This document provides an overview and introduction to the basic concepts and principles of TCP/IP and its implementation in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It discusses TCP/IP components, configuration, tools, addressing, routing, DHCP, and name resolution. The goal is to lay a conceptual foundation for understanding how TCP/IP functions.
This document provides an overview of TCP/IP fundamentals and its implementation in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It discusses the history and standards process behind TCP/IP, the protocol architecture including layers and key protocols like IP, TCP and UDP. It also covers topics like IPv4 and IPv6, address resolution, neighbor discovery, and the tools and configuration options available in Windows for working with TCP/IP.
The document analyzes and compares three different logos. Logo 1 uses bold text and multiple colored lines resembling a mug to emphasize being "wired". Logo 2 uses bold initials attached to a star to symbolize the "Rockstar" brand. Logo 3 uses different fonts and shapes the cat's face from its white background to be clearly visible. Overall, the logos are evaluated as being simple yet effective representations of their brands through emphasis of key elements and use of colors and shapes.
Category Pages That Work: Recent research reveals design changes that led to ...MarketingExperiments
Category pages are a standard staple for websites offering multiple SKUs and often take a backseat when it comes to testing and optimization, either due to system constraints or competing priorities.
So when it comes time to create a new site, radical redesign or a different content management system, what is the most effective approach?
In this Web clinic, Flint McGlaughlin, Managing Director, MECLABS, will reveal category page design changes that are consistently increasing clicks and conversions across multiple industries.
Here are some of the key questions our research findings looked to answer:
• Should I include an “Add to Cart” button?
• How much product information should I display?
• Does introductory content on the page impact engagement?
• What’s the most effective way to organize my products?
**PLUS: Live Optimization**
To help you apply the research covered during the Web clinic, time will be reserved for live analysis of audience-submitted category page designs. If you would like your live design or conceptual wireframe reviewed, please submit it below.
Please Note: By filling out the form below you agree to receive invitations to future MarketingExperiments events and information from our educational partners.
This document provides an overview of TCP/IP fundamentals and its implementation in Microsoft Windows operating systems. It discusses the history and standards process behind TCP/IP, the protocol architecture including layers and key protocols like IP, TCP and UDP. It also covers topics like IPv4 and IPv6, address resolution, neighbor discovery, and the tools and configuration options available in Windows for working with TCP/IP.
The document analyzes and compares three different logos. Logo 1 uses bold text and multiple colored lines resembling a mug to emphasize being "wired". Logo 2 uses bold initials attached to a star to symbolize the "Rockstar" brand. Logo 3 uses different fonts and shapes the cat's face from its white background to be clearly visible. Overall, the logos are evaluated as being simple yet effective representations of their brands through emphasis of key elements and use of colors and shapes.
Category Pages That Work: Recent research reveals design changes that led to ...MarketingExperiments
Category pages are a standard staple for websites offering multiple SKUs and often take a backseat when it comes to testing and optimization, either due to system constraints or competing priorities.
So when it comes time to create a new site, radical redesign or a different content management system, what is the most effective approach?
In this Web clinic, Flint McGlaughlin, Managing Director, MECLABS, will reveal category page design changes that are consistently increasing clicks and conversions across multiple industries.
Here are some of the key questions our research findings looked to answer:
• Should I include an “Add to Cart” button?
• How much product information should I display?
• Does introductory content on the page impact engagement?
• What’s the most effective way to organize my products?
**PLUS: Live Optimization**
To help you apply the research covered during the Web clinic, time will be reserved for live analysis of audience-submitted category page designs. If you would like your live design or conceptual wireframe reviewed, please submit it below.
Please Note: By filling out the form below you agree to receive invitations to future MarketingExperiments events and information from our educational partners.
Les becerrades cadafaleres d’Algemesí són una barbàrie molt diferent d’altres, i amb molt poques semblances amb el Toro de la Vega. Algemesí no és Tordesillas.
A Algemesí hi ha un moviment animalista, la Folgança–Iniciativa Animalista, que porta anys en lluita contra les becerrades. T’expliquem que son les becerrades i com és eixa lluita.
Admixtio_servicios detergencia y desinfecciónMaria Minguet
ADMIXTIO es una empresa especializada en investigación y desarrollo de fórmulas para industrias como cosmética, alimentación y limpieza. Ofrece servicios completos de I+D o por fases, incluyendo desarrollo de formulaciones, ensayos microbiológicos y toxicológicos, y cumplimiento de regulaciones. Trabaja en proyectos de detergentes, suavizantes, desinfectantes y más, con enfoque en sostenibilidad y cumplimiento de ecoetiquetas.
The document provides a timeline of significant events including:
- The Mad Cow disease outbreak in the UK where infected cows were processed and sold, sickening people.
- The 9/11 terrorist attacks where planes crashed into the Pentagon and World Trade Center towers.
- Multiple natural disasters including the 2004 Japan earthquake, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and one of the deadliest tornadoes in Kansas history.
- The death of Michael Jackson in 2009 and the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico the same year.
- The release of the iPhone 4S in 2011 and the killing of Osama bin Laden that year.
- The 2013 Boston Marathon bombing that killed 3 people and injured over 200 others
Kati Keronen Differo Oy:stä kertoo Helmet verkkoon -hankekoulussa, miten tuottaa vaikuttava ja vakuuttava sisältö esim. verkkosivulle, blogiin, sähköpostiin, sosiaaliseen mediaan.
The document categorizes and describes different types of facial expressions in photographs from the 1980s. For females, it identifies chocolate box (half smile), invitational (emphasis on eyes), and super smiler (wide toothy smile). For males, it outlines carefree (active, healthy), practical (concentrating), seductive (self-sufficient confidence), comic (ridiculous faces), and catalogue (neutral dummy-like look).
Promoting and supporting language development in multilingual and multicultu...cutrimschmid
Here are some potential criteria for best practice in promoting multilingualism and multiculturalism in early childhood settings:
1. EYPs acknowledge and value the diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds of the children
2. Home languages and cultures are represented authentically through resources like books, songs, artifacts
3. EYPs collaborate with families to understand children's linguistic and cultural experiences
4. Activities intentionally integrate home languages and cultures in daily routines, celebrations, etc.
5. EYPs receive training to develop knowledge and skills for supporting multilingualism
6. Settings provide opportunities for children to learn key aspects of one another's languages and cultures
7. Environments include multilingual signs, labels, instructions
Confor Show Sept 2013 tree health seminar Ben Jones, Forestry CommissionForestry Commission
In 2012, surveys of Phytophthora ramorum covered 24,000 miles and 79,058 hectares of larch in the UK, finding significant new infections in southwest Scotland, south Wales, and limited new findings in southeast England and the Forest of Dean. Weather conditions were very conducive to the disease's spread. Surveys in 2013 will monitor disease progression. Surveys also found Chalara fraxinea spreading, with observations of basal stem lesions on ash trees across eastern England indicating its increasing presence.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang pengukuran kinerja perusahaan PT Sarana Boedi Sejahtera Motor dengan menggunakan metode Balanced Scorecard. Dokumen menjelaskan profil perusahaan, visi misi, struktur organisasi, job description, analisis internal dan eksternal perusahaan melalui IFE matrix, EFE matrix, SWOT analysis, SWOT map dan TOWS matrix.
This document discusses methods for coronary lumen segmentation and axis extraction in CT angiography (CTA) images. In the first year of the master's program, supervised learning with support vector machines and random forests was used for lumen segmentation, achieving a best Dice score of 35%. In the second year, unsupervised K-means clustering was tested for lumen segmentation, achieving a Dice score of 0.6648. Axis extraction methods discussed include using multi-scale analysis and gradient information to define a cost function, then finding the minimal cost path between seeds using techniques like Dijkstra's algorithm or front propagation.
El equipo campeón de fútbol de la temporada anterior ha perdido 10 de sus 12 partidos en la nueva temporada. Algunas posibles razones para este cambio incluyen la falta de entrenamiento adecuado, problemas de pago a los jugadores, equipamiento inadecuado, falta de buenos técnicos o preparación insuficiente y falta de disciplina entre los jugadores.
This document provides an overview of TCP/IP fundamentals and concepts for Microsoft Windows operating systems. It discusses TCP/IP components, configuration, addressing, routing, DNS, and DHCP. The document is intended as an introduction to lay a conceptual foundation for understanding the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Windows xp wireless deployment technology and component overviewRossMob1
This document provides an overview of wireless LAN technology and components, including IEEE 802.11 standards, authentication methods, encryption, and how they are supported in Windows XP. It describes wireless network adapters, access points, authentication using 802.1X and EAP over RADIUS with protocols like EAP-TLS, and the configuration of wireless security settings in Windows XP.
This document provides installation instructions for Microsoft Dynamics GP Release 10.0. It discusses preparing for the installation, including checking system requirements, configuring the network and SQL Server, and planning the account framework. It also covers installing Microsoft Dynamics GP on the server and using the Utilities module.
This document provides an introduction to IP Version 6 (IPv6), the successor to the current Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It describes the key features of IPv6, which include a larger 128-bit address space to replace IPv4's 32-bit addresses, built-in security through mandatory IPSec support, more efficient routing, simplified address autoconfiguration for nodes, and a new neighbor discovery protocol to replace ARP. The document outlines the differences between IPv4 and IPv6, including changes to areas like packet headers, fragmentation, and multicast management. It provides overviews of IPv6 addressing, headers, extension headers, ICMPv6, neighbor discovery, and stateless address autoconfiguration.
