1. SPORT AND NATION-BUILDING IN MALAYSIA
Alexander Paul Roper
BA Hons, GDipLrnTch (Sec), MA
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management
Griffith Business School
Griffith University
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

2. (Aberbach, Chesney, & Rockman, 1975; Adair, 1984; Adams, 2010; Adedeji, 1972; Adefope, 1973; Adler, 2004; Aguillo, 2011; H . M. A li, 2002; I. Ali, Hashim, Wan-Ismail, Isnin, & Mohd-Nazeri, 2011; D. Allen, 2010; R. B. A llen & Siec zkiewicz, 2010; Allison, 1986a, 1993, 1998, 2000a, 2000b, 2005; Allison & Monnington, 2002 ; M.S. Aman, 2005b; B. A nderson, 1983, 1991, 2006; S. R. Anderson et al., 2009; Antonsich, 2009; Arnaud & Riordan, 1998; A siaweek, June 10, 1995; A tal, 1981; Auld, Coleman, & Tsai, 2011; Baglioni, 2010; Baines, 1998; A. Bairner, 1996; R. Ba ker & Glavovic, 1996; W. J. Ba ker & Mangan, 1987; Bale, 1986, 2003; Bar-Tal & Bennink, 2004; M. Barghchi, D. B. Omar, & M. S. Aman, 2010; Barr & Skrbis, 2008a; Barton, 1994; Bazeley, 2013; Beauchamp et al., 1991; Bedlington, 1978; Ben-Porat & Ben-Porat, 2004; Bennet, 1995; Benson & Debroux, 2004; Berg, 2007; N.A. Bergsgard, Houlihan, Mangset, Nodland, & Rommetveldt, 2007; Bernard, 1995; Beutler, 2008; Biernac ki & Waldorf, 1981; Bishop & Jaworski, 2003; Black, 2007; Blac k& Van Der Westhuizen, 2004;
Blommaert & Jie, 2010; Boeije, 2002; Bogdan & Taylor, 1975; Bohlmann & Van Heerden, 2008; Booth, 2007; Bowen, 2008; Boyce, Neale,& International, 2006; Bradley, 2003; Brohm, 1978; Brownfoot, 1984, 1990, 2002; Bryant & Oliver, 2009; A. Bryman & Bell, 2003; Alan Bryman, 2012; G. Caldw ell, 1982; GT Caldwell, 1972; Campos, 2003; Cartier, 2003; Cashman, 2006; Chalip, 1996; Chan & Evers, 1973; Cheah, 2002; Coa kley, 2004; Coalter, 2007, 2008, 2010; Cohen & Crabtree, 2006; Comfort, 2007; Constantelos & Diven, 2010; Coombs & Holladay, 2006; Cornelissen, 2008; Crabtree & Miller, 1992; Crabtree & Miller, 1999; Cressey, Eldridge, & MacInnes, 1985; Creswell, 2007, 2009; Creswell, Plano Clark, G utmann, & Hanson, 2003a, 2003b; Creswell, 2012, 2013; Dannec ker, 2005; S. C. Darnell, 2010a, 2010b; Dauncey & Hare, 1999; Delgado, 2003; D iCicco‐Bloom & Crabtree, 2006; Dimmock, 2002; Dóc zi, 2011; P. Donnelly, 2011; D onnelly, Atkinson, Boyle, & Szto, 2011; Douglas, 1989; Downe‐Wamboldt, 1992; Duff, Craig, & Cherry, 2004; Dunning, 1993, 1994; Dunning & Elias, 1986;
