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1. CHAPTER 9 - THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (Pages
349-394)
INTRODUCTION:
 1789 – French Revolution begins
 Replaced the “old regime” with “modern society”
 very radical
 Ideas of revolution spread throughout Europe
 Influenced the development of political parties
 Had 24 million people in a single government
 France was the most advanced country of the day
 Center of intellectual movement of the Enlightenment
 Europeans took their ideas from France
41. BACKGROUND:
A. The Old Regime: The Three Estates
 Structure:
 The Old Regime was legally aristocratic and feudal society
 Everyone belonged to an “estate” society
 1st
Estate – Clergy
 2nd
Estate – Nobility Legal Rights and personal prestige
 3rd
Estate – Everyone else depended on Estate.
 The Church:
 Levied a tithe on all agricultural products.
 Played a part in the government affairs
 100 000 Clergy owned 5-10% of the land
 Most of the income went to the aristocratic holders of high
Church offices
 The Nobility: (400 000 people)
 Monopolized all high offices (government, Church, army)
 Largely tax exempt
 Blocked royal plans for taxation
 Blocked all reforms
 Bourgeoisie(elite of the Third Estate):
 Foreign trade had increased five-fold (1713-1789)
 Resented privileges and arrogance of the nobility
B. The Agrarian System of the Old Regime
 Survival of Feudal Privileges:
 80% of the people were rural, (no serfdom was involved)
 Peasants owed no labor to the lord, except a few a token services
 Worked their own land, rented the land or were sharecroppers
(some were hired out to the lord or another peasant)

2.  Nobles retained a few feudal rights, hunting rights; collection of fees
through banalities for use of mill, bakeshop or wine press (had
monopolies). Possessed limited court and police powers.
 Property system of the Old Regime:
 Manor owners owned “eminent property” rights, with certain rents or
transfer payments owed.
 Ownership was widespread: peasants owned 40%, nobles 20%, the
Church 10%, and the remainder in crown, waste or common land.
 The Revolution was to free land ownership from all indirect
hindrances: manorial fees, “eminent property” rights, communal
village agricultural practices and church tithes.
 The “Feudal Reaction”
 Peasants occupied most of the land, either through ownership or
lease.
 There was no big agriculture, no manorial lords, actually managing
estates and selling his own crops.
 By 1780, many manorial lords, pinched by inflation or seeking greater
returns, collected dues more rigorously and revived old dues that
fallen into disuse.
 Lease and sharecropping terms became less favorable to the
peasants.
 Resentments built – the peasants resented the “feudal dues”,
since the property system had no relation to economic
usefulness.
 Political Unity of France
 France was unified: unpopular social conditions could bring national
opinion and agitation.
 The Revolution was to rouse a sense of brotherhood, and to create a
sense of citizenship and civic rights to the public advantage.
C. Political Culture and Public Opinion after 1770
 The Revolution and the Enlightenment
 18th
Century writers created a culture that encouraged political/social
criticism
 Educated people of the 3rd
Estate could use the Enlightenment
concepts pf reason, natural rights and historical progress to
complain about the irrationality of ancient privileges.
 The connections between the Enlightenment philosophies and the
Revolution are inadequate
 Philosophies favored social reforms, but were not
revolutionaries
 The Critical Spirit
 Critical Spirit developed in salons, coffeehouses and literary
arguments spread rapidly into a developing public sphere of political
debate