The document provides an overview of new clustering features in Windows Server 2003, including support for larger 8-node clusters, 64-bit support, tighter integration with Active Directory, simplified installation that is installed by default, and enhanced storage, network and operations functionality. Key benefits include greater flexibility, support for large memory applications, easier administration through default configurations and remote management, and third party integration.
This document provides guidance on planning security for sites and content in Microsoft Windows SharePoint Services 3.0. It discusses the available default permission levels and security groups, and helps determine if any custom groups or permission levels need to be created. Worksheets are also included to aid in deciding which security groups and administrators to use for various permission levels and administration roles.
Les becerrades cadafaleres d’Algemesí són una barbàrie molt diferent d’altres, i amb molt poques semblances amb el Toro de la Vega. Algemesí no és Tordesillas.
A Algemesí hi ha un moviment animalista, la Folgança–Iniciativa Animalista, que porta anys en lluita contra les becerrades. T’expliquem que son les becerrades i com és eixa lluita.
Admixtio_servicios detergencia y desinfecciónMaria Minguet
ADMIXTIO es una empresa especializada en investigación y desarrollo de fórmulas para industrias como cosmética, alimentación y limpieza. Ofrece servicios completos de I+D o por fases, incluyendo desarrollo de formulaciones, ensayos microbiológicos y toxicológicos, y cumplimiento de regulaciones. Trabaja en proyectos de detergentes, suavizantes, desinfectantes y más, con enfoque en sostenibilidad y cumplimiento de ecoetiquetas.
The document provides a timeline of significant events including:
- The Mad Cow disease outbreak in the UK where infected cows were processed and sold, sickening people.
- The 9/11 terrorist attacks where planes crashed into the Pentagon and World Trade Center towers.
- Multiple natural disasters including the 2004 Japan earthquake, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and one of the deadliest tornadoes in Kansas history.
- The death of Michael Jackson in 2009 and the BP Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico the same year.
- The release of the iPhone 4S in 2011 and the killing of Osama bin Laden that year.
- The 2013 Boston Marathon bombing that killed 3 people and injured over 200 others
Kati Keronen Differo Oy:stä kertoo Helmet verkkoon -hankekoulussa, miten tuottaa vaikuttava ja vakuuttava sisältö esim. verkkosivulle, blogiin, sähköpostiin, sosiaaliseen mediaan.
The document categorizes and describes different types of facial expressions in photographs from the 1980s. For females, it identifies chocolate box (half smile), invitational (emphasis on eyes), and super smiler (wide toothy smile). For males, it outlines carefree (active, healthy), practical (concentrating), seductive (self-sufficient confidence), comic (ridiculous faces), and catalogue (neutral dummy-like look).
Promoting and supporting language development in multilingual and multicultu...cutrimschmid
Here are some potential criteria for best practice in promoting multilingualism and multiculturalism in early childhood settings:
1. EYPs acknowledge and value the diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds of the children
2. Home languages and cultures are represented authentically through resources like books, songs, artifacts
3. EYPs collaborate with families to understand children's linguistic and cultural experiences
4. Activities intentionally integrate home languages and cultures in daily routines, celebrations, etc.
5. EYPs receive training to develop knowledge and skills for supporting multilingualism
6. Settings provide opportunities for children to learn key aspects of one another's languages and cultures
7. Environments include multilingual signs, labels, instructions
Confor Show Sept 2013 tree health seminar Ben Jones, Forestry CommissionForestry Commission
In 2012, surveys of Phytophthora ramorum covered 24,000 miles and 79,058 hectares of larch in the UK, finding significant new infections in southwest Scotland, south Wales, and limited new findings in southeast England and the Forest of Dean. Weather conditions were very conducive to the disease's spread. Surveys in 2013 will monitor disease progression. Surveys also found Chalara fraxinea spreading, with observations of basal stem lesions on ash trees across eastern England indicating its increasing presence.
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang pengukuran kinerja perusahaan PT Sarana Boedi Sejahtera Motor dengan menggunakan metode Balanced Scorecard. Dokumen menjelaskan profil perusahaan, visi misi, struktur organisasi, job description, analisis internal dan eksternal perusahaan melalui IFE matrix, EFE matrix, SWOT analysis, SWOT map dan TOWS matrix.
This document discusses methods for coronary lumen segmentation and axis extraction in CT angiography (CTA) images. In the first year of the master's program, supervised learning with support vector machines and random forests was used for lumen segmentation, achieving a best Dice score of 35%. In the second year, unsupervised K-means clustering was tested for lumen segmentation, achieving a Dice score of 0.6648. Axis extraction methods discussed include using multi-scale analysis and gradient information to define a cost function, then finding the minimal cost path between seeds using techniques like Dijkstra's algorithm or front propagation.
El equipo campeón de fútbol de la temporada anterior ha perdido 10 de sus 12 partidos en la nueva temporada. Algunas posibles razones para este cambio incluyen la falta de entrenamiento adecuado, problemas de pago a los jugadores, equipamiento inadecuado, falta de buenos técnicos o preparación insuficiente y falta de disciplina entre los jugadores.
This document provides an overview of TCP/IP fundamentals and concepts for Microsoft Windows operating systems. It discusses TCP/IP components, configuration, addressing, routing, DNS, and DHCP. The document is intended as an introduction to lay a conceptual foundation for understanding the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Windows xp wireless deployment technology and component overviewRossMob1
This document provides an overview of wireless LAN technology and components, including IEEE 802.11 standards, authentication methods, encryption, and how they are supported in Windows XP. It describes wireless network adapters, access points, authentication using 802.1X and EAP over RADIUS with protocols like EAP-TLS, and the configuration of wireless security settings in Windows XP.
This document provides installation instructions for Microsoft Dynamics GP Release 10.0. It discusses preparing for the installation, including checking system requirements, configuring the network and SQL Server, and planning the account framework. It also covers installing Microsoft Dynamics GP on the server and using the Utilities module.
This document provides an introduction to IP Version 6 (IPv6), the successor to the current Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). It describes the key features of IPv6, which include a larger 128-bit address space to replace IPv4's 32-bit addresses, built-in security through mandatory IPSec support, more efficient routing, simplified address autoconfiguration for nodes, and a new neighbor discovery protocol to replace ARP. The document outlines the differences between IPv4 and IPv6, including changes to areas like packet headers, fragmentation, and multicast management. It provides overviews of IPv6 addressing, headers, extension headers, ICMPv6, neighbor discovery, and stateless address autoconfiguration.
The document provides an overview of new clustering features in Windows Server 2003, including support for larger 8-node clusters, 64-bit support, tighter integration with Active Directory, simplified installation that is installed by default, and enhanced storage, network and operations functionality. Key benefits include greater flexibility, support for large memory applications, easier administration through default configurations and remote management, and third party integration.
This document provides guidance on planning security for sites and content in Microsoft Windows SharePoint Services 3.0. It discusses the available default permission levels and security groups, and helps determine if any custom groups or permission levels need to be created. Worksheets are also included to aid in deciding which security groups and administrators to use for various permission levels and administration roles.
This document provides step-by-step instructions for setting up a test lab to demonstrate Network Access Protection (NAP) enforcement using virtual private network (VPN) connections. The test lab uses four computers - one domain controller, one VPN server, one NAP policy server, and one client computer. The instructions cover installing and configuring each system to validate client health policies, enforce network access based on compliance, and automatically remediate noncompliant clients.
The document provides instructions for configuring the Windows Server 2012 R2 Base Configuration test lab. It describes installing Windows Server 2012 R2 on DC1 and configuring it as an Active Directory domain controller, DNS server, and DHCP server for the Corpnet subnet. It also describes installing Windows Server 2012 R2 on additional computers APP1 and CLIENT1, configuring their TCP/IP settings, and joining them to the Corp domain. This establishes the basic Corpnet infrastructure to build out additional test labs.
Understanding Internet of Things - White Paper on Device ChoicesDavid J Rosenthal
This document provides an introduction to devices for Internet of Things (IoT) solutions. It discusses different types of devices, considerations for device capabilities like cost and security, and connectivity pathways between devices, gateways and services. It also covers emerging IoT frameworks, principles of device security, and moving from prototyping to production quality hardware. The document is intended to give decision makers an understanding of aspects of device design for IoT projects.
The document provides an overview of the structure and key components of a WordprocessingML document in Open XML format. It discusses how the document is structured with separate XML files and relationships between parts. The main elements of a basic WordprocessingML document include the content types file, a main document body file usually called document.xml, and a relationship file to link everything together. The document will then cover how to add text, images, tables and other elements to the WordprocessingML document.
Teradata Tools and Utilities Installation Guide for UNIX and Linux provides instructions for installing Teradata software on UNIX and Linux systems. It supports Teradata Database 13.10 and Teradata Tools and Utilities 13.10. The guide has been updated to include new product installations and platform support. It provides an overview of the installation process and prerequisites for installing the software.
This document provides an overview of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It begins with an introduction to the OSI reference model and describes how the TCP/IP model compares. The key layers of the TCP/IP model are then discussed in more detail, including the application layer, transport layer, internet layer, and network access layer. Specific protocols associated with each layer like TCP, UDP, IP, Ethernet, and PPP are also introduced.
This document provides an overview of the TCP/IP protocol suite. It begins with an introduction to the OSI reference model and compares it to the TCP/IP model. The tutorial then describes each layer of the TCP/IP model in detail, including the application layer, transport layer, internet layer, and network access layer. It provides examples of common protocols that operate at each layer, such as TCP and IP at the transport and internet layers respectively, and Ethernet at the network access layer.