Dunning, Maguire, & Pearton, 1996; Dunning & Rojek, 1992; Dur kheim, 1997; Dyan & Katz, 1992; Economics-Interactive, 2012; N. Elias, 1986; N. Elias & Dunning, 1986; Eriksen, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2004, 2007; Farquharson & Marjoribanks, 2003; Feldman & Prohaska, 1979; Fonta ine & Richardson, 2003 ; Fram, 2013; Gagliano, 1970; Garrett & Bell, 1998; Geertz, 1972; Gerber, 1967; Getz, 2008; Gibbs, 2008; Gillham, 2000; G illiland & McKemmish, 2004; R. Giulianotti, 2011a, 2011b, 2011c ; Giulianotti & Armstrong, 2011; Glaser, 1965; Glaser & Strauss, 2009; G lasner, 1977; Glazer & Moynihan, 1970; D. P. S. Goh, 2009 ; Gordon, 1964; Grace, 1970; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; C. Gratton & Jones, 2010; M. Green, 2005, 2007; M. Green & Houlihan, 2012; Greene, 2008; Grove, 1988; Guba & Lincoln, 1998; Hagen, 2012; Haglund & Olsson, 2008; Hague, 2004; Hai, 1977; Ha kim, 1987; H all, 1973, 1980; Hamid & Kendall, 2008; Haque, 2003; J. Hargreaves, 1994; Hargreaves, 1996a, 1996b; J. A. Hargreaves, 1994; Harvey, 2002; Harvey, Houle, Yiannakis, & Melnic k, 2001; Haya, Nygren,&
Widmark, 2007; L. Hayhurst, Wilson, & Frisby, 2011; L. M. C. Hayhurst, 2009; Heng, 2012; Henry, 2001; Henry & Uchiumi, 2001; Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2010; Hewitt-Taylor, 2001; H oberman, 2011; Hobsbawm & Ranger, 1992; Holloway & Wheeler, 2010; Holstein & Gubrium, 2013; Holt & College, 1981; Hooker, 2003; Houlihan, 1991, 1994, 1997a, 1997b, 2000a, 2000b, 2001, 2003, 2005; Houlihan & Groeneveld, 2010; Houlihan & White, 2002; How land, Wright, Boughan, & Roberts, 2009; R. Hoye & Nicholson, 2008; H sieh & Shannon, 2005; Hunter & Leahey, 2008; Hutchinson & Skodol-Wilson, 1992; Imms & Ereaut, 2002; Institute, 2007; M.M. Isha k, 2005; Mohamed Mustafa Ishak, 1999; Mohamed Mustafa Isha k& Faw zee, 2001; Jabri, 1996; James, 1983; Jarvie, 1991, 1999, 2003a, 2003b; Jarvie & Reid, 1999; Jarvie & Walker, 1994; Joo, 2006; Judge, 2006; Jupp, 2006; Kassim, 1993; Keim, 2003; Keitner, 1999; Kellas, 1991, 1998; Kelly, 1982; Kelman, 1978, 2004; Kidd, 2008, 2011; K idd & Donnelly, 2007; A. D. K ing, 1991, 2006; E. K ing & Matthews, 2011; Klein, 1997; K leinbaum,
Kupper, & Morgenstern, 1982; Kong, 1999; Kram, 2007; Krefting, 1991; Kreuger & Neuman, 2006; Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009; Labuschagne, 2010; Langer, 1944; Leahey, 2007; Leong & Picard, 1997; Lever, 1969, 1972, 1983, 1988; Lew, 2010; Liamputtong, 2010; Y . Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Y . S. Lincoln & Gubba, 2000 ; Louise Barriball & While, 1994; Lussier & Fish, 2012)(Kram, 2007; Labuschagne, 2010; Langer, 1944; Leahey, 2007; Leong & Picard, 1997; Lever, 1969, 1972, 1983, 1988; Lew, 2010; Liamputtong, 2010; Y. Lincoln & Guba, 2000; Y. S. Lincoln & Gubba, 2000; Lussier & Fish, 2012; Maguire, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2002, 2008; Maguire & Poulton, 1999; Maguire & Tuck, 1998; Maguire & Young, 2002; Mahathir, 1970; M. Mahathir, 1991; Mansyur, Amick, Harrist, & Franzini, 2008; Mariadas, 2012; Marjoribanks & Farquharson, 2011; Martindale, 1980; Mason, 1981; McG lusky, 2005; Mcintosh, 1963, 1987; McLeod, 2011; Meisel, 1974; Messner & Sabo, 1994a, 1994b; Metzger, 2007; Mihelj, 2008; A. Milner, 1998; A. C. Milner, 2002; AC Milner, 1991; Ministry of Culture, 1971; Mohd
Pilus, 2009; Moser, 2010; Muurlink, 2012; Nauright, 2004; Neal, 1972; W.L. Neuman, 2010; Nicholson & Hoye, 2008; Norman, 2009; N unamaker Jr, Weber, & Chen, 1989; Nyaka, 1989; O ishi & Schimmack, 2010; Olympic.org, 2009; A. H. Omar, Puteh, & Abdul Majid, 2006; H . Omar, Hafidz, Hamid, Tiawa, & Islam, 2010; Ongkili, 1985; Oommen, 1997; Oon, 1984; G. Orwell, 1970; Palmer, 1999; Paraskevas, 2006; Patton, 1990; Perks, 2007; Pettavino & Pye, 1994; Portes & Vickstrom, 2011; Powell, Roberts, & Guadagno, 2007; Preuss, 2007; Pringle, 2001; Rahmat et al., 2011; Reed et al., 2009; Reid, 2011; Ric kards & Twyman, 2000; J. Riordan, 1986, 1993; J. Riordan & Krüger, 1999; Ritchie, 2004; L. Robinson, 1997; Rose, 1964; I. Saad, 1970; S. Saad, 2012; M.P. Sam & Jackson, 2004; Sapriel, 2003; Schudson, 2002; N. Schulenkorf & J. Sugden, 2011; Schuller, 2004; Seippel, 2005; Shamsul, 2001; Silk, 2001, 2002; Slac k, 2003; A. D. Smith, 1991, 2000; D. Smith, 2005; H. E. Smith, 1990; Snyder, Jensen, Geller, Carducci, & Wu, 2010; Starc, 2005; Steenveld & Strelitz, 1998; Stinson, 2009; Stuart &
MacClancy, 1996; J. Sugden, 1991, 2010; J. Sugden & Bairner, 1986, 1995, 1999; J. Sugden, Bairner, & Allison, 1986; J. Sugden & Tomlinson, 2002; J. Sugden, Tomlinson, & Roche, 1998; E. K. B. Tan, 2003; Tapsuwan, 1984; Tashakkori, 2006; Tasha kkor i & Creswell, 2008; Tibbo, 2003; Tiessen, 2011; Toland & Yoong, 2011; Tomlinson & Young, 2006; Torraco, 2005; Tov, N g, Diener, Kesebir, & Harter, 2009; Treece & Treece, 1986; Tsaliki, 1995, 2007; Tuck, 2003; Turner, 2006; Uweche, 1978; Van der Westhuizen, 2004; van D ijk, 1997; V oigt, 1974; von Bogdandy, Häußler, Hanschmann, & Utz, 2005; E.A. Wagner, 1989; E.A. Wagner, 1982; Walters, 2011; Waters, 1996; Webb, Gannon-Leary, & Bent, 2007; Wengraf, 2001; Whittemore & Knafl, 2005; B. Wilson, 2011; A. Wimmer & Feinstein, 2010; Wood, 1984; Woodward & Goldblatt, 2011; WVS, 2012; Y oung, 2000; Za karia, 1987)