3.  Stories of corruption in high places stripped away the once
sacred image of the monarchy, Church and social hierarchy.
 Lawyers could publish their legal briefs without securing the approval
of government censors.
42. THE REVOLUTION AND THE REORGANIZATION OF FRANCE
A. The Financial Crisis
 Revolution was triggered by financial collapse in France mainly
because of war costs – including past debts
 Problems of Taxation
 low revenues: not enough for debts and other costs
 this was due to tax evasion and exemptions
 Resistance of Tax Reform
 Aristocrats refused tax reforms by Mapeau, Turgot and Necker
 In 1786, Calonne suggested a land tax without tax exemptions,
lessening of indirect taxes and abolition of internal tariffs,
confiscation of some properties of the Church. Proposed
establishment of provincial assemblies where all citizens would be
represented.
 Resistance of Nobles
 The “Assembly of notables” was called to discuss the endorsement of
Calonne’s ideas – this resulted in a deadlock, Calonne was fired.
 Brienne, succeeded Calonne and tried to push Calonnes program
through the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement rejected, declaring
that only an Estates General could consider the matter of new taxes.
 But, Brienne and Louis XVI refused to have the Estates General
convene because it would be dominated by the nobility,
replaced the parlements with a modernized judicial system.
This resulted in a revolt of nobles, resistance from the
parlements and Provincial Estates, army officers etc.
 Louis XVI agreed to call the Estates General for May, with the classes
invited to elect representatives and prepare lists of grievances.
B. From Estates General to National Assembly
 The Aims of the Nobility
 Nobles, through the Parlements, ruled that the Estates General
should meet and vote by Estates – giving them a two thirds majority –
aristocracy would rule.This was the aim of the nobility.
 Nobles had a liberal program: constitutional government with
freedoms and limited tax privileges.
 The 3rd
Estate Reacts
 The third Estate turned on the nobility in distrust. Abbe Sieyes
Lunched his “What is the Third Estate?” pamphlet, declaring that the

4. nobility was useless and could be abolished without loss and that the
Third Estate was the general and necessary will of the nation.
 Class antagonisms built, making peaceful reform impossible.
 Estates General met in May it was boycotted by the Third Estate
which insisted on one vote for very individual. After six weeks of
debate they were joined by the clergy, and the 3rd
Estate declared
itself the National Assembly. The 3rd
Estate was shut out of their
meeting hall by troops; therefore, they met in a nearby indoor tennis
court and swore the Tennis Court Oath on June 20 – declaring that
they would not disband until they had written a new national
constitution.
 Failure of royal leadership
 Louis XVI had failed: “…lost control over the Estates General, exerted
no leadership, offered no program until it was too late, and provided
no symbol behind which parties could rally. He failed to make use of
the profound loyalty to himself felt by the bourgeoisie and common
people.”(page 358) Defied by the National Assembly (the 3rd
Estate),
he yielded to advisors and close family members and moved 18 000
troops to Versailles to dissolve the Estates General by force.
C. The Lower Classes in Action
 The Storming of the Bastille
 Harvest of 1988 was poor and 1789 was the year of depression:
falling wages and unemployment, food prices continued to rise.
 The government unable to react to the crisis in order to relieve the
distress.
 Workers rioted in Paris, peasants refused to pay taxes and
beggars increased.
- Townspeople feared social violence and began to arm.
 On July 14 a mob, assaulted and captured the Bastille, murdering 6
soldiers, the governor of the Bastille and the mayor of Paris – army
units near the Bastille did not react to this.
 The King accepted a citizen committee as the government of Paris,
sent away the troops he had called to Versailles, and ordered all to
join the National Assembly.
 A bourgeois national guard was created to keep order in Paris,
headed by Lafayette.
 The Great Fear of 1789
In the countryside, a general panic called the Great Fear began –
wanted to destroy the manorial regime by force by: burning manor
houses, attacked any records of fees and dues.
 A wave of emigres, mainly nobles, fled France.
D. The Initial Reforms of the National Assembly
 The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
 On the “night of August 4”, the National Assembly ended all tithes
and tax exemptions.