The Windows Vista Feature Pack for Wireless provides enhanced support for connecting to wireless networks and Bluetooth devices. New features include the ability to configure a wireless network using Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) and easier pairing of Bluetooth devices through improvements to the user interface. The feature pack simplifies the process of setting up and connecting to both wireless networks and Bluetooth devices.
This document provides a roadmap to content for Microsoft Windows SharePoint Services 3.0 organized by audience and stage of the IT lifecycle. It outlines content portals for information workers, IT professionals, and developers on Microsoft sites. It also lists community and blog sites with additional shared content for all users of SharePoint Products and Technologies.
Microsoft Windows Server 2008 R2 - AD RMS Bulk Protection Tool and File Class...Microsoft Private Cloud
This document provides step-by-step instructions for deploying the AD RMS Bulk Protection Tool in conjunction with Windows Server 2008 R2 File Classification Infrastructure (FCI) in a test environment. It outlines 22 steps to set up user and group accounts, install and configure FCI and the AD RMS tool, create file shares and classification rules, and test the implementation. The goal is to automatically apply AD RMS rights policies based on file classifications determined by FCI rules.
Analyzing The Audit Statement Provided By The Information...April Charlton
This document analyzes and summarizes the audit statement provided by an information systems auditor for Smith Industrie Ltd. The summary identifies several issues found in the audit, including that the wireless network is outdated and uses weak encryption, there is no virtual private network in place, servers are poorly managed with no centralized system, and personal devices and the overall network are not well managed. Solutions are proposed to address each issue.
The document provides guidance for upgrading Active Directory domains to Windows Server 2008 or Windows Server 2008 R2. It outlines key planning tasks such as assigning credentials, introducing a test server, determining supported upgrades, assessing hardware requirements, and developing a test plan. Detailed instructions are given for performing tasks like installing AD DS on a test server, upgrading domain controllers, and completing post-upgrade configuration. Background information and references are also included to aid in the planning and execution of the domain upgrade process.
This document provides an introduction and overview of C# programming elements. It discusses the .NET framework including the common language runtime, class libraries, common type system, and common language subset. It also covers C# program structure, basic syntax like comments, variables, types, operators, control flow and more. The document is intended to teach the fundamentals of the C# language.
This document provides an overview of troubleshooting TCP/IP networks using Linux tools. It discusses both reactive troubleshooting to identify errors and proactive troubleshooting to identify performance issues. For reactive troubleshooting, it breaks it down by protocol (Ethernet/ARP, IP/ICMP, TCP/UDP, applications) and provides example tools and case studies for each. For proactive troubleshooting, it focuses on examining the entire network for factors affecting performance, using tools like netperf and iptraf. The document assumes a basic TCP/IP and Linux knowledge and provides a review of the TCP/IP protocol stack to set the stage for troubleshooting.
How information systems are built or acquired puts information, which is what they should be about, in a secondary place. Our language adapted accordingly, and we no longer talk about information systems but applications. Applications evolved in a way to break data into diverse fragments, tightly coupled with applications and expensive to integrate. The result is technical debt, which is re-paid by taking even bigger "loans", resulting in an ever-increasing technical debt. Software engineering and procurement practices work in sync with market forces to maintain this trend. This talk demonstrates how natural this situation is. The question is: can something be done to reverse the trend?
Northern Engraving | Modern Metal Trim, Nameplates and Appliance PanelsNorthern Engraving
What began over 115 years ago as a supplier of precision gauges to the automotive industry has evolved into being an industry leader in the manufacture of product branding, automotive cockpit trim and decorative appliance trim. Value-added services include in-house Design, Engineering, Program Management, Test Lab and Tool Shops.
ScyllaDB is making a major architecture shift. We’re moving from vNode replication to tablets – fragments of tables that are distributed independently, enabling dynamic data distribution and extreme elasticity. In this keynote, ScyllaDB co-founder and CTO Avi Kivity explains the reason for this shift, provides a look at the implementation and roadmap, and shares how this shift benefits ScyllaDB users.
Must Know Postgres Extension for DBA and Developer during MigrationMydbops
Mydbops Opensource Database Meetup 16
Topic: Must-Know PostgreSQL Extensions for Developers and DBAs During Migration
Speaker: Deepak Mahto, Founder of DataCloudGaze Consulting
Date & Time: 8th June | 10 AM - 1 PM IST
Venue: Bangalore International Centre, Bangalore
Abstract: Discover how PostgreSQL extensions can be your secret weapon! This talk explores how key extensions enhance database capabilities and streamline the migration process for users moving from other relational databases like Oracle.
Key Takeaways:
* Learn about crucial extensions like oracle_fdw, pgtt, and pg_audit that ease migration complexities.
* Gain valuable strategies for implementing these extensions in PostgreSQL to achieve license freedom.
* Discover how these key extensions can empower both developers and DBAs during the migration process.
* Don't miss this chance to gain practical knowledge from an industry expert and stay updated on the latest open-source database trends.
Mydbops Managed Services specializes in taking the pain out of database management while optimizing performance. Since 2015, we have been providing top-notch support and assistance for the top three open-source databases: MySQL, MongoDB, and PostgreSQL.
Our team offers a wide range of services, including assistance, support, consulting, 24/7 operations, and expertise in all relevant technologies. We help organizations improve their database's performance, scalability, efficiency, and availability.
Contact us: info@mydbops.com
Visit: https://www.mydbops.com/
Follow us on LinkedIn: https://in.linkedin.com/company/mydbops
For more details and updates, please follow up the below links.
Meetup Page : https://www.meetup.com/mydbops-databa...
Twitter: https://twitter.com/mydbopsofficial
Blogs: https://www.mydbops.com/blog/
Facebook(Meta): https://www.facebook.com/mydbops/
Conversational agents, or chatbots, are increasingly used to access all sorts of services using natural language. While open-domain chatbots - like ChatGPT - can converse on any topic, task-oriented chatbots - the focus of this paper - are designed for specific tasks, like booking a flight, obtaining customer support, or setting an appointment. Like any other software, task-oriented chatbots need to be properly tested, usually by defining and executing test scenarios (i.e., sequences of user-chatbot interactions). However, there is currently a lack of methods to quantify the completeness and strength of such test scenarios, which can lead to low-quality tests, and hence to buggy chatbots.
To fill this gap, we propose adapting mutation testing (MuT) for task-oriented chatbots. To this end, we introduce a set of mutation operators that emulate faults in chatbot designs, an architecture that enables MuT on chatbots built using heterogeneous technologies, and a practical realisation as an Eclipse plugin. Moreover, we evaluate the applicability, effectiveness and efficiency of our approach on open-source chatbots, with promising results.
The Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) invited Taylor Paschal, Knowledge & Information Management Consultant at Enterprise Knowledge, to speak at a Knowledge Management Lunch and Learn hosted on June 12, 2024. All Office of Administration staff were invited to attend and received professional development credit for participating in the voluntary event.
The objectives of the Lunch and Learn presentation were to:
- Review what KM ‘is’ and ‘isn’t’
- Understand the value of KM and the benefits of engaging
- Define and reflect on your “what’s in it for me?”
- Share actionable ways you can participate in Knowledge - - Capture & Transfer
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
Northern Engraving | Nameplate Manufacturing Process - 2024Northern Engraving
Manufacturing custom quality metal nameplates and badges involves several standard operations. Processes include sheet prep, lithography, screening, coating, punch press and inspection. All decoration is completed in the flat sheet with adhesive and tooling operations following. The possibilities for creating unique durable nameplates are endless. How will you create your brand identity? We can help!
Freshworks Rethinks NoSQL for Rapid Scaling & Cost-EfficiencyScyllaDB
Freshworks creates AI-boosted business software that helps employees work more efficiently and effectively. Managing data across multiple RDBMS and NoSQL databases was already a challenge at their current scale. To prepare for 10X growth, they knew it was time to rethink their database strategy. Learn how they architected a solution that would simplify scaling while keeping costs under control.
Connector Corner: Seamlessly power UiPath Apps, GenAI with prebuilt connectorsDianaGray10
Join us to learn how UiPath Apps can directly and easily interact with prebuilt connectors via Integration Service--including Salesforce, ServiceNow, Open GenAI, and more.
The best part is you can achieve this without building a custom workflow! Say goodbye to the hassle of using separate automations to call APIs. By seamlessly integrating within App Studio, you can now easily streamline your workflow, while gaining direct access to our Connector Catalog of popular applications.
We’ll discuss and demo the benefits of UiPath Apps and connectors including:
Creating a compelling user experience for any software, without the limitations of APIs.
Accelerating the app creation process, saving time and effort
Enjoying high-performance CRUD (create, read, update, delete) operations, for
seamless data management.
Speakers:
Russell Alfeche, Technology Leader, RPA at qBotic and UiPath MVP
Charlie Greenberg, host
Essentials of Automations: Exploring Attributes & Automation ParametersSafe Software
Building automations in FME Flow can save time, money, and help businesses scale by eliminating data silos and providing data to stakeholders in real-time. One essential component to orchestrating complex automations is the use of attributes & automation parameters (both formerly known as “keys”). In fact, it’s unlikely you’ll ever build an Automation without using these components, but what exactly are they?
Attributes & automation parameters enable the automation author to pass data values from one automation component to the next. During this webinar, our FME Flow Specialists will cover leveraging the three types of these output attributes & parameters in FME Flow: Event, Custom, and Automation. As a bonus, they’ll also be making use of the Split-Merge Block functionality.