3. Statement of Originality
This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any university. To
the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or
written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis itself.
(Signed)_____________________________
Alexander Paul Roper

4. Abstract
The only one of its type, this study is a socio-political investigation into the relationship
between sport and nation-building in Malaysia. The relationship between sport and nation-
building incorporating analyses of the ‘nation; ‘national identity’; and ‘national unity’, is
examined through a variety of primary and secondary source materials, as well as interviews
with twenty-six key stakeholder respondents, to ascertain the role sport has played in
integrating Malaysia’s various ethno-racial groups into a united ‘Malaysian’ nation – the
research problem under investigation in the study.
Founded upon an extensive review of the literature, key research questions trace (1) the
meaning and (2) importance of nation-building; (3) the Malaysian authorities’ rationale for
using sport in the country’s nation-building project; (4) if there was any evidence to support
their use of sport; (5) how sport is utilised towards Malaysia’s nation-building efforts; and (6)
if the Malaysian authorities utilisation of sport is consistent with the nation-building aims
which they themselves set sport.
The study establishes that whilst there is some evidence from Malaysia that sport has the
capacity to function as a nation-building tool in Malaysia, it is undermined by poor sport policy
implementation and by a number of government policies which undermine its potential for
sustained and positive impact. When Malaysians watch their athletes competing against those
from (an)other nation(s), the ‘imagining’ of an inclusive Malaysian community appears very
real; the notion of sport as a platform on which the creation of an inclusive Malaysian nation
can be built upon, compelling. However, sports’ limitations within the study are also evident.

5. In spite of its positive impact, it seems wholly unrealistic to expect sport to have a significant,
long-lasting impact on relations between the Bumiputera and non- Bumiputera communities
given the absence of sound policy implementation. While international sporting events can
(and seemingly do) allow Malaysians to re-imagine themselves as part of an imagined Bangsa
or Satu Malaysia, there is little evidence of any real, lasting social outcomes enduring beyond
these events – even if this remains due less to sports capacity in this regard than how sport
policy is typically implemented in Malaysia.
The study also clarifies the nature of the relationship between sport and nation-building in
Malaysia; something which is significant not only in terms of developing a deeper
understanding of the role(s) that sport actually plays there, but also for increasing knowledge
on the sport-nation-building relationship more generally.
Another contribution of this study is that by focussing on Malaysia, it not only addresses
charges of underdevelopment within the academic study of sport, but counters accusations that
the reason for this underdevelopment is due to sports academics holding the same “Orientalist
assumptions [as] European colonisers who preferred to represent sports as ‘un-Asian’ and to
see Asians as morally unprepared for, and spiritually unconcerned by, organised games and
competition” (Mills, 2002, p. 1).
Finally, the study is able to cast further light on both the development of Malaysia as a plural
society and the divisions that have permeated that society. As well as a historical examination
of compartmentalisation within Malaysia, the current situation in the country, and the role that
both government and opposition have played in the creation of divisions within Malaysian
society are also explored.

6. Whilst a study that fits very neatly within the broader, general discipline of what might be
termed ‘sports studies’, there is also much here relevant to other fields. A number of these (but
by no means all) would include scholarship focussed on Malaysian history; post-colonialism;
the nation, nationalism nationhood, nation-building – both generally and in developing, plural
societies and/or Islamic societies also; ethnicity and race.

7. Contents
Statement of Originality........................................................................... 3
Abstract.................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgements.................................................................................. 7
Dedication................................................................................................ 9
Contents.................................................................................................... 10
List of tables............................................................................................. 16
List of figures........................................................................................... 16
List of charts............................................................................................. 17
List of appendices..................................................................................... 17
Definition of Terms.................................................................................. 18
Prelude...................................................................................................... 23
1.0 CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION................................................... 25
1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 25
1.2 Research Problem and Questions............................................................. 29
1.3 Significance of the research..................................................................... 31
2.0 CHAPTER TWO. ESTABLISHING THE IMPORTANCE OF
NATION-BUILDING IN THE MALAYSIAN CONTEXT................
34
2.1 Introduction: Malaysia............................................................................. 34
2.2 Malaysia: Location................................................................................... 34
2.3 Malaysia: Ethno-racial composition......................................................... 35
2.4 Malaysia: Religion................................................................................... 36
2.5 Establishing the importance of nation-building in the Malaysian
context…………………………………………………………..............
37