5.  On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was
formed.
 “Men are born, and remain, free and equal in rights.” The
rights of man included liberty, property, and resistance to
oppression, freedom of thought and religion were guaranteed;
powers of government were to be separated in branches.
 The Rights of Woman
 Olympe de Gouges wrote the The Rights of Women(1792)
 There were a few reforms that lead to the betterment of women’s
rights – redefined marriage, legalized divorce and inheritance.
 National Assembly remained divided. Finally, a crowd of market women
and revolutionary militants, followed by the Paris national guard,
besieged Versailles and moved Louis and his family and the National
Assembly to Paris in October.
 The Jacobins
 National Assembly became more liberal began to form into clubs, of
which the most important was the Society of the Friends of the
Constitution, known as Jacobins.
 The Jacobins discussed policies and plan change.
E. Constitutional Changes
 The Constitution of 1791
 The National Assembly/Constituent Assembly governed France from
1789 to 1791. They wrote a new constitution destroying the old
regime: 83 departments with uniform municipal organization.
Officials were to be elected locally. Sovereign power was vested in a
unicameral assembly. The executive assembly was kept weak; the
king could only suspend or postpone laws. The new Legislative
Assembly was to be elected by active citizens (males over 25), who
paid direct tax. These men elected “electors: ho then elected the
representatives.
 In July 1791, the King tried to flee, but was caught.
F. Economic and Cultural Policies
 Assignats
 To help pay the debt and pay current expenses, the Constituent
Assembly in 1789 confiscated all Church property and issued
notes(assignats) against them. Assignats could be used to purchase
church property.
 Banning labor organizations
 The government abolished the old guilds and trade unions in favor of
free trade.
 A Revolutionary Political Culture
 France begins to develop a new national identity through the new
flag, clothing, festivals and public monuments. The new cultural and
political culture helped shape France’s national identity.
G. The Quarrel with the Church

6.  The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 The Church was outraged by the loss of property (and closing of
schools), but the Civil Constitution of the Clergy of 1790 was worse.
 Assembly created a national Church: priests and bishops were to be
elected by all citizens and were to be paid by the state. Bishops were
forbidden to accept authority of the Pope and all religious orders were
closed. These were all forced upon the clergy of the state.
 The Pope pronounced that the Civil Constitution as an usurpation and
condemned the French Revolution.
 The Church was considered anti-democratic and anti-liberal.
 “Constitutional” and “Refractory” clergy
 The Constituent Assembly could not decide what to do, even with the
Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Sometimes they let the clergy do
whatever they wished, other times they hunted out and persecuted
the clergy (which stirred up religious fanaticism).
43. THE REVOLUTION AND EUROPE: THE WAR AND THE “SECOND
REVOLUTION”, 1792
A. The International Impact of the Revolution
 Inspiration of the Revolution
 In Belgium, England, Germany and in other places, people began
having strikes and revolts inspired by the events in France.
 Anti-Revolutionary Sentiment
 Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France
predicted anarchy and dictatorship for France and advised England to
support gradual change.
 The Russian Empress Catherine forbade Russian translations of
Voltaire.
 The French emigrés, led by Louis XVI’s brother, began using their
aristocratic connections to preach a holy war against revolution.
B. The Coming of war, April 1792
 The Declaration of Pillnitz
 Austria and Prussia declared that they would take action if Leopold
would take military steps to restore order to France.
 This action was unlikely. The Emigres used the Declaration as a threat
against France.
 France Goes to War
 The Girondins became the dominant faction of the revolution. They
believed that French armies should enter neighbouring countries,
unite with the local revolutionaries and overthrow established
governments. This would preserve the Revolution.
 Lafayette also favored war, but for a different reason. He believed
that it would restore the constitutional monarchy.
 France declares war on Austria on April 20, 1792.

7. C. The “Second” Revolution
 Agitation and Violence in Paris
 Return of the emigres, this was a real threat to the French people.
 Austria and Prussia are on the point of invading France…….
 In Paris:
 On August 10, 1792, the working class and others stormed the
Tuileries against resistance by the Swiss Guard, the royal
family was imprisoned, and a revolutionary municipal
government(Commune) was set up. This ended the Legislative
Assembly, calling for an election of a Constitutional Convention
elected by universal male suffrage.
 September Massacres – 1100 counter-revolutionaries were killed due
to war hysteria.
44. THE EMERGENCY REPUBLIC, 1792 – 1795: THE TERROR
A. The National Convention
 Spread of the Revolution
 The National Convention met on September 20, 1792 and proclaimed
the Year One of the French Republic. On the same day, a minor
victory at Valmy led to the Austrian retreat and the French occupation
of Belgium, Savoy and Rhine.
 France declares war
 The Jacobins Split
 The Jacobins split, creating two new groups:
 Montagnards: the most radical people in Paris
 Sans-culottes: shop keepers and artisans
 The Execution of the King
 The sans-culottes denounced the king and queen for collusion with
the Austrians.
 King Louis was put on trial in December 1792, found guilty of treason
and was voted to be executed.
B. Background to the Terror
 The Convention Under Attack
France was in crisis: the French general, Dumouriez was defected and
the Allies threatened to invade. Prices continued to rise, and food
became very scarce.
The sans-culottes demanded price controls, rationing, requisitioning
of food, attacks on profiteering and currency controls; and the
Jacobins agreed with them.
In Vendee, the peasants revolted against military enlistment. The
peasants were encouraged by British agents and Catholic priests.
 Other cities also rebelled after rebel Girondins reached them.
These rebels also became counter-revolutionaries.
 Robespierre