You’ll leave this webinar with a better understanding of how to maximize the potential of automations by making use of attributes & automation parameters, with the ultimate goal of setting your enterprise integration workflows up on autopilot.
"Choosing proper type of scaling", Olena SyrotaFwdays
Imagine an IoT processing system that is already quite mature and production-ready and for which client coverage is growing and scaling and performance aspects are life and death questions. The system has Redis, MongoDB, and stream processing based on ksqldb. In this talk, firstly, we will analyze scaling approaches and then select the proper ones for our system.
How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
Main news related to the CCS TSI 2023 (2023/1695)Jakub Marek
An English 🇬🇧 translation of a presentation to the speech I gave about the main changes brought by CCS TSI 2023 at the biggest Czech conference on Communications and signalling systems on Railways, which was held in Clarion Hotel Olomouc from 7th to 9th November 2023 (konferenceszt.cz). Attended by around 500 participants and 200 on-line followers.
The original Czech 🇨🇿 version of the presentation can be found here: https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/hlavni-novinky-souvisejici-s-ccs-tsi-2023-2023-1695/269688092 .
The videorecording (in Czech) from the presentation is available here: https://youtu.be/WzjJWm4IyPk?si=SImb06tuXGb30BEH .
QA or the Highway - Component Testing: Bridging the gap between frontend appl...zjhamm304
These are the slides for the presentation, "Component Testing: Bridging the gap between frontend applications" that was presented at QA or the Highway 2024 in Columbus, OH by Zachary Hamm.
In the realm of cybersecurity, offensive security practices act as a critical shield. By simulating real-world attacks in a controlled environment, these techniques expose vulnerabilities before malicious actors can exploit them. This proactive approach allows manufacturers to identify and fix weaknesses, significantly enhancing system security.
This presentation delves into the development of a system designed to mimic Galileo's Open Service signal using software-defined radio (SDR) technology. We'll begin with a foundational overview of both Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) and the intricacies of digital signal processing.
The presentation culminates in a live demonstration. We'll showcase the manipulation of Galileo's Open Service pilot signal, simulating an attack on various software and hardware systems. This practical demonstration serves to highlight the potential consequences of unaddressed vulnerabilities, emphasizing the importance of offensive security practices in safeguarding critical infrastructure.
"What does it really mean for your system to be available, or how to define w...Fwdays
We will talk about system monitoring from a few different angles. We will start by covering the basics, then discuss SLOs, how to define them, and why understanding the business well is crucial for success in this exercise.
"What does it really mean for your system to be available, or how to define w...
Tcpip fund
1. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Corporation
Published: May 21, 2006
Updated: Feb 6, 2008
Author: Joseph Davies
Editor: Anne Taussig
Abstract
This online book is a structured, introductory approach to the basic concepts and principles of the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite, how the most important
protocols function, and their basic configuration in the Microsoft® Windows Vista™, Windows
Server® 2008, Windows® XP, and Windows Server 2003 families of operating systems. This
book is primarily a discussion of concepts and principles to lay a conceptual foundation for the
TCP/IP protocol suite and provides an integrated discussion of both Internet Protocol version 4
(IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).
3. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: i
Contents
Chapter 1 – Introduction to TCP/IP ................................................................................................1
Chapter Objectives .......................................................................................................................2
History of TCP/IP..........................................................................................................................3
The Internet Standards Process ....................................................................................................5
Requests for Comments (RFCs)................................................................................................5
TCP/IP Terminology .....................................................................................................................7
TCP/IP Components in Windows ...................................................................................................9
Configuring the IPv4-based TCP/IP Component in Windows ........................................................9
Automatic Configuration .......................................................................................................10
Manual Configuration...........................................................................................................11
Installing and Configuring the IPv6-based TCP/IP Component in Windows .................................12
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008.............................................................................12
Windows XP and Windows Server 2003................................................................................13
Name Resolution Files in Windows ..........................................................................................14
TCP/IP Tools in Windows ........................................................................................................14
The Ipconfig Tool .................................................................................................................15
The Ping Tool......................................................................................................................16
Network Monitor......................................................................................................................17
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................19
Chapter Glossary .......................................................................................................................20
Chapter 2 – Architectural Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite ................................................23
Chapter Objectives .....................................................................................................................24
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite ..........................................................................................................25
Network Interface Layer ..........................................................................................................25
Internet Layer .........................................................................................................................26
Transport Layer ......................................................................................................................26
Application Layer ....................................................................................................................27
IPv4 Internet Layer .....................................................................................................................28
ARP .......................................................................................................................................28
ARP Cache .........................................................................................................................28
4. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: ii
ARP Process.......................................................................................................................29
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) .............................................................................................30
Fragmentation and Reassembly ...........................................................................................31
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)................................................................................31
Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) ...........................................................................32
IPv6 Internet Layer .....................................................................................................................34
IPv6 .......................................................................................................................................34
IPv6 Extension Headers .......................................................................................................35
Fragmentation in IPv6 ..........................................................................................................35
Internet Control Message Protocol for IPv6 (ICMPv6) ................................................................36
Neighbor Discovery (ND) .........................................................................................................37
Address Resolution..............................................................................................................38
Router Discovery .................................................................................................................39
Address Autoconfiguration....................................................................................................39
Multicast Listener Discovery (MLD) ..........................................................................................39
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)...........................................................................................41
TCP Ports ..............................................................................................................................41
TCP Three-Way Handshake....................................................................................................42
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) ...................................................................................................43
UDP Ports ..............................................................................................................................43
Packet Multiplexing and Demultiplexing .......................................................................................44
Application Programming Interfaces.............................................................................................46
Windows Sockets....................................................................................................................46
NetBIOS.................................................................................................................................47
TCP/IP Naming Schemes in Windows .........................................................................................48
Host Names............................................................................................................................48
NetBIOS Names .....................................................................................................................48
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................50
Chapter Glossary .......................................................................................................................51
Chapter 3 – IP Addressing ...........................................................................................................53
Chapter Objectives .....................................................................................................................54
IPv4 Addressing .........................................................................................................................55
5. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: iii
IPv4 Address Syntax ...............................................................................................................55
Converting from Binary to Decimal ........................................................................................56
Converting from Decimal to Binary ........................................................................................57
IPv4 Address Prefixes .............................................................................................................58
Prefix Length Notation..........................................................................................................58
Dotted Decimal Notation ......................................................................................................59
Types of IPv4 Addresses .........................................................................................................59
IPv4 Unicast Addresses ..........................................................................................................60
Internet Address Classes .....................................................................................................60
Modern Internet Addresses ..................................................................................................62
Public Addresses .................................................................................................................63
Illegal Addresses .................................................................................................................63
Private Addresses................................................................................................................63
Automatic Private IP Addressing ...........................................................................................64
Special IPv4 Addresses .......................................................................................................65
Unicast IPv4 Addressing Guidelines ......................................................................................65
IPv4 Multicast Addresses ........................................................................................................66
IPv4 Broadcast Addresses.......................................................................................................66
IPv6 Addressing .........................................................................................................................68
IPv6 Address Syntax ...............................................................................................................68
Converting Between Binary and Hexadecimal........................................................................69
Compressing Zeros..............................................................................................................70
IPv6 Address Prefixes .............................................................................................................70
Types of IPv6 Addresses .........................................................................................................70
IPv6 Unicast Addresses ..........................................................................................................71
Global Unicast Addresses ....................................................................................................71
Link-Local Addresses ...........................................................................................................73
Site-Local Addresses ...........................................................................................................73
Zone IDs for Local-Use Addresses ........................................................................................74
Unique Local Addresses ......................................................................................................74
Special IPv6 Addresses .......................................................................................................75
Transition Addresses ...........................................................................................................75
6. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: iv
IPv6 Interface Identifiers ..........................................................................................................76
EUI-64 Address-based Interface Identifiers ............................................................................77
IEEE 802 Address Conversion Example................................................................................79
Temporary Address Interface Identifiers ................................................................................79
IPv6 Multicast Addresses ........................................................................................................80
Solicited-Node Multicast Address..........................................................................................81
IPv6 Anycast Addresses ..........................................................................................................82
IPv6 Addresses for a Host .......................................................................................................82
IPv6 Addresses for a Router....................................................................................................83
Comparing IPv4 and IPv6 Addressing ..........................................................................................84
Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................................85
Chapter Glossary .......................................................................................................................86
Chapter 4 – Subnetting ................................................................................................................89
Chapter Objectives .....................................................................................................................90
Subnetting for IPv4 .....................................................................................................................91
Determining the Subnet Prefix of an IPv4 Address Configuration................................................92
Prefix Length Notation..........................................................................................................93
Subnet Mask Notation ..........................................................................................................94
Defining a Prefix Length ..........................................................................................................95
Subnetting Within an Octet ......................................................................................................97
Defining the Subnetted Address Prefixes...............................................................................98
Defining the Range of IPv4 Addresses for Each Subnet .........................................................99
Subnetting Across an Octet Boundary .................................................................................... 102
Defining the Subnetted address prefixes ............................................................................. 102
Defining the Range of IPv4 Addresses for Each Subnet ....................................................... 104
Variable Length Subnetting.................................................................................................... 105
Variable Length Subnetting Example .................................................................................. 106
Variable Length Subnetting and Routing ............................................................................. 108
Subnetting for IPv6 ................................................................................................................... 109
Subnetting a Global or Unique Local Address Prefix................................................................ 109
Determining the Number of Subnetting Bits ......................................................................... 109
Enumerating Subnetted Address Prefixes ........................................................................... 110
7. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: v
Variable Length Subnetting.................................................................................................... 113
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 114
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 115
Chapter 5 – IP Routing ............................................................................................................... 117
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 118
IP Routing Overview................................................................................................................. 119
Direct and Indirect Delivery .................................................................................................... 119
IP Routing Table ................................................................................................................... 120
Routing Table Entries......................................................................................................... 120
Static and Dynamic Routing................................................................................................... 121
Dynamic Routing ............................................................................................................... 122
Routing Protocol Technologies ........................................................................................... 122
