literal
replication, whereas
others might be designed to peruse other patterns of theoretical
replications.
If all of the cases turn out as predicted then there is strong
evidence for the
initial set of propositions. If, however, the cases reveal a
variety of different
outcomes, it may be necessary to revisit the propositions, and
consider con-
ducting further research. The number of cases depends on the
nature of the
propositions to be substantiated.
Case studies can also be divided into holistic or embedded
studies. Ho-
listic case studies examine the case as one unit. They might, for
example, fo-
cus on broad issues of organisational culture or strategy. This
approach
ensures a helicopter view of the case, but can be superficial, and
may miss
changes in the unit of analysis that could impact on the
appropriateness of
the original research design. Embedded designs identify a
number of sub
units (such as meetings, roles or locations) each of which is
explored indi-
vidually; results from these units are drawn together to yield an
overall pic-
ture. The biggest challenge with embedded designs lies in

51. achieving a
holistic perspective from the analysis of the sub-units.
Data Collection
Data collection, and in general the execution of a good case
study, depend
crucially upon the competence of the researcher. Unlike, with
say, a ques-
tionnaire, the evidence to be gathered is defined as it is
collected, and the re-
searcher is an active agent in the process. This means that the
researcher
undertaking data collection needs to be able to ask good
questions, to listen
and to interpret the answers. This involves having a sound grasp
of the ques-
tions and propositions of the case study, and being able to
approach the study
in an unbiased, and flexible manner.
Data collection should be guided by a case study protocol. This
proto-
col needs to include the following sections:
1. An overview of the case study project.
2. Field procedures, such as use of different sources of
information,
and access arrangements to these sources.
3. Case study questions, or the questions that the case study
researcher needs to keep in mind when collecting data. These
questions are posed to the researcher, and not to any specific
respondents, although they may be used to guide the
formulation

52. of questions to interviewees, and members of focus groups. In
complex cases studies it is important to differentiate between
the
questions asked of specific interviewees and used to interrogate
documents, questions asked of the individual case, and
questions
to be asked across multiple cases.
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54. Larger case studies, with multiple cases and embedded designs
with
several sub units in each case study are likely to need a team of
researchers.
When more than one researcher is engaged in gathering
evidence, the case
study protocol is a central communication document for the
team. However,
it is not sufficient to draft such a document, and leave it for
researchers to
read. The success of the project depends upon the quality of the
researcher’s
engagement with the problem and the agreed process. Training
and partici-
pation in research design are important in ensuring that a team
has an appro-
priate level of familiarity with the case study investigation.
Gathering evidence
Typically case studies draw on multiple sources of evidence.
These include
documents, archival records, interviews, direct observation,
participant ob-
servation, and physical artefacts. Each of these different sources
require dif-
ferent approaches to their interrogation, and are likely to yield
different kinds
of insights. Each source has its strengths and its weaknesses,
and the richness
of the case study evidence base derives largely from this multi-
facetted per-
spective yielded by using different sources of evidence.

55. Whichever sources of evidence are used, there are three key
principles
of data collection that need to be observed:
1. Triangulation - one of the great strengths of case studies as
compared with other methods is that evidence can be collected
from multiple sources. Triangulation uses evidence from
different
sources to corroborate the same fact or finding.
2. Case Study Database - A case study database of the evidence
gathered needs to be collected. Whilst a report or dissertation
may
be the primary distillation of the case study, a further outcome
which strengthens the repeatability of the research, and
increases
the transparency of the findings is a well organised collection of
the
evidence base. This base may include case notes made by the
investigators, case study documents that are collected during a
case
study, interview notes or transcripts, and analysis of the
evidence.
When preparing a dissertation it will be useful to agree with a
supervisor whether some elements of this evidence base should
be
presented as appendices to the dissertation.
3. Chain of Evidence - The researcher needs to maintain a chain
of
evidence. The report should make clear the sections on the case
study databases that it draws upon, by appropriate citation of
documents and interviews. Also, the actual evidence needs to be
accessible in the databases. Within the database, it should be
clear
that the data collection followed the protocol, and the link

56. between
the protocol questions and the propositions should be
transparent.
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Analysis of Case Study Evidence

58. Analysing case study evidence is not easy. Typically a case
study database
will include a multitude of different evidence from different
sources. Data
analysis of this rich resource is based on examining,
categorising and tabu-
lating evidence to assess whether the evidence supports or
otherwise the ini-
tial propositions of the study. The preferred strategy for
analysis is to use the
propositions that encapsulate the objectives of the study, and
which have
shaped the data collection. The researcher trawls through the
evidence seek-
ing corroboration or otherwise of the initial propositions, and
then records
relevant evidence and makes a judgement on whether the
positions have
been substantiated. This is where you discover whether the
propositions
were well formulated in the first place!!
In exploratory case studies that typically do not start with
propositions,
an alternative approach needs to be adopted. Here an alternative
analytic
strategy is to develop a descriptive framework for organising
the case study.
Thus a framework of sections reflecting the themes in the case
study are de-
veloped and evidence is gathered within relevant themes, and
analysed and
compared in these categories, in order to achieve a description
of the case
study that can be corroborated from multiple sources of
evidence.