8. The Convention was also attacked by the enrages who demanded
strong action. They formed revolutionary armies, searching for food,
denouncing suspects and preaching revolution.
Maximilien Robespierre was now the Convention leader. He was
originally a lawyer, he had been elected in the Estates General (in
1789). In 1793-1794, he was determined to bring a democratic
republic made of good, virtuous and honest citizens.
C. The Program of the Convention, 1793 – 1794: The Terror
 The “Reign of Terror”
In order to end civil strife and counter-revolution and to win the war
by mobilizing the people and resources; the Convention created the
Committee of Public Safety. The Committee consisted of a group of
12 members of the Convention and were re-elected every month.
In order to repress the counter-revolution the Convention and the
Committee of Public Safety set up the “Reign of Terror”
 Victims of the “Terror”
 The Terror struck those who were against the Republic or were
suspected of hostile activities. Victims included the Queen,
Girondins, Catholic peasants, nobles and enrages.
 The Committee of Public Safety
The Committee functioned as a war cabinet: it centralized
administration. It ordered the levee en masse, which controlled the
export of gold and confiscated foreign currency. The Committee also
ended the manorial system and slavery was abolished.
 The Revolution and Religion
 The program of Dechristianization was launched, adopting a
republican calendar with new months, decades replacing weeks and
no saints days and church holidays.
 Many proposed the worship of Reason, Robespierre was against this
as it would alienate the people.
 Revolutionary Military victories
By 1794, France had an army of 800 000 men, composed of those
who felt that they were fighting for a just cause.
The French troops retook Belgium and Holland.
 Fall of Robespierre
 Military successes made the French less willing to put up with the
Terror.
Robespierre was outlawed, and guillotined on 10 Thermidor. The
Reign of Terror had ended.
D. The Thermidorian Reaction
 Politics and Society after Thermidor
 Convention reduced the powers of the Committee and closed the
Jacobin Club.
 Government controls were relaxed, producing inflation and uprisings.

9.  The Thermidorians believed in individual rights and a written
constitution.
45. THE CONSTITUTIONAL REPUBLIC: THE DIRECTORY, 1795 – 1799
A. The Weakness of the Directory
 The Constitution of 1795
 The Directory was the first constituted Republic.
 It was composed of two chambers: The Council of Five Hundred and
the Council of Ancients. Two thirds of the new legislature had to be
from the Convention.
 The Constitution applied to both France and Belgium. IT restricted the
politically active class. It gave almost all adult males the vote, but
they only voted for “electors”.
 France was split: The Right, royalists, who supported the restoration
of the monarchy and the reinstatement of the nobility and church.
The left favored the democratic ideals of the Revolution.
B. The Political Crisis of 1797
 Napoleon Bonaparte
 Elections in March 1797 brought a body favoring a constitutional
monarchy, and this was intolerable to the old republicans and
Napoleon.
Napoleon Bonaparte captures Italy.
 The coup d’etat of Fructidor
This coup d’etat resolved any issues. The Directory turned to
Bonaparte for help. They annulled the elections and made peace
with Austria.
 France annexed Belgium and the west bank of the Rhine.
 Revolutionary Republicanism Spreads
 French Revolutionary ideals spread through Italy and Switzerland.
C. The Coup d’état of 1799: Bonaparte
 The Directory Turns to Bonaparte
 Napoleon indirectly attacks England by threatening India through
the invasion of Egypt.
 The Directory was inefficient, as it could not solve the problem of
national debt. Those who were looking to find a person who could
lead France to victory and they chose Napoleon.
 The coup resulted in a Consulate, run by three man committee
(consuls), with Napoleon as the leader.
46. THE AUTHORITAN REPUBLIC: THE CONSULATE, 1799 – 1804
A. The Consulate
 Napoleon’s Genius