IPv4 Routing ............................................................................................................................ 124
IPv4 Routing with Windows ................................................................................................... 124
Contents of the IPv4 Routing Table..................................................................................... 124
Route Determination Process ............................................................................................. 125
Determining the Next-Hop Address and Interface................................................................. 126
Example Routing Table for an IPv4 Host Running Windows ................................................. 127
Static IPv4 Routing................................................................................................................ 129
Configuring Static IPv4 Routers .......................................................................................... 129
Dynamic IPv4 Routing ........................................................................................................... 130
RIP ................................................................................................................................... 131
OSPF................................................................................................................................ 131
BGP-4............................................................................................................................... 131
Integrating Static and Dynamic Routing .................................................................................. 132
IPv4 Route Aggregation and Summarization ........................................................................... 133
Route Summarization for Internet Address Classes: Supernetting ......................................... 134
IPv4 Routing Support in Windows .......................................................................................... 135
Static Routing .................................................................................................................... 135
Dynamic Routing with RIP and OSPF ................................................................................. 135
Configuring Hosts for IPv4 Routing......................................................................................... 135
Default Gateway Setting..................................................................................................... 136
8. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: vi
Default Route Metric .......................................................................................................... 137
ICMP Router Discovery ...................................................................................................... 137
Static Routes ..................................................................................................................... 138
Persistent Static Routes ..................................................................................................... 138
RIP Listener ...................................................................................................................... 138
Routing for Disjoint Networks................................................................................................. 138
Network Address Translation ................................................................................................. 140
How Network Address Translation Works............................................................................ 141
IPv6 Routing ............................................................................................................................ 144
IPv6 Routing Tables .............................................................................................................. 144
IPv6 Routing Table Entry Types.......................................................................................... 144
Route Determination Process ............................................................................................. 145
Example Windows IPv6 Routing Table................................................................................ 145
IPv6 Routing Protocols .......................................................................................................... 147
RIPng for IPv6 ................................................................................................................... 147
OSPF for IPv6 ................................................................................................................... 147
Integrated IS-IS for IPv6..................................................................................................... 147
BGP-4............................................................................................................................... 148
IPv6 Route Aggregation and Summarization ........................................................................... 148
Windows Support for IPv6 Static Routing................................................................................ 149
Configuring Hosts for IPv6 Routing......................................................................................... 153
Routing Tools........................................................................................................................... 154
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 155
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 156
Chapter 6 – Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol .................................................................... 159
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 160
DHCP Overview ....................................................................................................................... 161
Benefits of Using DHCP ........................................................................................................ 162
Configuring TCP/IP Manually.............................................................................................. 162
Configuring TCP/IP Using DHCP ........................................................................................ 162
How DHCP Works .................................................................................................................... 163
DHCP Messages and Client States ........................................................................................ 163
9. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: vii
The Initializing State........................................................................................................... 165
The Selecting State............................................................................................................ 166
The Requesting State ........................................................................................................ 168
The Bound State................................................................................................................ 169
The Renewing State .......................................................................................................... 170
The Rebinding State .......................................................................................................... 171
Restarting a Windows DHCP Client .................................................................................... 172
The Windows DHCP Server Service .......................................................................................... 174
Installing the DHCP Server Service........................................................................................ 174
DHCP and Active Directory Integration................................................................................... 175
BOOTP Support .................................................................................................................... 175
DHCP Server Service Configuration .......................................................................................... 176
Properties of the DHCP Server .............................................................................................. 176
DHCP Scopes ...................................................................................................................... 177
Configuring a DHCP Scope ................................................................................................ 177
Deploying Multiple DHCP Servers ....................................................................................... 178
Superscopes ........................................................................................................................ 179
Options ................................................................................................................................ 179
Client Reservations ............................................................................................................... 181
Fault Tolerance for Client Reservations ............................................................................... 182
DHCP Options Classes ......................................................................................................... 182
Vendor Classes ................................................................................................................. 183
User Classes..................................................................................................................... 183
The DHCP Relay Agent ............................................................................................................ 185
Installing the DHCP Relay Agent ............................................................................................ 185
Address Autoconfiguration for IPv6 ............................................................................................ 187
Autoconfigured Address States .............................................................................................. 187
Types of Autoconfiguration .................................................................................................... 188
Autoconfiguration Process ..................................................................................................... 188
DHCPv6 ............................................................................................................................... 189
DHCPv6 Messages and Message Exchanges ..................................................................... 190
DHCPv6 Support in Windows ................................................................................................ 192
10. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: viii
Configuring DHCPv6 Scopes and Options ........................................................................... 192
Installing and Configuring the DHCPv6 Relay Agent ............................................................ 193
Using the Ipconfig Tool ............................................................................................................. 195
Verifying the IP Configuration ................................................................................................ 195
Renewing a Lease................................................................................................................ 195
Releasing a Lease................................................................................................................ 196
Setting and Displaying the Class ID........................................................................................ 196
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 197
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 198
Chapter 7 – Host Name Resolution ............................................................................................ 201
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 202
TCP/IP Naming Schemes ......................................................................................................... 203
Host Names Defined ............................................................................................................. 203
Host Name Resolution Process ................................................................................................. 204
Resolving Names with a Hosts File ........................................................................................ 205
Resolving Names with LLMNR............................................................................................... 206
Resolving Names with a DNS Server ..................................................................................... 206
Windows Methods of Resolving Host Names .......................................................................... 207
The Hosts File.......................................................................................................................... 208
IPv4 Entries .......................................................................................................................... 208
IPv6 Entries .......................................................................................................................... 209
The DNS Client Resolver Cache................................................................................................ 210
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 212
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 213
Chapter 8 – Domain Name System Overview............................................................................. 215
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 216
The Domain Name System ....................................................................................................... 217
DNS Components ................................................................................................................. 217
DNS Names ......................................................................................................................... 218
Domains and Subdomains ..................................................................................................... 218
DNS Servers and the Internet ................................................................................................ 219
Zones................................................................................................................................... 220
11. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: ix
Name Resolution ...................................................................................................................... 222
DNS Name Resolution Example ............................................................................................ 222
Reverse Queries ................................................................................................................... 223
Reverse Queries for IPv4 Addresses................................................................................... 224
Reverse Queries for IPv6 Addresses................................................................................... 225
Caching and TTL .................................................................................................................. 225
Negative Caching.................................................................................................................. 225
Round Robin Load Balancing ................................................................................................ 225
Name Server Roles .................................................................................................................. 227
Forwarders ........................................................................................................................... 228
Forwarders in Non-exclusive Mode ..................................................................................... 229
Forwarders in Exclusive Mode............................................................................................ 229
Caching-Only Name Servers ................................................................................................. 230
Resource Records and Zones ................................................................................................... 231
Resource Record Format ...................................................................................................... 231
Resource Record Types ........................................................................................................ 232
Delegation and Glue Records ............................................................................................. 232
The Root Hints File ............................................................................................................... 233
Zone Transfers ......................................................................................................................... 234
Full Zone Transfer................................................................................................................. 234
Incremental Zone Transfer..................................................................................................... 235
DNS Notify ........................................................................................................................... 235
DNS Dynamic Update............................................................................................................... 237
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 238
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 239
Chapter 9 – Windows Support for DNS ...................................................................................... 241
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 242
The DNS Client Service ............................................................................................................ 243
DNS Client Configuration....................................................................................................... 243
DHCP Configuration of the DNS Client Service.................................................................... 243
Manual Configuration of the DNS Client Service Using Network Connections ........................ 243
Manual Configuration Using Netsh...................................................................................... 246
12. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: x
Configuration for Remote Access Clients............................................................................. 247
Configuration of DNS Settings Using Group Policy............................................................... 247
Name Resolution Behavior .................................................................................................... 248
Name Resolution for FQDNs .............................................................................................. 248
Name Resolution for Single-Label, Unqualified Domain Names ............................................ 248
Name Resolution for Multiple-Label, Unqualified Domain Names .......................................... 249
The DNS Server Service........................................................................................................... 250
Installing the DNS Server Service .......................................................................................... 251
DNS and Active Directory ...................................................................................................... 252
Active Directory Location Service........................................................................................ 252
Storage of Zones Integrated with Active Directory ................................................................ 253
DNS Server Service Configuration ............................................................................................. 255
Properties of the DNS Server................................................................................................. 255
Maintaining Zones ................................................................................................................. 256
Forward Lookup Zones ...................................................................................................... 256
Reverse Lookup Zones ...................................................................................................... 257
Delegation......................................................................................................................... 258
Zone Transfers .................................................................................................................. 259
Resource Records ................................................................................................................ 259
IPv4 Address Records ....................................................................................................... 259
IPv6 Address Records ....................................................................................................... 260
Pointer Records ................................................................................................................. 260
DNS Traffic Over IPv6 ........................................................................................................... 260
Using Locally Configured Unicast Addresses ....................................................................... 260
Using Well-Known Unicast Addresses ................................................................................. 261
Dynamic Update and Secure Dynamic Update........................................................................ 261
How Computers Running Windows Update their DNS Names .............................................. 262