59. In general, there are no cookbook procedures that have been
agreed for
the analysis of case study results, but good case study analysis
adheres to the
following principles:
1. The analysis makes use of all of the relevant evidence
2. The analysis considers all of the major rival interpretations,
and
explores each of them in turn
3. The analysis should address the most significant aspect of the
case
study
4. The analysis should draw on the researchers prior expert
knowledge in the area of the case study, but in an unbiased and
objective manner.
Writing the Case Study Report
Writing the case study report can be a daunting task, because at
this point the
researcher needs to discriminate between what is to be included
and the
wealth of evidence that will not appear in the report, but stays
in the case
study database. Effective analysis of the results will assist in
providing a
structure. The task of writing a report or dissertation will
appear less over-
whelming if the researcher has observed the advice to all
researchers which
is to write up as the research proceeds. Drafts of literature

60. review and meth-
odology sections can be written in parallel with data collection.
A key factor
in determining the coverage and presentation of the case study
report is the
intended audience. Case studies have a range of potential
audiences, includ-
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62. ing academic colleagues, policymakers, practitioner
professionals, the gen-
eral public, research supervisors and examiners, and funders of
research.
These different audiences have different needs. For example,
for non-
specialist audiences, the story that the case study tells may be
most engaging,
and they may seek in the case study a basis for action. For a
dissertation as-
sessor, mastery of methodology, and an understanding of the
way that the re-
search makes a contribution to existing knowledge will be
important.
Alternative Perspectives on Case Studies
The guidance given in this article derives largely from the
approach sug-
gested by Yin, 1994. This approach is primarily positivistic in
perspective,
and can be characterised by the following positions:
1. The analytic approach to generalisation.
2. Theory should inform propositions, and propositions inform
data
collection and analysis.
3. The researcher acts as commentator, in representing and
interpreting the case in a way that relates to previous theory.
There is an ongoing debate around each of these positions,
which re-

63. flects the different perspectives taken by the positivist and
phenomenologi-
cal schools of research philosophy and strategy (Gomm, 2000).
In order to
encourage continuing reflection on these matters it is useful to
summarise
some of the questions that can be posed:
1. Generalisation - Is generalisation necessary? The need for
generalisation derives from a positivist approach in which
generalisation on the basis of samples is the norm. Can case
studies
just be accepted as insights as they stand, with readers making
their
own interpretation, and taking the ideas from the case study into
their own experience (sometimes called Naturalist ic
generalisation). Alternatively, can case studies be used as the
basis
for the formulation of working hypotheses? If attempts to
generalise are necessary, what does generalisation in this
context
mean?
2. Role of theory - Is it necessary to use theory to inform
propositions, or can case studies be used as a basis for grounded
theory development, in which the theory emerges through data
collection and analysis?
3. Authenticity and authority - Whose voice is recorded in the
case
study report? Some researchers use case study as a method of
‘allowing the voices of participants to be heard’. This position
is
based on a rejection of any authority on the part of the study
researcher. On the other hand, some would argue that the very
act

64. of conducting research undermines the authenticity of the
voices to
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which researchers seek to listen, and that the very act of
interacting
with the participants changes the case study situation.

66. The three points above set the agenda for further development
of un-
derstanding and sophistication in approaches to case study
research. The
readings listed below offer numerous insights into the debate
around case
study research and the kind of knowledge that it claims to
generate.
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68. )
Readings
Easton, G. (1992) Learning from case studies. 2nd edition,
Hemel Hemp-
stead: Prentice Hall.
Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989) “Building theories from case study
research.”
Academy of Management Review, 14(4), pp.532-550.
Hamel, J. (1993) Case study methods. California: Sage.
Ghauri, P., Gronhaug, K. and Kristianslund, I. (1995) Research
methods in
business studies: a practical guide. New York: Prentice Hall.
Gomm, R., Hammersley, M., Foster, P. (Eds.) (2000) Case study
method:
key issues, key texts. London: Sage Publications.
Perry, C. (1998) “Processes of a case study methodology for
postgraduate re-
search in marketing.” European Journal of Marketing, 32 (9/10),
pp.785-
802.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2000) Research
methods for busi-
ness students. 2nd edition. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Yin, R.K. (1994) Case study research: design and methods. 2nd
edition.

69. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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