10.  Napoleon had extraordinary intellect. He also had the ability to lead
men and inspired confidence. He had a quick grasp of problems and
the ability to make rapid decisions.
 Bonaporte as First Consul
He made peace with Britain.
He created a secret police and a centralized administrative machine.
Enemies of this new order were ruthlessly suppressed.
B. The Settlement with the Church; Other Reforms
 Concordat with the Vatican
Napoleon signed a Concordat with the Vatican in 1801 giving the
Pope the right to depose bishops. The Pope recognized the Republic
and accepted the loss of church lands. Clergy were promised state
salaries.
 Consulate Reforms
Feudal ideas were eliminated.
 Careers were open to talent
 Established a Bank of France
 Schools were reorganized.
 Estates, legal classes, privileges and guilds no longer existed.
 The Napoleonic Codes
They included the Civil Code, the codes of civil and criminal
procedure, and the commercial and penal codes.
The Code set the character of France as it has been ever since:
socially bourgeoisie, legally egalitarian and administratively
bureaucratic.
C. The End of the Revolution
 From Consulate to Empire
France was at peace at home.
Napoleon was soon to become the Emperor
France was larger, more powerful and more willing to use its power to
change Europe.
1. Describe the members and the rights and obligations of each of the
Three Estates of France. What were the grievances of each on the
eve of the revolution?
There were 3 Estates of France; these were divided as the following:
 The First Estate: Church, played a part in the government affairs, levied
tithe on agricultural products.
 The Second Estate: Nobility, monopolized all high offices (government,
Church and army), largely tax exempt and blocked all reforms.
 The Third Estate: Peasants and Bourgeoisie had no tax privileges. Had
to pay the most amount of taxes.
The grievances of the Estates on the eve of the Revolution were:

11.  First Estate: called for an end to bishops that were not nobles, were
willing to give up financial privileges of the Church and wanted Roman
Catholicism as the official religion of France.
 Second Estate: willing to give up financial privileges, accepted the idea
of careers open to academic merit and said that the government was
out of date.
 Third Estate: wanted a fair voting system in the Estates General and
resented the tax privileges of the other estates.
2. What role did the Enlightenment ideas and values play in provoking
the French Revolution?
The Enlightenment ideas and values played a role in provoking the French
Revolution by:
 Making the people have a new perspective about life, thus becoming
very critical.
 They began to see the truth of “Opinion governs the world”.
Campaigns to influence public opinion became a powerful political
force in French society.
 Began to see a better life with rights and freedoms.
This is how the critical thought of the Enlightenment entered the political
conflicts which led to the revolution.
3. How did the struggle over taxation set the stage for revolution?
The struggle over taxation set the stage for revolution through:
 The French nobility through the Parlement summoned the Estates
General because they also wanted freedoms and were willing to give
up special tax privileges.
 The meeting of the Estates General, which resulted in a deadlock.
This later on, resulted in the formation of the National Assembly and
the Tennis Court Oath. This was a revolutionary step because the
National Assembly assumed sovereign power, but had no legal
authority.
4. Why did the Third Estate declare itself the National Assembly? How
did the king react?
The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly because:
 The Third Estate did not accept the division of the orders into to three
separate chambers.
 The Third Estate initially had been granted double
representation due to the population of this estate, but they
were later informed that the voting would be according to the