DNS Dynamic Update Process ........................................................................................... 263
Configuring DNS Dynamic Update ...................................................................................... 263
Secure Dynamic Update........................................................................................................ 265
DNS and WINS Integration .................................................................................................... 265
How WINS Lookup Works .................................................................................................. 265
13. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xi
WINS Reverse Lookup....................................................................................................... 266
Using the Nslookup Tool ........................................................................................................... 267
Nslookup Modes ................................................................................................................... 267
Nslookup Syntax ................................................................................................................... 267
Examples of Nslookup Usage ................................................................................................ 267
Example 1: Nslookup in Interactive Mode ............................................................................ 267
Example 2: Nslookup and Forward Queries ......................................................................... 268
Example 3: Nslookup Forward Query Using Another DNS Server ......................................... 268
Example 4: Nslookup Debug Information............................................................................. 268
Example 5: Nslookup Reverse Query .................................................................................. 269
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 270
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 271
Chapter 10 – TCP/IP End-to-End Delivery .................................................................................. 273
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 274
End-to-End IPv4 Delivery Process ............................................................................................. 275
IPv4 on the Source Host........................................................................................................ 275
IPv4 on the Router ................................................................................................................ 276
IPv4 on the Destination Host.................................................................................................. 279
Step-by-Step IPv4 Traffic Example ............................................................................................ 281
Network Configuration ........................................................................................................... 281
Web Client ........................................................................................................................ 282
Router 1............................................................................................................................ 283
Router 2............................................................................................................................ 283
Router 3............................................................................................................................ 283
DNS Server ....................................................................................................................... 283
Web Server ....................................................................................................................... 283
Web Traffic Example ............................................................................................................. 284
DNS Name Query Request Message to the DNS Server...................................................... 284
DNS Name Query Response Message to the Web Client ..................................................... 286
TCP SYN Segment to the Web Server ................................................................................ 288
TCP SYN-ACK Segment to the Web Client ......................................................................... 290
TCP ACK Segment to the Web Server ................................................................................ 291
14. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xii
HTTP Get Message to the Web Server ............................................................................... 292
HTTP Get-Response Message to the Web Client................................................................. 293
End-to-End IPv6 Delivery Process ............................................................................................. 295
IPv6 on the Source Host........................................................................................................ 295
IPv6 on the Router ................................................................................................................ 296
IPv6 on the Destination Host.................................................................................................. 299
Step-by-Step IPv6 Traffic Example ............................................................................................ 301
Network Configuration ........................................................................................................... 301
Web Client ........................................................................................................................ 302
Router 1............................................................................................................................ 302
Router 2............................................................................................................................ 302
Router 3............................................................................................................................ 302
DNS Server ....................................................................................................................... 303
Web Server ....................................................................................................................... 303
Web Traffic Example ............................................................................................................. 303
DNS Name Query Request Message to the DNS Server...................................................... 303
DNS Name Query Response Message to the Web Client ..................................................... 306
TCP SYN-ACK Segment to the Web Client ......................................................................... 309
TCP ACK Segment to the Web Server ................................................................................ 310
HTTP Get Segment to the Web Server................................................................................ 311
HTTP Get-Response Segment to the Web Client ................................................................. 312
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 314
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 315
Chapter 11 – NetBIOS over TCP/IP............................................................................................. 317
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 318
NetBIOS over TCP/IP Overview ................................................................................................ 319
Enabling NetBIOS over TCP/IP .............................................................................................. 320
NetBIOS Names ................................................................................................................... 321
Common NetBIOS Names.................................................................................................. 322
NetBIOS Name Registration, Resolution, and Release............................................................ 323
Name Registration ............................................................................................................. 323
Name Resolution ............................................................................................................... 323
15. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xiii
Name Release................................................................................................................... 324
Segmenting NetBIOS Names with the NetBIOS Scope ID ....................................................... 324
NetBIOS Name Resolution........................................................................................................ 326
Resolving Local NetBIOS Names Using a Broadcast............................................................... 326
Limitations of Broadcasts ................................................................................................... 327
Resolving Names with a NetBIOS Name Server ..................................................................... 327
Windows Methods of Resolving NetBIOS Names .................................................................... 327
NetBIOS Node Types ............................................................................................................... 329
Using the Lmhosts File ............................................................................................................. 330
Predefined Keywords ............................................................................................................ 330
Using a Centralized Lmhosts File ........................................................................................... 331
Creating Lmhosts Entries for Specific NetBIOS Names ........................................................... 332
Name Resolution Problems Using Lmhosts ............................................................................ 333
The Nbtstat Tool....................................................................................................................... 334
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 335
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 336
Chapter 12 – Windows Internet Name Service Overview ........................................................... 339
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 340
Introduction to WINS ................................................................................................................. 341
How WINS Works..................................................................................................................... 342
Name Registration ................................................................................................................ 342
When a Duplicate Name Is Found....................................................................................... 342
When WINS Servers are Unavailable .................................................................................. 343
Name Renewal ..................................................................................................................... 343
Name Refresh Request...................................................................................................... 343
Name Refresh Response ................................................................................................... 343
Name Release...................................................................................................................... 343
Name Resolution .................................................................................................................. 344
The WINS Client....................................................................................................................... 345
DHCP Configuration of a WINS Client .................................................................................... 345
Manual Configuration of the WINS Client Using Network Connections ...................................... 345
Manual Configuration of the WINS Client Using Netsh............................................................. 346
16. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xiv
Configuration of the WINS Client for Remote Access Clients ................................................... 347
The WINS Server Service ......................................................................................................... 348
Installing the WINS Server Service......................................................................................... 348
Properties of the WINS Server ............................................................................................... 349
Static Entries for Non-WINS Clients ....................................................................................... 350
Database Replication Between WINS Servers ........................................................................ 351
Push and Pull Operations ................................................................................................... 353
Configuring a WINS Server as a Push or Pull Partner .......................................................... 354
Configuring Database Replication....................................................................................... 354
WINS Automatic Replication Partners ................................................................................. 356
The WINS Proxy....................................................................................................................... 357
How WINS Proxies Resolve Names ....................................................................................... 357
WINS Proxies and Name Registration .................................................................................... 358
Configuration of a WINS Proxy .............................................................................................. 359
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 360
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 361
Chapter 13 – Internet Protocol Security and Packet Filtering .................................................... 363
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 364
IPsec and Packet Filtering Overview .......................................................................................... 365
IPsec ....................................................................................................................................... 366
Security Properties of IPsec-protected Communications .......................................................... 366
IPsec Protocols..................................................................................................................... 367
IPsec Modes......................................................................................................................... 367
Transport Mode ................................................................................................................. 367
Tunnel Mode ..................................................................................................................... 369
Negotiation Phases ............................................................................................................... 370
Phase I or Main Mode Negotiation ...................................................................................... 371
Phase II or Quick Mode Negotiation.................................................................................... 372
Connection Security Rules..................................................................................................... 372
IPsec Policy Settings............................................................................................................. 373
General IPsec Policy Settings............................................................................................. 373
Rules ................................................................................................................................ 375
17. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xv
Default Response Rule ...................................................................................................... 376
Filter List ........................................................................................................................... 376
Filter Settings .................................................................................................................... 377
Filter Action ....................................................................................................................... 377
IPsec Security Methods ...................................................................................................... 379
Custom Security Methods .................................................................................................. 380
Authentication ................................................................................................................... 381
Tunnel Endpoint ................................................................................................................ 382
Connection Type ............................................................................................................... 382
IPsec for IPv6 Traffic ............................................................................................................. 383
Packet Filtering ........................................................................................................................ 384
Windows Firewall .................................................................................................................. 384
Configuring Rules with the Windows Firewall with Advanced Security Snap-in....................... 385
Configuring Windows Firewall with Control Panel................................................................. 385
How Windows Firewall Works............................................................................................. 386
Internet Connection Firewall (ICF) .......................................................................................... 387
TCP/IP Filtering .................................................................................................................... 388
Packet Filtering with Routing and Remote Access................................................................... 389
Basic Firewall .................................................................................................................... 390
IP Packet Filtering.............................................................................................................. 391
IPv6 Packet Filtering ............................................................................................................. 392
Windows Firewall............................................................................................................... 393
IPv6 Packet Filtering with Routing and Remote Access........................................................ 393
Basic IPv6 Firewall ............................................................................................................ 393
IPv6 ICF............................................................................................................................ 393
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 395
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 396
Chapter 14 – Virtual Private Networking .................................................................................... 399
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 400
Virtual Private Networking Overview .......................................................................................... 401
Components of a VPN........................................................................................................... 401
Attributes of a VPN Connection.............................................................................................. 402
18. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xvi
User Authentication............................................................................................................ 403
Encapsulation.................................................................................................................... 403
Encryption ......................................................................................................................... 403
Types of VPN Connections .................................................................................................... 403
Remote Access ................................................................................................................. 403
Site-to-Site ........................................................................................................................ 405
VPN Protocols.......................................................................................................................... 407
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)................................................................................................. 407
Phase 1: PPP Link Establishment ....................................................................................... 407
Phase 2: User Authentication ............................................................................................. 407
Phase 3: PPP Callback Control .......................................................................................... 409
Phase 4: Invoking Network Layer Protocol(s)....................................................................... 409
Data-Transfer Phase.......................................................................................................... 409