8. 2.6 Accounting for the importance of nation-building in the Malaysian
context: Enduring ethno-racial tensions...................................................
42
2.7 Ethno-racial intolerance........................................................................... 43
2.8 Religious intolerance................................................................................ 45
2.9 Preferential treatment of the Malay community....................................... 53
3.0 CHAPTER THREE. NATION-BUILDING IN MALAYSIA........... 61
3.1 The ‘Nation’ in the Malaysian context..................................................... 61
3.2 Malaysia: The socio-political setting....................................................... 64
3.3 The project of nation-building in plural societies.................................... 67
3.4 Different approaches to nation-building in plural societies..................... 70
4.0 CHAPTER FOUR. SPORT AND NATION-BUILDING................. 75
4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 75
4.2 Sport policy in the comparative perspective............................................ 77
4.3 The rationale for government involvement in sport................................. 80
4.4 Sport, national identity and nation-building............................................. 82
4.5 Sport, the media and nation-building....................................................... 87
4.6 Addressing gaps in the literature.............................................................. 89
4.6.1 Malaysia................................................................................................... 89
4.6.2 Other locales............................................................................................. 91
4.7 Government involvement in sport in Malaysia........................................ 95
4.7.1 Sport and the Office of the Prime Minister in Malaysia.......................... 97
4.7.2 Central government involvement in sport................................................ 105
4.8 Adopting a conceptual framework........................................................... 114
4.8.1 The constructed or perennial state............................................................ 114

9. 4.8.2 Discourses on conflict, inclusion and exclusion...................................... 116
4.8.3 Nation-building, reconciliation and identity............................................ 116
4.8.4 Sport and the “imagined community”...................................................... 118
4.8.5 Conceptual model and summary.............................................................. 122
5.0 CHAPTER FIVE. METHODOLOGY................................................. 124
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………….……….……… 124
5.1.1 A discrete explanation and rationale of the research design for the study 126
5.1.2 Qualitative research methodologies……………………………………. 129
5.2 The researcher’s context………………………………………………... 131
5.2.1 The researcher’s context: Explaining the conservative line of
questioning in the study about ethno-racial, religious and political
issues……………………………………………………………………
134
5.3. Archival research: Benefits and limitations…………………………… 135
5.3.1 How the archival sources were analysed………………………………... 139
5.4 Stakeholder interviews…………………………………………………. 139
5.4.1 Stakeholder studies: limitations…………………………………….….. 140
5.4.2 Selection and recruitment of stakeholders………………………….…... 141
5.5 Data Collection……………………………………………..…….…….. 142
5.6 Why semi-structured interviews?............................................................. 143
5.7 Recruitment and theoretical sampling………………………………….. 146
5.7.2 Demographics…………………………………………………………... 148
5.8 Designing the interview………………………………………………... 153
5.9 Analysis of the interview data………………………………………..… 153
5.9.1 The coding process……………………………………………….…….. 154
5.9.2 Research questions……………………………....…………….……..… 158

10. 5.9.3 Ethics Approval………………………………………………………… 159
5.9.4 Confidentiality and data storage………………………………………... 160
6.0 CHAPTER SIX. RESEARCH FINDINGS.......................................... 162
6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 162
6.2 Main themes............................................................................................. 162
6.3 Centrality of Nation-building (Theme 1)................................................. 163
6.3.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 163
6.3.2 Nation-building as unity........................................................................... 164
6.3.3 Concordance between the government and the public............................. 165
6.3.4 Increasing, not decreasing, divisions........................................................ 166
6.3.5 Reticence to discuss ethno-racial and religious issues............................. 168
6.3.6 Increasing religious intolerance and divisions in Malaysian society....... 169
6.3.7 Non-Bumiputera resentment over the preferential treatment of Malays. 170
6.4 Sport constitutes a primary means by which nation-building is sought
(Theme 2).................................................................................................
172
6.4.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 173
6.4.2 Support for sport as a means to achieve unity: Some background........... 173
6.4.2.1 Support for sport as a means to achieve unity: Findings……………… 174
6.4.3 Nation-building is sought through Malaysia’s participation in
international sporting events....................................................................
176
6.4.4 Nation-building is sought through Malaysia’s hosting of international
sporting events..........................................................................................
179
6.4.5 Lack of focus on grassroots sport............................................................. 181
6.5 Increasing involvement in sports by the Government (Theme 3)……….. 184