12. Estates and not individuals. The Third Estate refused to follow
this, and thus, created the National Assembly.
The king opposed the National Assembly, but later gave in and allowed the
National Assembly to remain in being.
5. What were the causes of social disorder in 1789? What impact did
the actions of the lower classes have on the course of the
revolution?
The causes of social disorder in 1789 were:
 The price of bread rose, because the harvest of 1788 had been poor.
 The growth of trade suddenly halted: wages fell, unemployment rates
went up and scarcity caused food prices to go higher.
In response to this, the lower classes:
 The Storming of the Bastille: assaulting the fortress, killing soldiers
and capturing the governor.
 The King accepted this situation and recognized the citizens’
committee in Paris as the municipal government. He also
commanded the nobles and the clergy to join the National
Assembly.
 Destroying the manorial regime by force by destroying the manors
and manorial archives.
 This resulted in the National Assembly ending serfdom, tithes,
tax privileges, hunting rights, manorial rights and feudal rights.
This also later on led to the formation of the Declaration of
Rights of Man and Citizen.
The impact of the actions of the lower classes on the revolution was such
that it resulted in the recognition of the National Assembly, abolishing
feudalism and the creation of the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.
6. How did the National Assembly destroy feudalism and satisfy the
demands of peasants?
The National Assembly destroyed feudalism and satisfied the demands of
peasants by:
 On August 4, 1789, the National Assembly declared in a decree that
feudalism is abolished. They abolished tithes, personal tax privileges,
hunting rights, and serfdom. Dues were ended with compensation.
 On August 26, 1789, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
was issued. “Men are born and remain, free and equal in rights”, the
rights included liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
Careers were open for all.

13. 7. What freedoms did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
guarantee? To whom did it guarantee those freedoms?
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen guaranteed freedoms of
thought (press), no taxation without representation and religion. These
freedoms were guaranteed for all men.
8. Who were the Jacobins? What social classes did they represent? How
did the actions of Jacobins shape the revolutionary governments in
the years after 1792?
 The Jacobins were those who wanted the Revolution to continue. They
began to organize in club like the Society of Friends of the Constitution,
called the Jacobins for short. The Jacobins were from the Bourgeoisie
social class.
 The actions of Jacobins shaped the revolutionary governments after
1792 by:
 The addition of the Committee of Public Safety and the Reign
of Terror.
 Leading France into war
9. What were the economic policies of the Constituent Assembly? Who
did those policies benefit?
The economic policies of the Constituent Assembly were:
 They confiscated all the property of the Church
 They issued notes called assignats that were used to buy former
Church lands.
 Abolished the old guilds and trade unions.
All these economic changes by the Constituent Assembly benefited the Third
Estate and the Bourgeoisie.
10. How did the revolutionary government deal with labor
unions?
The Revolutionary government dealt with the labor unions by:
 They banned the labor organizations
 Abolished the guilds
11. How did the French Revolution create and promote national
identity among the French people?
The French Revolution created and promoted national identity among the
French people through:

14.  Developing a new political culture that would be symbolized by a new
flag, clothing, festivals and public monuments.
 Supporters of the revolution planted “liberty trees”, and wore “liberty
caps”. Revolutionary plays, novels and songs were also created to
convey the message of national sovereignty and liberty that had
replaced the King and the Church.
 Created a new symbol of liberty: Marianne. This figure offered an
alternative image compared to the Catholic symbol of Virgin Mary.
Through the promotion of new political ideas and symbols through various
aspects of daily life, the French Revolution creates a new national identity
through the use of cultural rituals and symbols.
12. How did the Constituent Assembly view the role of the church
in French society?
The Constituent Assembly viewed the role of the church in French society as:
 A form of public authority, thus secondary to the foreign power
13. Why is the Civil Constitution of the Clergy considered a
blunder by some historians?
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy is considered a blunder by some
historians because:
 The Constituent Assembly could truly never decide what to do.
Sometimes they allowed the refractory clergy to continue what they
were doing and other times they hunted down and persecuted the
refractories, which stirred up religious fanaticism.
14. What were some of the anti-revolutionary reactions
throughout Europe? Why did various individuals and social classes
either support or criticize the revolution?
Some of the anti-revolutionary reactions throughout Europe were:
 Edmund Burke published Reflections on the Revolution in France. He
predicted anarchy and dictatorship and advised England to accept
slow adaption of liberties.
 Russian Empress Catherine, forbade translations of Voltaire. She also
made Radischev (a Russian) go to Siberia because in his book Voyage
from St. Petersburg to Moscow he pointed out the evils of serfdom.
Various individuals and social classes criticized and supported the
revolution because they either were protecting their own interests, such as
the royalty and higher social classes; or because they wanted a government
and society where their rights and freedoms were protected, such as the
lower social classes and other individuals.