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP) ............................................................................... 409
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol with IPsec (L2TP/IPsec) ........................................................... 410
Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol (SSTP).............................................................................. 410
Remote Access VPN Connections ............................................................................................. 412
VPN Client Support ............................................................................................................... 412
Network Connections Folder............................................................................................... 412
Connection Manager.......................................................................................................... 412
VPN Server Support .............................................................................................................. 413
VPN Server Support in Windows Vista................................................................................ 414
VPN Server Support in Windows XP ................................................................................... 415
IP Address Assignment and Routing and Remote Access........................................................ 415
Obtaining IPv4 Addresses via DHCP................................................................................... 415
Obtaining IPv4 Addresses from a Static Address Pool.......................................................... 416
The Process for Setting Up a Remote Access VPN Connection ............................................... 417
Step 1: Logical Link Setup .................................................................................................. 417
Step 2: PPP Connection Setup ........................................................................................... 419
Step 3: Remote Access VPN Client Registration .................................................................. 419
Site-to-Site VPN Connections .................................................................................................... 420
Configuring a Site-to-Site VPN Connection ............................................................................. 421
19. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xvii
Configuring a Demand-dial Interface ................................................................................... 421
Connection Example for a Site-to-Site VPN ............................................................................ 422
The Connection Process for Site-to-Site VPNs ........................................................................ 424
Using RADIUS for Network Access Authentication...................................................................... 425
RADIUS Components ........................................................................................................... 425
Access Clients................................................................................................................... 426
Access Servers ................................................................................................................. 426
RADIUS Servers ................................................................................................................ 426
User Account Databases .................................................................................................... 426
RADIUS Proxies ................................................................................................................ 427
NPS or IAS as a RADIUS Server ........................................................................................... 427
Network and Remote Access Policies ................................................................................. 429
Network or Remote Access Policy Conditions and Restrictions ............................................. 429
NPS or IAS as a RADIUS Proxy............................................................................................. 430
Connection Request Processing ......................................................................................... 431
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 432
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 433
Chapter 15 – IPv6 Transition Technologies ............................................................................... 435
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 436
Introduction to IPv6 Transition Technologies .............................................................................. 437
IPv6 Transition Mechanisms ..................................................................................................... 438
Dual Stack or Dual IP Layer Architectures .............................................................................. 438
DNS Infrastructure ................................................................................................................ 439
Address Selection Rules .................................................................................................... 439
IPv6 Over IPv4 Tunneling ...................................................................................................... 440
Tunneling Configurations.................................................................................................... 440
Types of Tunnels ............................................................................................................... 441
ISATAP.................................................................................................................................... 442
Using an ISATAP Router....................................................................................................... 443
Resolving the ISATAP Name .............................................................................................. 444
Using the netsh interface isatap set router Command........................................................... 445
Setting up an ISATAP Router ................................................................................................ 445
20. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xviii
6to4......................................................................................................................................... 446
6to4 Support in Windows ....................................................................................................... 448
Teredo ..................................................................................................................................... 452
Teredo Components ............................................................................................................. 452
Teredo Addresses................................................................................................................. 454
How Teredo Works ............................................................................................................... 455
Initial Configuration ............................................................................................................ 455
Initial Communication Between Two Teredo Clients in Different Sites.................................... 455
Migrating to IPv6 ...................................................................................................................... 458
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 459
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 460
Chapter 16 – Troubleshooting TCP/IP........................................................................................ 463
Chapter Objectives ................................................................................................................... 464
Identifying the Problem Source.................................................................................................. 465
Windows Troubleshooting Tools ................................................................................................ 466
Troubleshooting IPv4 ................................................................................................................ 468
Verifying IPv4 Connectivity .................................................................................................... 468
Repair the Connection ....................................................................................................... 468
Verify Configuration ........................................................................................................... 469
Manage Configuration ........................................................................................................ 469
Verify Reachability ............................................................................................................. 470
Check Packet Filtering ....................................................................................................... 471
View and Manage the Local IPv4 Routing Table .................................................................. 472
Verify Router Reliability ...................................................................................................... 472
Verifying DNS Name Resolution for IPv4 Addresses ............................................................... 472
Verify DNS Configuration ................................................................................................... 472
Display and Flush the DNS Client Resolver Cache .............................................................. 473
Test DNS Name Resolution with Ping ................................................................................. 473
Use the Nslookup Tool to View DNS Server Responses ....................................................... 473
Verifying NetBIOS Name Resolution ...................................................................................... 473
Verify NetBIOS over TCP/IP Configuration .......................................................................... 473
Display and Reload the NetBIOS Name Cache.................................................................... 474
21. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xix
Test NetBIOS Name Resolution with Nbtstat ....................................................................... 474
Verifying IPv4-based TCP Sessions ....................................................................................... 474
Check for Packet Filtering .................................................................................................. 474
Verify TCP Session Establishment ...................................................................................... 475
Verify NetBIOS Sessions.................................................................................................... 475
Troubleshooting IPv6 ................................................................................................................ 476
Verifying IPv6 Connectivity .................................................................................................... 476
Verify Configuration ........................................................................................................... 476
Manage Configuration ........................................................................................................ 477
Verify Reachability ............................................................................................................. 477
Check Packet Filtering ....................................................................................................... 478
View and Manage the IPv6 Routing Table ........................................................................... 479
Verify Router Reliability ...................................................................................................... 479
Verifying DNS Name Resolution for IPv6 Addresses ............................................................... 479
Verify DNS Configuration ................................................................................................... 479
Display and Flush the DNS Client Resolver Cache .............................................................. 480
Test DNS Name Resolution with the Ping Tool .................................................................... 480
Use the Nslookup Tool to View DNS Server Responses ....................................................... 480
Verifying IPv6-based TCP Connections .................................................................................. 480
Check for Packet Filtering .................................................................................................. 480
Verify TCP Connection Establishment ................................................................................. 481
Chapter Summary .................................................................................................................... 482
Chapter Glossary ..................................................................................................................... 483
Appendix A – IP Multicast .......................................................................................................... 485
Overview of IP Multicast............................................................................................................ 486
IP Multicast-Enabled Intranet ................................................................................................. 486
Host Support for IP Multicast .............................................................................................. 487
Router Support for IP Multicast ........................................................................................... 487
Multicast Addresses.................................................................................................................. 490
IPv4 Multicast Addresses ...................................................................................................... 490
Mapping IPv4 Multicast to MAC-Layer Multicast................................................................... 490
IPv6 Multicast Addresses ...................................................................................................... 491
22. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xx
Solicited-Node Address...................................................................................................... 492
Mapping IPv6 Multicast to MAC-Layer Multicast................................................................... 493
Multicast Subnet Membership Management............................................................................ 493
IGMP for IPv4.................................................................................................................... 494
MLD for IPv6 ..................................................................................................................... 494
IPv4 Multicast Forwarding Support in Windows Server 2008 and Windows Server 2003 ............... 496
IPv4 Multicast Forwarding...................................................................................................... 496
IGMP Routing Protocol Component ........................................................................................ 496
IGMP Router Mode............................................................................................................ 497
IGMP Proxy Mode ............................................................................................................. 498
IPv4 Multicast Address Allocation with MADCAP ........................................................................ 500
Using Multicast Scopes ......................................................................................................... 500
Reliable Multicast with Pragmatic General Multicast (PGM) ......................................................... 502
PGM Overview ..................................................................................................................... 502
Adding and Using the Reliable Multicast Protocol.................................................................... 503
Adding the Reliable Multicast Protocol ................................................................................ 503
Writing PGM-enabled Applications ...................................................................................... 503
How PGM and the Reliable Multicast Protocol Works .............................................................. 503
Appendix B – Simple Network Management Protocol................................................................ 505
SNMP Overview....................................................................................................................... 506
The Management Information Base........................................................................................ 507
The Hierarchical Name Tree............................................................................................... 507
SNMP Messages .................................................................................................................. 508
SNMP Communities .............................................................................................................. 509
How SNMP Works ................................................................................................................ 510
Windows SNMP Service........................................................................................................... 512
Installing and Configuring the SNMP Service .......................................................................... 513
Agent Tab ......................................................................................................................... 513
Traps Tab ......................................................................................................................... 514
Security Tab...................................................................................................................... 514
Evntcmd Tool ....................................................................................................................... 515
Appendix C – Computer Browser Service.................................................................................. 517
23. TCP/IP Fundamentals for Microsoft Windows Page: xxi
Computer Browsing Overview ................................................................................................... 518
Browsing Collection and Distribution ...................................................................................... 519
The Collection Process ...................................................................................................... 519
The Distribution Process .................................................................................................... 520
Servicing Browse Client Requests.......................................................................................... 521
Obtaining the List of Servers Within its LAN Group .............................................................. 521
Obtaining the List of Servers Within Another LAN Group ...................................................... 522
Obtaining the List of Shares on a Server ............................................................................. 523
The Computer Browser Service on Computers Running Windows Server 2008......................... 523
Computer Browser Service Operation on an IPv4 Network .......................................................... 525
Domain Spanning an IPv4 Router .......................................................................................... 525
Collection and Distribution Process..................................................................................... 526
Servicing Browse Client Requests ...................................................................................... 527
Configuring the Lmhosts File for an Domain that Spans IPv4 Routers ................................... 528
Multiple Domains Separated By IPv4 Routers ......................................................................... 528
Collection and Distribution Process..................................................................................... 529
Servicing WINS-enabled Client Requests for Remote Domains ............................................ 530
Servicing non-WINS Client Requests for Remote Domains ................................................... 532
Workgroup Spanning an IPv4 Router ..................................................................................... 533
Multiple Workgroups Separated By IPv4 Routers .................................................................... 534
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Chapter 1 – Introduction to TCP/IP
Abstract
This chapter introduces Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP), both as an industry standard protocol
suite and as it is supported in the Microsoft Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2003, and
Windows XP families of operating systems. For the TCP/IP protocol suite, network administrators must understand its
past, the current standards process, and the common terms used to describe network devices and portions of a
network. For the TCP/IP components in Windows, network administrators must understand the installation and
configuration differences of the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)-based and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6)-based
components and the primary tools for troubleshooting.