11. 6.5.1 Extrinsic benefits of sport......................................................................... 184
6.5.2 Increased “recognition” of sport’s capacity to fulfil policy objectives.... 185
6.5.3 Government control through sports policies............................................ 188
6.5.4 Dependency of national sports associations............................................. 189
6.5.5 Sport for self-promotion and financial gain............................................. 190
6.6 Superficial assumptions (Theme 4).......................................................... 194
6.6.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 194
6.6.2 Use of anecdotal evidence........................................................................ 196
6.6.3 Lack of disclosure from government........................................................ 199
6.6.4 Not all Malaysians value sport................................................................. 203
6.7 Poor policy implementation (Theme 5)................................................... 208
6.7.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 208
6.7.2 Malaysia’s sport policy is ambiguous...................................................... 209
6.7.3 Concerns about those charged with the implementing policy.................. 221
6.7.4 Counterproductive Initiatives................................................................... 227
7.0 CHAPTER SEVEN. DISCUSSION...................................................... 235
7.1 Introduction to the discussion.................................................................. 235
7.2 What nation-building means within the Malaysian context..................... 237
7.3 The importance of nation-building in Malaysia....................................... 238
7.4 Sport constitutes a central means by which nation-building is sought in
Malaysia...................................................................................................
251
7.5 Increased involvement in sport by the Malaysian government................ 261
7.6 Superficial assumptions............................................................................ 266
7.7 Poor policy implementation..................................................................... 275

12. 7.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 277
8.0 CHAPTER EIGHT. CONCLUSION................................................... 279
8.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 279
8.2 Context of the study................................................................................. 279
8.3 Sport and nation-building in Malaysia..................................................... 282
8.4 Contribution to knowledge....................................................................... 286
8.4.1 Nation-building……………………………………………………….... 286
8.4.2 Sports Studies…………………………………………………………... 286
8.4.3 Sport policy, politics, and development………………………………… 288
8.5 Implications for policy and practice......................................................... 289
8.6 Limitations, recommendations for future research, and final thoughts… 292
8.6.1 Concise summary statement of the contribution of this study to conclude
the thesis…………..………………………………………………...…
294
REFERENCES....................................................................................... 296

13. List of tables
Table 1 Defining the different key stakeholders groups 149
Table 2 The ethno-racial composition of each respondent
group
150
Table 3 The age range of the respondents 150
Table 4 Identification of respondents in the study 152
List of figures
Figure 1 Map of the Federation of Malaysia 35
Figure 2 Conceptual model 122
& 285
Figure 3 Themes 162
& 281
Figure 4 Centrality of nation-building 163
Figure 5 Sport constitutes a primary means by which nation-
building is sought
172
Figure 6 Increasing involvement in sports by the Government 184
Figure 7 Superficial assumptions 194
Figure 8 Poor policy implementation 208
Figure 9 How the core questions are answered by the themes
and help explain the role played by sport in integrating
Malaysia’s various ethno-racial groups into a united
‘Malaysian’ nation.
283
Figure 10 A diagrammatic representation of the answers to the
six core questions.
284

14. List of charts
Chart 1 What primary roles does the government task sport to
perform in Malaysia?
175
Chart 2 What primary roles should the government task sport
to perform in Malaysia?
175
List of appendices
Appendix A Ethics clearance 351
Appendix B Consent letter 352
Appendix C Consent form 353
Appendix D Interview questions 357