15. 15. How did the Declaration of Pillintz enhance the power of the
Girondins?
The Declaration of Pillintz enhanced the power of the Girondins by enraging
the French against all the crowned heads of Europe. This gave political
advantage to the Girondins.
16. Why was war declared on the Austrian monarchy in 1792?
War was declared on the Austrian monarchy in 1792 because:
 Girondins: believed that with war the French armies would enter
neighbouring countries, unite with local revolutionaries, overthrow
the established goverments and set up a federation of republics.
 Another group led by Lafayette (who wished to not to have the
Revolution) who mistakenly believed that the war would help hold the
constitutional monarchy and restore the damaged popularity of King
Louis XVI; and to unite the country under a new government.
17. Why did war exacerbate the dissatisfactions of the lower
classes?
The war worsened the dissatisfactions of the lower classes because:
 The peasants were dissatisfied with the inadequate measures taken
to facilitate land distribution.
 Workers started feeling the effects of soaring prices. A lot of the gold
was taken out of the country by the emigres, and paper money and
assignats slowly lost their value, so no one trusted them. Peasants
began concealing their food, rather than selling it. The cost of living
rose higher and higher.
 They were also threatened by the return of the emigres and the
restoration of the Old Regime, which the peasants didn’t want.
18. How did the French spread revolution throughout Europe?
Where did it spread most successfully? Where was it held in check
by opposing forces?
The France spread Revolution throughout Europe by:
 Providing assistance to “all peoples wishing to recover their liberty”
in the areas that the French armies occupied. The assistance they
provided was through: dissolving old governments, confiscating
government/Church property, abolish tithes, hunting rights and
seigneurial dues. They also set up provisional governments.

16.  France spread The Revolution successfully in Belgium, Savoy region
and the German Left Bank of the Rhine.
The British and Dutch prepared to resist. The French were not truly held in
check by opposing forces because of the weakness of the coalition of Britain,
Holland, Prussia and Austria. Britain and Holland had no land forces, and
Prussia and Austria were jealous of each other and were too preoccupied with
Poland to focus on the French.
19. Who were the sans-culottes? What were their political
demands?
The sans-culottes were the working class of a preindustrial age with shop
keepers and artisans. They were called sans-culottes because they did not
wear the knee breeches of the middle and upper classes. Their political
demands were that they wanted an equality that would be meaningful people
like them, called for an effort against foreign powers that wanted to intervene
in the French Revolution and denounced the king and queen for conspiracy
with the Austrian monarchy.
20. Why did leftist extremists attack the Convention in 1793?
What motivated their criticisms and demands of the revolutionary
government?
The leftist extremists attacked the Convention in 1793 because they
believed that the parliamentary methods were useless. The British agents,
refractory priests and the royalist emissaries of the Count of Artois helped to
motivate their criticisms and demands of the revolutionary government by
making them revolt against military conscription, demanded a more federal
republic.
21. Who was Robespierre? Describe his career during the
revolution.
Robespierre was the new leader of the Convention. Before the revolution
he was a lawyer who had been elected in 1789 to sit for the Estates General.
In the Constituent Assembly he played a minor role, where he was against
capital punishment and in favor if universal suffrage. During the time of the
Legislative Assembly, in 1791-1792 he continued to ask for democracy and
pleaded against the declaration of war. In the Convention, elected in
September 1792, he sat for a Paris constituency. He was a prominent member
of the Mountain and welcomed the elimination of the Girondins. He believed
in the importance of unselfish public spirit and civic zeal in republics. In 1793
and 1794, he was determined to bring about a democratic republic consisting
of good, virtuous and honest citizens.