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Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, you will be able to:
• Describe the purpose and history of the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• Describe the Internet standards process and the purpose of a Request for Comments (RFC) document.
• Define common terms used in TCP/IP.
• Describe the advantages of including TCP/IP components in Windows.
• Describe how to configure the IPv4-based TCP/IP component in Windows.
• Describe how to install and configure the IPv6-based TCP/IP component in Windows.
• List and define the set of name resolution files and diagnostic tools used by the TCP/IP components in
Windows.
• Test the TCP/IP components of Windows with the Ipconfig and Ping tools.
• Install and use Network Monitor.
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History of TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry standard suite of protocols that
is designed for large networks consisting of network segments that are connected by routers. TCP/IP is
the protocol that is used on the Internet, which is the collection of thousands of networks worldwide that
connect research facilities, universities, libraries, government agencies, private companies, and
individuals.
The roots of TCP/IP can be traced back to research conducted by the United States Department of
Defense (DoD) Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The
following list highlights some important TCP/IP milestones:
• In 1970, ARPANET hosts started to use Network Control Protocol (NCP), a preliminary form of what
would become the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
• In 1972, the Telnet protocol was introduced. Telnet is used for terminal emulation to connect dissimilar
systems. In the early 1970s, these systems were different types of mainframe computers.
• In 1973, the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) was introduced. FTP is used to exchange files between
dissimilar systems.
• In 1974, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was specified in detail. TCP replaced NCP and
provided enhanced reliable communication services.
• In 1981, the Internet Protocol (IP) (also known as IP version 4 [IPv4]) was specified in detail. IP
provides addressing and routing functions for end-to-end delivery.
• In 1982, the Defense Communications Agency (DCA) and ARPA established the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) as the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• In 1983, ARPANET switched from NCP to TCP/IP.
• In 1984, the Domain Name System (DNS) was introduced. DNS resolves domain names (such as
www.example.com) to IP addresses (such as 192.168.5.18).
• In 1995, Internet service providers (ISPs) began to offer Internet access to businesses and individuals.
• In 1996, the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) was introduced. The World Wide Web uses HTTP.
• In 1996, the first set of IP version 6 (IPv6) standards were published.
For more information about these protocols and the layers of the TCP/IP protocol architecture, see
Chapter 2, "Architectural Overview of the TCP/IP Protocol Suite."
With the refinement of the IPv6 standards and their growing acceptance, the chapters of this online
book make the following definitions:
• TCP/IP is the entire suite of protocols defined for use on private networks and the Internet. TCP/IP
includes both the IPv4 and IPv6 sets of protocols.
• IPv4 is the Internet layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite originally defined for use on the Internet. IPv4 is in
widespread use today.
• IPv6 is the Internet layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite that has been recently developed. IPv6 is gaining
acceptance today.
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• IP is the term used to describe features or attributes that apply to both IPv4 and IPv6. For example, an
IP address is either an IPv4 address or an IPv6 address.
Note Because the term IP indicates IPv4 in most of the TCP/IP implementations today, the term IP will be
used for IPv4 in some instances. These references will be made clear in the context of the discussion.
When possible, the chapters of this online book will use the term IP (IPv4).
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The Internet Standards Process
Because TCP/IP is the protocol of the Internet, it has evolved based on fundamental standards that
have been created and adopted over more than 30 years. The future of TCP/IP is closely associated
with the advances and administration of the Internet as additional standards continue to be developed.
Although no one organization owns the Internet or its technologies, several organizations oversee and
manage these new standards, such as the Internet Society and the Internet Architecture Board.
The Internet Society (ISOC) was created in 1992 and is a global organization responsible for the
internetworking technologies and applications of the Internet. Although the society’s principal purpose is
to encourage the development and availability of the Internet, it is also responsible for the further
development of the standards and protocols that allow the Internet to function.
The ISOC sponsors the Internet Architecture Board (IAB), a technical advisory group that sets Internet
standards, publishes RFCs, and oversees the Internet standards process. The IAB governs the
following bodies:
• The Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA) oversees and coordinates the assignment of protocol
identifiers used on the Internet.
• The Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) coordinates all TCP/IP-related research projects.
• The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) solves technical problems and needs as they arise on the
Internet and develops Internet standards and protocols. IETF working groups define standards known
as RFCs.
Requests for Comments (RFCs)
The standards for TCP/IP are published in a series of documents called Requests for Comments
(RFCs). RFCs describe the internal workings of the Internet. TCP/IP standards are always published as
RFCs, although not all RFCs specify standards. Some RFCs provide informational, experimental, or
historical information only.
An RFC begins as an Internet draft, which is typically developed by one or more authors in an IETF
working group. An IETF working group is a group of individuals that has a specific charter for an area of
technology in the TCP/IP protocol suite. For example, the IP v6 working group devotes its efforts to
furthering the standards of IPv6. After a period of review and a consensus of acceptance, the IETF
publishes the final version of the Internet draft as an RFC and assigns it an RFC number.
RFCs also receive one of five requirement levels, as listed in Table 1-1.
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Requirement level Description
Required Must be implemented on all TCP/IP-based hosts and
gateways.
Recommended Encouraged that all TCP/IP-based hosts and
gateways implement the RFC specifications.
Recommended RFCs are usually implemented.
Elective Implementation is optional. Its application has been
agreed to but never widely used.
Limited use Not intended for general use.
Not recommended Not recommended for implementation.
Table 1-1 Requirement Levels of RFCs
If an RFC is being considered as a standard, it goes through stages of development, testing, and
acceptance. Within the Internet standards process, these stages are formally known as maturity levels.
Internet standards have one of three maturity levels, as listed in Table 1-2. Maturity levels are
determined by the RFC's IETF working group and are independent of requirement levels.
Maturity level Description
Proposed Standard A Proposed Standard specification is generally stable,
has resolved known design choices, is believed to be
well understood, has received significant community
review, and appears to enjoy enough community
interest to be considered valuable.
Draft Standard A Draft Standard specification must be well
understood and known to be quite stable, both in its
semantics and as a basis for developing an
implementation.
Internet Standard An Internet Standard specification (which may simply
be referred to as a Standard) is characterized by a
high degree of technical maturity and by a generally
held belief that the specified protocol or service
provides significant benefit to the Internet community.
Table 1-2 Maturity Levels of Internet Standards
If an RFC-based standard must change, the IETF publishes a new Internet draft and, after a period of
review, a new RFC with a new number. The original RFC is never updated. Therefore, you should verify
that you have the most recent RFC on a particular topic or standard. For example, we reference RFCs
throughout the chapters of this online book. If you decide to look up the technical details of an Internet
standard in its RFC, make sure that you have the latest RFC that describes the standard.
You can obtain RFCs from http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html.
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TCP/IP Terminology
The Internet standards use a specific set of terms when referring to network elements and concepts
related to TCP/IP networking. These terms provide a foundation for subsequent chapters. Figure 1-1
illustrates the components of an IP network.
Figure 1-1 Elements of an IP network
Common terms and concepts in TCP/IP are defined as follows:
• Node Any device, including routers and hosts, which runs an implementation of IP.
• Router A node that can forward IP packets not explicitly addressed to itself. On an IPv6 network, a
router also typically advertises its presence and host configuration information.
• Host A node that cannot forward IP packets not explicitly addressed to itself (a non-router). A host is
typically the source and the destination of IP traffic. A host silently discards traffic that it receives but
that is not explicitly addressed to itself.
• Upper-layer protocol A protocol above IP that uses IP as its transport. Examples include Internet
layer protocols such as the Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Transport layer protocols
such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP). (However,
Application layer protocols that use TCP and UDP as their transports are not considered upper-layer
protocols. File Transfer Protocol [FTP] and Domain Name System [DNS] fall into this category). For
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details of the layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite, see Chapter 2, "Architectural Overview of the TCP/IP
Protocol Suite."
• LAN segment A portion of a subnet consisting of a single medium that is bounded by bridges or Layer
2 switches.
• Subnet One or more LAN segments that are bounded by routers and use the same IP address prefix.
Other terms for subnet are network segment and link.
• Network Two or more subnets connected by routers. Another term for network is internetwork.
• Neighbor A node connected to the same subnet as another node.
• Interface The representation of a physical or logical attachment of a node to a subnet. An example of
a physical interface is a network adapter. An example of a logical interface is a tunnel interface that is
used to send IPv6 packets across an IPv4 network.
• Address An identifier that can be used as the source or destination of IP packets and that is assigned
at the Internet layer to an interface or set of interfaces.
• Packet The protocol data unit (PDU) that exists at the Internet layer and comprises an IP header and
payload.