17. 22. What were the goals of the Terror? Who were its victims?
The goals of the Terror were to repress the counter-revolution. The Terror
struck those who were against the Republic or were suspected of hostile
activities. Victims included the Queen, Girondins, Catholic peasants, nobles
and enrages.
23. How did the Committee of Public Safety attempt to overcome
the problems caused by wartime?
The Committee of Public Safety attempted to overcome the problems
caused by wartime through centralizing administration and ordering the levee
en masse, which controlled the export of gold and confiscated foreign
currency. It also gave freer rein to private enterprise to encourage production.
24. What happened in Haiti before and during the French
Revolution? What do you think the significance of these events was
for people in France?
Before the French Revolution, the black slaves had already liberated
themselves in a rebellion. During the Revolution, the Napoleon government
re-established slavery in the French colonies. Slavery was not effectively
abolished until 1848. The significance of these events for the people in
France was…
25. What was the Paris Commune? When and why was it
established? How and why was it destroyed?
The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris. It was
established on August 10, 1792, in Paris. It was established because of the
dissatisfaction of the lower classes. It helped to stop civil unrest. The
Commune wished to prepare a new and more democratic constitution under
a Convention that was to govern France. It was destroyed because the people
were no longer willing to put up with the dictatorial rule.
26. Who were the Thermidorians? What were their political
views?
The Thermidorians were those who were against the Reign of Terror. Their
political views were against those who supported Robespierre and the Reign
of Terror. They eliminated and sought revenge on those responsible for the
Reign of Terror: Jacobins. The Thermidorians brought a return to civil
freedoms and a free market.

18. 27. Why did the Directory have enemies on both the right and
the left?
The Directory had enemies on both the right and the left:
Right Side: Royalists who were in touch with the Count of Provence
and wanted the restoration of the monarchy.
Left Side: those who favoured the democratic ideas from earlier in
the Revolution.
The Directory had enemies on both the right and the left because the
society was still confused as to what is the right thing to govern France.
28. How did Napoleon Bonaparte take advantage of the
opportunities for social mobility offered by the revolution?
Napoleon Bonaparte took advantage of the opportunities for social
mobility offered by the revolution by:
He was the conquering hero, so he was assigned to command the
army to invade England. Instead of attacking England directly, he
attacks them indirectly through threatening India in an invasion of
Egypt.
29. How was peace established in 1797?
Peace was established in 1797 through the coup d’etat of Fructidor. They
annulled the elections and made peace with Austria.
30. Why did the Directory turn to Napoleon in 1799? What was
the result?
The Directory turned to Napoleon in 1799 because Emmanuel-Joseph
Sieyes wanted to protect the French government from future instability and
disturbances. The result was that Napoleon became the leader of a military
dictatorship.
31. Why was Napoleon considered a genius? Do you agree with
this assessment?
Napoleon was considered a genius because he revolutionized warfare with
his great tactics. His ideas of good were blunt, but he was a man of
extraordinary intellectual capacity. He had excellent leadership qualities.
32. How did Napoleon establish and maintain peace at home and
abroad?

19. Napoleon established and maintained peace at home and abroad by a
secret political police and through a powerful and centralized administrative
machine.
33. How did both Napoleon and the papacy benefit from their
agreement in 1801?
Napoleon and the papacy benefited from their agreement in 1801:
Church: The pope received the right to depose French bishops.
Publicity of Catholic worship was allowed.
Napoleon: With the signing of the concordat the pope officially
recognized the French Republic. Vatican agreed to raise no
question over former tithes and church lands.
34. How did Napoleon’s reforms put an end to all feudalistic
aspects of French society?
Napoleons’ reforms put an end to all feudalistic aspects of French society
through:
 Eliminating estates, legal classes, privileges, local liberties,
hereditary offices, guilds or manors.
 Military commissions and civil offices could not be bought and sold.
 Judges, officials and army officers received specified salaries.
 Citizens were to rise in government service according to their abilities
rather than wealth or privileged birth.
 Careers were open to talent.
35. What were the Napoleonic codes? How did they shape French
life in the centuries following their establishment?
The Napoleonic codes were the Civil Code (also known as the Code
Napoleon), the codes of civil and criminal procedure, and the commercial and
penal codes. The codes made France legally uniform. They assured legal
equality; all French citizens had the same civil rights. They shaped French life
in the centuries following their establishment by making it socially
bourgeoisie, legally egalitarian and administratively bureaucratic.